Antioxidant activity and protective effect of anthocyanin oligomers on H₂O₂-triggered G2/M arrest in retinal cells

Anthocyanin Oligomers Induce Apoptosis and Autophagy by Inhibiting the mTOR Signaling Pathway in Human Breast Cancer Cells

Anthocyanin oligomers (AOs) are phytochemicals synthesized by fermenting anthocyanins extracted from grape skins and are more biologically active than monomeric anthocyanins. In this study, we evaluate the effects of an AO on triple-negative MDA-MB-231 and HER2-overexpressing SK-BR-3 breast cancer cells. The cell viability of MDA-MB-231 and SK-BR-3 cells was significantly inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by AO treatment for 24 h, while delphinidin (a monomeric anthocyanin) had no effect on cell viability. In addition, the AO increased H2A.X phosphorylation (a marker of DNA damage), reduced RAD51 (a DNA repair protein) and survivin (a cell survival factor) protein levels, and induced apoptosis by caspase-3-dependent PARP1 cleavage in both cell lines. Surprisingly, the AO induced autophagy by increasing intracellular LC3-II puncta and LC3-II and p62 protein levels. In addition, the AO inhibited the mTOR pathway in MDA-MB-231 and SK-BR-3 cells by suppressing the HER2, EGFR1, and AKT pathways. These results demonstrate that the anti-cancer effect of the AO was due to the induction of apoptosis and autophagy via cleaved caspase-3-mediated PARP1 cleavage and mTOR pathway inhibition, respectively. Furthermore, our results suggest that anthocyanin oligomers could be considered potential candidates for breast cancer treatment.

Anthocyanin oligomer (grape skin extract) administration improves dry eye disease: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

Dry eye disease is a chronic, progressive ocular disease characterised by ocular discomfort and is one of the most common ophthalmological disorders that affects people's lives.

METHODS

This study investigated the clinical efficacy of anthocyanin oligomers (grape skin extract) for the treatment of dry eye. One hundred and eight patients with dry eye were randomly divided into placebo and treatment groups, each with 54 cases. The placebo group received maltodextrin (800 mg/day) and the treatment group received anthocyanin oligomers (800 mg/day). Clinical efficacy, clinical indices, and occurrence of adverse reactions were compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

Anthocyanin oligomers were safe and effective in mild-to-moderate dry eye disease, improving the tear break-up time, intraocular pressure, ocular surface disease, and patient symptomatology.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of oral anthocyanin oligomers in the treatment of dry eye patients can enhance the therapeutic effect and improve the quality of life of patients while ensuring the safety of treatment, making this therapeutic option suitable for wider application.

Malvidin-3-O-Glucoside Ameliorates Cadmium-Mediated Cell Dysfunction in the Estradiol Generation of Human Granulosa Cells

Cadmium (Cd) is a frequent environmental pollutant associated with biological toxicity that can harm female reproduction. Anthocyanins have been reported to reduce the toxicity of Cd. In the present study, the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of malvidin-3-O-glucoside (M3G) against the toxicity of Cd on female reproduction in KGN cells (human ovarian granulosa-like tumor cells) were investigated. After treating cells with 10 µmol/L cadmium chloride, the results showed that M3G lessened Cd-induced KGN cell cytotoxicity better than malvidin and malvidin-3,5-O-diglucoside. Additionally, M3G significantly decreased the Cd-induced generation of reactive oxygen species, inhibited the Cd-induced arrest of the G2/M phase of the cell cycle, and increased estradiol (E2) production. According to transcriptomic results, M3G reduced the abnormal expression of genes that responded to estrogen. Additionally, M3G promoted the endogenous synthesis and secretion of E2 by controlling the expression of CYP17A1 and HSD17B7. The current findings indicated that M3G is of great potential to prevent Cd-induced female reproductive impairment as a dietary supplement.

