In vivo antitumor effects of 4,7-dimethoxy-5-methyl-1,3-benzodioxole isolated from the fruiting body of Antrodia camphorata through activation of the p53-mediated p27/Kip1 signaling pathway

Experimental Models in Unraveling the Biological Mechanisms of Mushroom-Derived Bioactives against Aging- and Lifestyle-Related Diseases: A Review

Mushrooms have garnered considerable interest among researchers due to their immense nutritional and therapeutic properties. The presence of biologically active primary and secondary metabolites, which includes several micronutrients, including vitamins, essential minerals, and other dietary fibers, makes them an excellent functional food. Moreover, the dietary inclusion of mushrooms has been reported to reduce the incidence of aging- and lifestyle-related diseases, such as cancer, obesity, and stroke, as well as to provide overall health benefits by promoting immunomodulation, antioxidant activity, and enhancement of gut microbial flora. The multifunctional activities of several mushroom extracts have been evaluated by both in vitro and in vivo studies using cell lines along with invertebrate and vertebrate model systems to address human diseases and disorders at functional and molecular levels. Although each model has its own strengths as well as lacunas, various studies have generated a plethora of data regarding the regulating players that are modulated in order to provide various protective activities; hence, this review intends to compile and provide an overview of the plausible mechanism of action of mushroom-derived bioactives, which will be helpful in future medicinal explorations.

Synthesis and Antiproliferative Activity of Triphenylphosphonium Derivatives of Natural Allylpolyalkoxybenzenes

Derivatives of natural allylpolyalkoxybenzenes conjugated to triphenylphosphonium (TPP) cations by aliphatic linkers of three, six, seven, and eight atoms were synthesized to examine the role of the polyalkoxybenzene pharmacophore, TPP fragment, and linker length in antiproliferative activities. The key synthetic procedures included (i) hydroboration-oxidation of apiol, dillapiol, myristicin, and allyltetramethoxybenzene; (ii) acylation of polyalkoxybenzyl alcohols or amines; and (iii) condensation of polyalkoxybenzaldehydes followed by hydrogenation and cyclopropyl-homoallyl rearrangement. The targeted TPP conjugates as well as the starting allylbenzenes, the corresponding alkylpolyalkoxybenzenes, and the respective alkyl-TPP salts were evaluated for cytotoxicity in a panel of human cancer cell lines using MTT and Click-iT-EdU assays and in a sea urchin embryo model. The linker of three carbon atoms was identified as favorable for selective cancer cell growth inhibition. Although the propyl-TPP salt was cytotoxic at low micromolar concentrations, the introduction of a polyalkoxybenzene moiety significantly potentiated inhibition of both cell growth and de novo DNA synthesis in several human cancer cell lines, HST-116 colon cancer, A375 melanoma, PC-3 prostate cancer, and T-47D breast carcinoma cells, while it failed to produce any developmental abnormalities in the sea urchin embryos.

Novel N,N'-Disubstituted Acylselenoureas as Potential Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Agents

Selenium compounds are pivotal in medicinal chemistry for their antitumoral and antioxidant properties. Forty seven acylselenoureas have been designed and synthesized following a fragment-based approach. Different scaffolds, including carbo- and hetero-cycles, along with mono- and bi-cyclic moieties, have been linked to the selenium containing skeleton. The dose- and time-dependent radical scavenging activity for all of the compounds were assessed using the in vitro 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) assays. Some of them showed a greater radical scavenging capacity at low doses and shorter times than ascorbic acid. Therefore, four compounds were evaluated to test their protective effects against H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress. One derivative protected cells against H₂O₂-induced damage, increasing cell survival by up to 3.6-fold. Additionally, in vitro cytotoxic activity of all compounds was screened against several cancer cells. Eight compounds were selected to determine their half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values towards breast and lung cancer cells, along with their selectivity indexes. The breast cancer cells turned out to be much more sensitive than the lung. Two compounds (5d and 10a) stood out with IC₅₀ values between 4.2 μM and 8.0 μM towards MCF-7 and T47D cells, with selectivity indexes greater than 22.9. In addition, compound 10b exhibited dual antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. Although further evidence is needed, the acylselenourea scaffold could be a feasible frame to develop new dual agents.