Cordyceps militaris Carotenoids Protect Human Retinal Endothelial Cells against the Oxidative Injury and Apoptosis Resulting from H2O2

Vision loss is primarily caused by age-related macular degeneration (AMD) due to oxidative retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cell injury. Carotenoid utilization is deemed a possible strategy for treating AMD. Cordyceps militaris has advantages like immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidative characteristics. This paper assessed the possible protective influence of carotenoids obtained by isolating and purifying the Cordyceps militaris (CMCT) into human RPE cells (ARPE-19) damaged by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). The findings demonstrated that CMCT safeguarded the ARPE-19 cells against the damage and apoptosis caused by H₂O₂ and oxidative stress via Bcl-2 protein upregulation, as well as the expression of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 protein. In addition, CMCT treatment increased cell survival and restricted the generation of H₂O₂-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the protein expression of NADPH oxidase-1 (NOX1). Additionally, the CMCT treatment of H₂O₂-induced ARPE-19 cells ameliorated high malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in oxidative stress-induced cells. The catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH) returned to standard levels, which were governed by the higher expression of nuclear Nrf2 protein in the ARPE-19 cells. Moreover, this study showed that CMCT safeguarded the ARPE-19 cells against the damage caused by oxidative stress via its antioxidant activity and antiapoptotic functionality, suggesting the potential therapeutic role of CMCT in AMD prevention and mitigation.

Anthocyanins as Key Phytochemicals Acting for the Prevention of Metabolic Diseases: An Overview

Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments present in fruits and vegetables, which render them an extensive range of colors. They have a wide distribution in the human diet, are innocuous, and, based on numerous studies, have supposed preventive and therapeutical benefits against chronic affections such as inflammatory, neurological, cardiovascular, digestive disorders, diabetes, and cancer, mostly due to their antioxidant action. Despite their great potential as pharmaceutical applications, they have a rather limited use because of their rather low stability to environmental variations. Their absorption was noticed to occur best in the stomach and small intestine, but the pH fluctuation of the digestive system impacts their rapid degradation. Urine excretion and tissue distribution also occur at low rates. The aim of this review is to highlight the chemical characteristics of anthocyanins and emphasize their weaknesses regarding bioavailability. It also targets to deliver an update on the recent advances in the involvement of anthocyanins in different pathologies with a focus on in vivo, in vitro, animal, and human clinical trials.

Anthocyanin oligomers stimulate browning in 3T3-L1 white adipocytes via activation of the β3-adrenergic receptor and ERK signaling pathway

Microbial fermentation of grape-skin extracts is found to synthesize anthocyanin oligomers (AO), which are more active than the monomeric anthocyanins that are effective for some metabolic diseases such as diabetes and obesity. This study investigated the functional role of AO in 3T3-L1 white adipocyte metabolism, with a focus on inducing browning. To achieve this, we determined the expressions of core genes and protein markers responsible for browning and lipid metabolism in response to AO treatment of 3T3-L1 white adipocytes. AO exposure significantly increases the expressions of beige-specific genes (Cidea, Cited1, Ppargc1α, Prdm16, Tbx1, Tmem26, and Ucp1) and brown-fat signature proteins (UCP1, PRDM16, and PGC-1α), and suppresses the expressions of lipogenic marker proteins while enhancing the protein levels of lipolysis in white adipocytes. The mechanistic study revealed stimulation of white fat browning via activation of the β3-AR/PKA/p38 axis and ERK/CREB signaling pathway subsequent to AO treatment. In conclusion, our current findings indicate the beneficial effects of AO for the treatment of obesity with interesting properties such as regulating the browning of adipocytes and increasing thermogenic activity. Although further research based on animal models or clinical trials remains, AO treatment can bring more insights into the treatment of obesity and metabolic syndrome.

Delphinidin modulates JAK/STAT3 and MAPKinase signaling to induce apoptosis in HCT116 cells

Delphinidin is an anthocyanin that belongs to the group of flavonoids that exert numerous biological activities. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the anticancer effects of delphinidin remain poorly understood. In our study we analyzed delphinidin modulate STAT-3 and MAPKinase signaling thereby inhbits cell proliferation and promote apoptosis. Our study demonstrated that delphinidin treatment significantly reduced the viability of human colon cancer HCT116 in a concentration-dependent manner. We noticed that delphinidin effectively induced oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis by generating intracellular ROS, decreasing antioxidant levels, inducing lipid peroxidation, and single-strand break on colon cancer cells. In this study, we observed that delphinidin treatment alters the mitochondrial membrane potential, thereby induces apoptosis was closely associated with the induction of pro-apoptotic Bax, Caspase- 3,8 & 9, cytochrome C, and inhibition of anti-apoptotic protein expression. Studies on STAT-3 and MAPKinase signaling showed delphinidin inhibited the phosphorylation of these transcription factors' activity. Inhibition of STAT-3, p38, and ERK1/2 phosphorylation and modulation pro-apoptotic protein expression might be responsible for the anticancer activity of delphinidin in colon cancer cells.

The alveolar epithelial cells are involved in pulmonary vascular remodeling and constriction of hypoxic pulmonary hypertension

BACKGROUND

Hypoxic pulmonary hypertension (HPH) is a common type of pulmonary hypertension and characterized by pulmonary vascular remodeling and constriction. Alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) primarily sense alveolar hypoxia, but the role of AECs in HPH remains unclear. In this study, we explored whether AECs are involved in pulmonary vascular remodeling and constriction.

METHODS

In the constructed rat HPH model, hemodynamic and morphological characteristics were measured. By treating AECs with hypoxia, we further detected the levels of superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2), catalase (CAT), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), respectively. To detect the effects of AECs on pulmonary vascular remodeling and constriction, AECs and pulmonary artery smooth cells (PASMCs) were co-cultured under hypoxia, and PASMCs and isolated pulmonary artery (PA) were treated with AECs hypoxic culture medium. In addition, to explore the mechanism of AECs on pulmonary vascular remodeling and constriction, ROS inhibitor N-acetylcysteine (NAC) was used.

RESULTS

Hypoxia caused pulmonary vascular remodeling and increased pulmonary artery pressure, but had little effect on non-pulmonary vessels in vivo. Meanwhile, in vitro, hypoxia promoted the imbalance of SOD2 and CAT in AECs, leading to increased ROS and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production in the AECs culture medium. In addition, AECs caused the proliferation of co-cultured PASMCs under hypoxia, and the hypoxic culture medium of AECs enhanced the constriction of isolated PA. However, treatment with ROS inhibitor NAC effectively alleviated the above effects.

CONCLUSION

The findings of present study demonstrated that AECs were involved in pulmonary vascular remodeling and constriction under hypoxia by paracrine H2O2 into the pulmonary vascular microenvironment.

AaCOI1, Encoding a CORONATINE INSENSITIVE 1-Like Protein of Artemisia annua L., Is Involved in Development, Defense, and Anthocyanin Synthesis

Artemisia annua is an important medicinal plant producing the majority of the antimalarial compound artemisinin. Jasmonates are potent inducers of artemisinin accumulation in Artemisisa annua plants. As the receptor of jasmonates, the F-box protein COI1 is critical to the JA signaling required for plant development, defense, and metabolic homeostasis. AaCOI1 from Artemisia annua, homologous to Arabidopsis AtCOI1, encodes a F-box protein located in the nuclei. Expressional profiles of the AaCOI1 in the root, stem, leaves, and inflorescence was investigated. The mRNA abundance of AaCOI1 was the highest in inflorescence, followed by in the leaves. Upon mechanical wounding or MeJA treatment, expression of AaCOI1 was upregulated after 6 h. When ectopically expressed, driven by the native promoter from Arabidopsis thaliana, AaCOI1 could partially complement the JA sensitivity and defense responses, but fully complemented the fertility, and the JA-induced anthocyanin accumulation in a coi1-16 loss-of-function mutant. Our study identifies the paralog of AtCOI1 in Artemisia annua, and revealed its implications in development, hormone signaling, defense, and metabolism. The results provide insight into JA perception in Artemisia annua, and pave the way for novel molecular breeding strategies in the canonical herbs to manipulate the anabolism of pharmaceutic compounds on the phytohormonal level.