Diversity of potentially exploitable pharmacological activities of the highly prized edible medicinal fungus Antrodia camphorata

Antrodia camphorata, also known as A. cinnamomea, is a precious medicinal basidiomycete fungus endemic to Taiwan. This article summarizes the recent advances in research on the multifarious pharmacological effects of A. camphorata. The mushroom exhibits anticancer activity toward a large variety of cancers including breast, cervical, ovarian, prostate, bladder, colorectal, pancreatic, liver, and lung cancers; melanoma; leukemia; lymphoma; neuroblastoma; and glioblastoma. Other activities encompass antiinflammatory, antiatopic dermatitis, anticachexia, immunoregulatory, antiobesity, antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, antiatherosclerotic, antihypertensive, antiplatelet, antioxidative, antiphotodamaging, hepatoprotective, renoprotective, neuroprotective, testis protecting, antiasthmatic, osteogenic, osteoprotective, antiviral, antibacterial, and wound healing activities. This review aims to provide a reference for further development and utilization of this highly prized mushroom.

Antrodia cinnamomea induces autophagic cell death via the CHOP/TRB3/Akt/mTOR pathway in colorectal cancer cells

Antrodia cinnamomea, a well-known traditional medicine used in Taiwan, is a potent anticancer drug for colorectal cancer, but the upstream molecular mechanism of its anticancer effects remains unclear. In this study, A. cinnamomea extracts showed cytotoxicity in HCT116, HT29, SW480, Caco-2 and, Colo205 colorectal cancer cells. Whole-genome expression profiling of A. cinnamomea extracts in HCT116 cells was performed. A. cinnamomea extracts upregulated the expression of the endoplasmic reticulum stress marker CHOP and its downstream gene TRB3. Moreover, dephosphorylation of Akt and mTOR as well as autophagic cell death were observed. Gene expression and autophagic cell death were reversed by the knockdown of CHOP and TRB3. Autophagy inhibition but not apoptosis inhibition reversed A. cinnamomea-induced cell death. Finally, we demonstrated that A. cinnamomea extracts significantly suppressed HCT116 tumour growth in nude mice. Our findings suggest that autophagic cell death via the CHOP/TRB3/Akt/mTOR pathway may represent a new mechanism of anti-colorectal cancer action by A. cinnamomea. A. cinnamomea is a new CHOP activator and potential drug that can be used in colorectal cancer treatment.

Antiproliferative activity of the Antrodia camphorata secondary metabolite 4,7-dimethoxy-5-methylbenzo[d][1,3]dioxole and analogues

Both the traditional Chinese medicinal fungus, Antrodia camphorata, and its secondary metabolite, 4,7-dimethoxy-5-methylbenzo[d][1,3]dioxole, have been reported to possess promising anticancer activity. In this work the natural product and analogues bearing more polar substituents were synthesised and assessed for antiproliferative activity in the NCI-60 screen. Although each compound inhibited the growth of some cell lines at 10μM, none had sufficient activity to warrant further investigation.

Antimelanogenic, Antioxidant and Antiproliferative Effects of Antrodia camphorata Fruiting Bodies on B16-F0 Melanoma Cells

Antrodia camphorata is a fungus that is endemic to Taiwan, and its fruiting body has been used as a folk medicine for the prevention or treatment of diverse diseases. The present study is aimed at investigating the antimelanogenesis and antioxidation effect of the ethanolic extract of Antrodia camphorata fruiting body (EE-AC), as well as its antiproliferation effects in B16-F0 melanoma cells. Regarding antimelanogenic effects, EE-AC had effective cupric ions reducing capacity and expressed more potent inhibitory effect than kojic acid on mushroom tyrosinase activity. Moreover, EE-AC significantly inhibited cellular tyrosinase activity and the melanin content in B16-F0 cells at 12.5 μg/mL concentration without cell toxicities. Regarding antioxidant effects, EE-AC exhibited potent DPPH radical- and SOD-like-scavenging activities. Regarding antiproliferative effects, EE-AC exhibited a selective cytotoxic effect and markedly inhibited the migration ability of B16-F0 cells. EE-AC increased the population of B16-F0 cells at sub-G1 phase of the cell cycle. EE-AC also caused the increase of early apoptotic cells and chromatin condensation, which indicated the apoptotic effects in B16-F0 cells. We demonstrated that EE-AC possessed antimelanogenic, antioxidant and anti-skin cancer actions. The results would contribute to the development and application of cosmetics, healthy food and pharmaceuticals.

4,7-Dimethoxy-5-methyl-1,3-benzodioxole from Antrodia camphorata inhibits LPS-induced inflammation via suppression of NF-κB and induction HO-1 in RAW264.7 cells

Several benzenoid compounds have been isolated from Antrodia camphorata are known to have excellent anti-inflammatory activity. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory potential of 4,7-dimethoxy-5-methyl-1,3-benzodioxole (DMB), one of the major benzenoid compounds isolated from the mycelia of A. camphorata. DMB significantly decreased the LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory molecules, such as nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in RAW264.7 cells. In addition, DMB suppressed the protein levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in a dose dependent manner. Moreover, DMB significantly suppressed LPS-induced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and this inhibition was found to be associated with decreases in the phosphorylation and degradation of its inhibitor, inhibitory κB-α (IκB-α). Moreover, we found that DMB markedly inhibited the protein expression level of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Furthermore, treatment with DMB significantly increased hemoxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression in RAW264.7 cells, which is further confirmed by hemin, a HO-1 enhancer, significantly attenuated the LPS-induced pro-inflammatory molecules and iNOS and TLR4 protein levels. Taken together, the present study suggests that DMB may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

The Ethanolic Extract of Taiwanofungus camphoratus (Antrodia camphorata) Induces Cell Cycle Arrest and Enhances Cytotoxicity of Cisplatin and Doxorubicin on Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Taiwanofungus camphoratus (synonym Antrodia camphorata) is a widely used medicinal fungus in the folk medicine of Taiwan with several pharmacological features such as anti-inflammatory, liver protection, antihypertensive, and antioxidative activities. The ethanolic extract of T. camphoratus (TCEE) which contains abundant bioactive compounds including triterpenoids and polysaccharides also has antitumor effects in various human cancer cell lines. The aims of this study are to clarify the antitumor effects of TCEE on human hepatocellular carcinoma cells and also evaluate the combination drug effects with conventional chemotherapy agents, cisplatin and doxorubicin. In the present study, the TCEE treatment induced cell cycle arrest and suppressed cell growth on both Hep3B and HepJ5 cells. Expression of cell cycle inhibitors, P21 and P27, and activation of apoptosis executer enzyme, caspase-3, were also induced by TCEE. In combination with the chemotherapy agents, TCEE treatment further enhanced the tumor suppression efficiency of cisplatin and doxorubicin. These results together suggested that TCEE is a potential ingredient for developing an integrated chemotherapy for human liver cancer.

Comparison of the apoptotic effects of supercritical fluid extracts of Antrodia cinnamomea mycelia on hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Antrodia cinnamomea (AC) has been widely used as a folk medicine in the prevention and treatment of liver diseases, such as hepatitis, hepatic fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Previous studies have indicated that triterpenoids and benzenoids show selective cytotoxicity against human hepatoma cell lines. The aim of the study was to compare the triterpenoid content of extract and the extract-induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells from mycelia extracts of solid state cultured AC obtained by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and the conventional solvent extraction method. SFE with CO2 mixed with a constant amount of ethanol co-solvent (10% of CO2 volume) applied at different temperatures and pressures (40, 60 and 80 °C and, 20.7, 27.6 and 34.5 Mpa) was also compared in the study. Although the extraction yield of triterpenoids (59.7 mg/g) under the optimal extraction conditions of 34.5 MPa (5000 psi)/60 °C (designated as sample S-5000-60) was equivalent to the extraction yield using conventional liquid solvent extraction with ethanol (ETOH-E) at room temperature (60.33 mg/g), the cytotoxicity of the former against the proliferation of HepG2 cell line measured as the inhibition of 50% of cell growth activity (IC50) at dosages of 116.15, 57.82 and 43.96 µg/mL was superior to that of EtOH-E at 131.09, 80.04 and 48.30 µg/mL at 24, 48 and 72 h, respectively. Additionally, we further proved that the apoptotic effect of S-5000-60 presented a higher apoptosis ratio (21.5%) than ETOH-E (10.5%) according to annexin V-FITC and propidium iodide double staining assay results. The high affinity and selectivity of SFE on bioactive components resulted in a higher extraction efficiency than conventional solvent extraction. The chemical profile of the obtained extracts from solid state cultivated mycelium of AC was also determined by high-performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), whereby three benzenoids and four triterpenoids were found for the first time in SFE extracts with 4,7-dimethoxy-5-methyl-l,3-benzodioxole (5.78 mg/g) being the most abundant component, followed by 2,4-dimethoxy-6-methylbenzene-1,3-diol (3.03 mg/g) and dehydroeburicoic acid (0.40 mg/g).