In Vivo Effects of Polymerized Anthocyanin from Grape Skin on Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a common chronic disease of the urinary system among elderly men. Especially, the metabolic imbalance of androgen in elderly men is one of the leading causes of BPH. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and converted testosterone by 5-α reductase type 2 (5AR2), binding with androgen receptor (AR), affect prostate proliferation and growth. In BPH, levels of androgen signaling-related protein expression are shown highly. Androgen signaling induces the overexpression of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and cell proliferation factor such as proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and cyclin D1. Grape skin anthocyanins are well known for their antioxidative, anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti-aging activities. Polymerized anthocyanin (PA) downregulated the expression of androgen signaling-related proteins such as 5AR2, AR, and PSA in LNCaP cell lines. Furthermore, we investigated the effects on PA in testosterone propionate-induced BPH rat experiments. The oral administration of PA decreased the prostate weight in rats with TP-induced BPH. PA decreased the AR, 5AR2, SRC1, PSA, PCNA, and cyclin D1 expression in prostate tissues and the serum DHT levels, ameliorated the BPH-mediated increase of Bcl-2 expression, and increased the Bax expression. These results suggest that PA may be a potential natural therapeutic agent for BPH treatment.

Anthocyanins and Their Metabolites as Therapeutic Agents for Neurodegenerative Disease

Neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), are characterized by the death of neurons within specific regions of the brain or spinal cord. While the etiology of many neurodegenerative diseases remains elusive, several factors are thought to contribute to the neurodegenerative process, such as oxidative and nitrosative stress, excitotoxicity, endoplasmic reticulum stress, protein aggregation, and neuroinflammation. These processes culminate in the death of vulnerable neuronal populations, which manifests symptomatically as cognitive and/or motor impairments. Until recently, most treatments for these disorders have targeted single aspects of disease pathology; however, this strategy has proved largely ineffective, and focus has now turned towards therapeutics which target multiple aspects underlying neurodegeneration. Anthocyanins are unique flavonoid compounds that have been shown to modulate several of the factors contributing to neuronal death, and interest in their use as therapeutics for neurodegeneration has grown in recent years. Additionally, due to observations that the bioavailability of anthocyanins is low relative to that of their metabolites, it has been proposed that anthocyanin metabolites may play a significant part in mediating the beneficial effects of an anthocyanin-rich diet. Thus, in this review, we will explore the evidence evaluating the neuroprotective and therapeutic potential of anthocyanins and their common metabolites for treating neurodegenerative diseases.

Detection of synergistic effect of superoxide dismutase and jujubosides on scavenging superoxide anion radical by capillary electrophoresis

A new capillary electrophoresis method was developed to study the synergistic effect of superoxide dismutase and jujuboside A or B on scavenging superoxide anion radical in serum matrix respectively, in which superoxide anion radical was generated from pyrogallol autoxidation. The electrophoresis conditions, and the factors affecting the productive rate of purpurogallin, such as pyrogallol autoxidation product and the activity of superoxide dismutase, were optimized. Under optimal conditions, the content of superoxide dismutase in Gibco newborn calf serum was 7.06 mg/L, RSD was 2.01% and the average recovery was 98.4%. The values of IC₅₀ for jujuboside A and B in the serum matrix were 157.67 and 31.60 mg/L respectively, and they both had synergy on scavenging superoxide anion radical with superoxide dismutase, but there was no the dose-dependency on this synergy.

Natural Antioxidant Anthocyanins-A Hidden Therapeutic Candidate in Metabolic Disorders with Major Focus in Neurodegeneration

All over the world, metabolic syndrome constitutes severe health problems. Multiple factors have been reported in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome. Metabolic disorders result in reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced oxidative stress, playing a vital role in the development and pathogenesis of major health issues, including neurological disorders Alzheimer's disease (AD) Parkinson's disease (PD). Considerable increasing evidence indicates the substantial contribution of ROS-induced oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. An imbalanced metabolism results in a defective antioxidant defense system, free radicals causing inflammation, cellular apoptosis, and tissue damage. Due to the annual increase in financial and social burdens, in addition to the adverse effects associated with available synthetic agents, treatment diversion from synthetic to natural approaches has occurred. Antioxidants are now being considered as convincing therapeutic agents against various neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, medicinal herbs and fruits currently receive substantially more attention as commercial sources of antioxidants. In this review, we argue that ROS-targeted therapeutic interventions with naturally occurring antioxidant flavonoid, anthocyanin, and anthocyanin-loaded nanoparticles might be the ultimate treatment against devastating illnesses. Furthermore, we elucidate the hidden potential of the neuroprotective role of anthocyanins and anthocyanin-loaded nanoparticles in AD and PD neuropathies, which lack sufficient attention compared with other polyphenols, despite their strong antioxidant potential. Moreover, we address the need for future research studies of native anthocyanins and nano-based-anthocyanins, which will be helpful in developing anthocyanin treatments as therapeutic mitochondrial antioxidant drug-like regimens to delay or prevent the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD and PD.

Antioxidant Activity of Extract from the Cephalothorax of Fenneropenaeus chinensis

We investigated the antioxidant activity of taurine rich water extract from the cephalothorax of Fenneropenaeus chinensis (FCC). The antioxidant potency of water extract from FCC was assessed using various assay methods, such as DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl), alkyl radical scavenging activity, ABTS (2,2'-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline 6-sulfonic acid ammonium salt)) radical scavenging activity and Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. The DPPH and alkyl radical scavenging activities of FCC were dose-dependently increased. The lipid peroxidation was estimated using ferric thiocyanate (FTC) assay and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) methods. However, a higher lipid peroxidation activity was observed in TBA method than FTC method. The results of the present study suggested that the FCC extract potentially scavenged the free radical and reduced oxidative stress. Therefore, the present study is concluded that the FCC extract could be a potential source of antioxidant activity.

Melatonin Antagonizes Jasmonate-Triggered Anthocyanin Biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana

As a plant-specific flavonoid type metabolite, anthocyanin is an important plant-sourced nutrition. Although the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway has been revealed, how to modulate anthocyanin production by endogenous molecules is still elusive. Here, we investigated the role of melatonin in anthocyanin biosynthesis in the reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana and found that melatonin suppresses anthocyanin synthesis. Moreover, melatonin was able to significantly inhibit jasmonate-stimulated anthocyanin production. Unexpectedly, melatonin could not repress the jasmonate-triggered JAZ protein degradation that is a key event for relaying jasmonate signaling. The expression of jasmonate-induced marker genes or other jasmonate-related phenotypes were not discernibly changed in the presence of melatonin. These results indicate that the antagonization of jasmonate-induced anthocyanin synthesis by melatonin does not occur through the abrogation of jasmonate signaling. Furthermore, we found that melatonin does not trigger anthocyanin catabolism. Finally, we supplied anthocyanin biosynthesis precursors to examine their roles in anthocyanin biosynthesis and found that melatonin most likely acts before the dihydrokaempferol production step. Our work illustrates that melatonin plays a negative role in the induction of anthocyanin biosynthesis and sheds new light on the role of melatonin in plant cell metabolism.

Lipophilic ester and amide derivatives of rosmarinic acid protect cells against H2O2-induced DNA damage and apoptosis: The potential role of intracellular accumulation and labile iron chelation

Phenolic acids represent abundant components contained in human diet. However, the negative charge in their carboxylic group limits their capacity to diffuse through biological membranes, thus hindering their access to cell interior. In order to promote the diffusion of rosmarinic acid through biological membranes, we synthesized several lipophilic ester- and amide-derivatives of this compound and evaluated their capacity to prevent H2O2-induced DNA damage and apoptosis in cultured human cells. Esterification of the carboxylic moiety with lipophilic groups strongly enhanced the capacity of rosmarinic acid to protect cells. On the other hand, the amide-derivatives were somewhat less effective but exerted less cytotoxicity at high concentrations. Cell uptake experiments, using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), illustrated different levels of intracellular accumulation among the ester- and amide-derivatives, with the first being more effectively accumulated, probably due to their extensive hydrolysis inside the cells. In conclusion, these results highlight the hitherto unrecognized fundamental importance of derivatization of diet-derived phenolic acids to unveil their biological potential.

Biosynthesis of Oligomeric Anthocyanins from Grape Skin Extracts

We synthesized oligomeric anthocyanins from grape skin-derived monomeric anthocyanins such as anthocyanidin and proanthocyanidin by a fermentation technique using Aspergillus niger, crude enzymes and glucosidase. The biosyntheses of the oligomeric anthocyanins carried out by the conventional method using Aspergillus niger and crude enzymes were confirmed by ESI-MS. The molecular weight of the synthesized anthocyanin oligomers was determined using MALDI-MS. The yield of anthocyanin oligomers using crude enzymes was higher than that of the synthesis using Aspergillus fermentation. Several studies have been demonstrated that oligomeric anthocyanins have higher antioxidant activity than monomeric anthocyanins. Fermentation-based synthesis of oligomeric anthocyanins is an alternative way of producing useful anthocyanins that could support the food industry.