Diphenylpyrroles: Novel p53 activators

Cellular tumor antigen p53 is crucial for cancer prevention via different mechanisms. E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase HDM2 binds to p53, blocks its ability to activate transcription, and therefore acts as a negative regulator. Blocking p53 binding site on HDM2 was believed to generate efficient antitumor agents. So far, limited scaffolds were reported with HDM2 antagonist activity. Herein, diphenylpyrroles were introduced and evaluated as a novel scaffold in the field of p53 activators. An efficient synthesis of novel 3-heteroaryl-pyrroles is described via reactions of E-3-(dimethylamino)-1-(2-methyl-4,5-diphenyl-1H-pyrrol-3-yl)prop-2-en-1-one or E-1-(2-methyl-4,5-diphenyl-1H-pyrrol-3-yl)-3-morpholinoprop-2-en-1-one with hydrazine hydrate, phenyl hydrazine, hydroxylamine, various heterocyclic amines and active methylene compounds.

New Anti-Inflammatory Aromatic Components from Antrodia camphorata

Three new benzenoids, 3-isopropenyl-2-methoxy-6-methyl-4,5-methylenedioxyphenol (1), 2-hydroxy-4,4′-dimethoxy-3,3′-dimethyl-5,6,5′,6′-bimethylenedioxybiphenyl (2), 4,4′-dihydroxy-3,3′-dimethoxy-2,2′-dimethyl-5,6,5′,6′-bimethylenedioxybiphenyl (3), together with two known benzenoids, 2,3,6-trimethoxy-5-methylphenol (4) and 2,3-methylenedioxy-4-methoxy-5-methylphenol (5), were isolated from Antrodia camphorata. Our results support that compounds 1–5 potently inhibited LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production in a dose-dependent manner. The IC₅₀ values of compounds 1, 3 and 5 were 1.8 ± 0.2, 18.8 ± 0.6 and 0.8 ± 0.3 μg/mL, respectively.

Antrodia camphorata Grown on Germinated Brown Rice Suppresses Melanoma Cell Proliferation by Inducing Apoptosis and Cell Differentiation and Tumor Growth

Antrodia camphorata grown on germinated brown rice (CBR) was prepared to suppress melanoma development. CBR extracts were divided into hexane, EtOAc, BuOH, and water fractions. Among all the fractions, EtOAc fraction showed the best suppressive effect on B16F10 melanoma cell proliferation by CCK-8 assay. It also showed the increased cell death and the changed cellular morphology after CBR treatment. Annexin V-FITC/PI, flow cytometry, and western blotting were performed to elucidate anticancer activity of CBR. The results showed that CBR induced p53-mediated apoptotic cell death of B16F10. CBR EtOAc treatment increased melanin content and melanogenesis-related proteins of MITF and TRP-1 expressions, which supports its anticancer activity. Its potential as an anticancer agent was further investigated in tumor-xenografted mouse model. In melanoma-xenografted mouse model, melanoma tumor growth was significantly suppressed under CBR EtOAc fraction treatment. HPLC analysis of CBR extract showed peak of adenosine. In conclusion, CBR extracts notably inhibited B16F10 melanoma cell proliferation through the p53-mediated apoptosis induction and increased melanogenesis. These findings suggest that CBR EtOAc fraction can act as an effective anticancer agent to treat melanoma.

Protective effects of Antrodia cinnamomea against liver injury

Chinese herbal medicine () attracts much attention in the treatment of liver injuries. Numerous studies have revealed various biological activities of medicinal mushrooms such as Antrodia Cinnamomea (). Although A. cinnamomea is rare in the wild, recent developments in fermentation and cultivation technologies make the mycelia and fruiting bodies of this valuable medicinal mushroom readily available. Liver diseases such as fatty liver, hepatitis, hepatic fibrosis, and liver cancer are complicated processes of liver injuries that have tremendous impact on human society. In this article, we reviewed studies about the hepatoprotective effects of the fruiting bodies and mycelia of A. cinnamomea performed in different experimental models. The results of those studies suggest the potential application of A. cinnamomea in preventing and treating liver diseases and its potential to be developed into health foods or new drugs.