[Current data on the role of anthocyanosides and flavonoids in the treatment of eye diseases]

Anthocyanins are known to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anticarcinogenic activity as well as positive effect on the cardiovascular system. Because of bilberry anthocyanosides (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), Mirtilene forte promotes rhodopsin synthesis and regeneration, increases retinal sensitivity to changes in light intensity, improves visual acuity and dark adaptation as well as blood supply of the retina. Studies conducted in Russia are aimed at evaluating the use of Mirtilene forte in age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, primary open-angle glaucoma, and other diseases. This article provides an analysis of foreign and Russian publications on the effects of anthocyanins and flavonoids in different diseases.

First Evaluation of the Biologically Active Substances and Antioxidant Potential of Regrowth Velvet Antler by means of Multiple Biochemical Assays

We investigated the biologically active substances contained in RVA (regrowth velvet antler) by comparing the composition of biologically active substances and antioxidant potential of different antler segments. RVA was subjected to extraction using DW (distilled water). RVA was divided into 3 segments: T-RVA (top RVA), M-RVA (middle RVA), and B-RVA (base RVA). The T-RVA section possessed the greatest amounts of uronic acid (36.251 mg/g), sulfated GAGs (sulfated glycosaminoglycans) (555.76 mg/g), sialic acid (111.276 mg/g), uridine (0.957 mg/g), uracil (1.084 mg/g), and hypoxanthine (1.2631 mg/g). In addition, the T-RVA section possessed the strongest antioxidant capacity as determined by DPPH, H2O2(hydrogen peroxide), hydroxyl, and ABTS (2,2′-azinobis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonate) radical scavenging activity as well as FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) and ORAC (oxygen radical absorbance capacity). The values of those were 53.44, 23.09, 34.12, 60.31, and 35.81 TE/μM at 1 mg/mL and 113.57 TE/μM at 20 μg/mL. These results indicate that the T-RVA section possesses the greatest amount of biologically active substances and highest antioxidant potential. This is the first report on the biologically active substances and antioxidant potential of RVA.

Antioxidant activity and acetylcholinesterase inhibition of grape skin anthocyanin (GSA)

We aimed to investigate the antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities of the anthocyanin rich extract of grape skin. Grape skin anthocyanin (GSA) neutralized free radicals in different test systems, such as 2,-2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays, to form complexes with Fe²⁺ preventing 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH)-induced erythrocyte hemolysis and oxidative DNA damage. Moreover, GSA decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in isolated mitochondria thus inhibiting 2',-7'-dichlorofluorescin (DCFH) oxidation. In an in vivo study, female BALB/c mice were administered GSA, at 12.5, 25, and 50 mg per kg per day orally for 30 consecutive days. Herein, we demonstrate that GSA administration significantly elevated the level of antioxidant enzymes in mice sera, livers, and brains. Furthermore, GSA inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the in vitro assay with an IC₅₀ value of 363.61 µg/mL. Therefore, GSA could be an excellent source of antioxidants and its inhibition of cholinesterase is of interest with regard to neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease.

Lipophilic caffeic acid derivatives protect cells against H2O2-Induced DNA damage by chelating intracellular labile iron

Naturally occurring cinnamic acid derivatives are ubiquitously distributed in the plant kingdom, and it has been proposed that their consumption contributes to the maintenance of human health. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying their health keeping effects remain unknown. In the present investigation, we evaluated the capacity of several cinnamic acid derivatives (trans-cinnamic, p-coumaric, caffeic and ferulic acids, as well as caffeic acid-methyl and -propyl esters) to protect cells from oxidative stress-induced DNA damage. It was observed that effective protection was based on the ability of each compound to (i) reach the intracellular space and (ii) chelate intracellular "labile" iron. These results support the notion that numerous lipophilic iron chelating compounds, present abundantly in plant-derived diet components, may protect cells in conditions of oxidative stress and in this way be important contributors toward maintenance of human health.