Comparative evaluation of cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium flowers by HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS analysis and antiallergic assay

Fast and efficient identification of hyaluronidase specific inhibitors from Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. using UF-LC-MS technique and their anti-inflammation effect in macrophages

The purpose of the study was to establish a rapid analytical strategy to screen potential anti-inflammatory compounds from Flos Chrysanthemum flower. The enzyme assay was conducted to prescreen botanical extracts, in which Chrysanthemum morifolium aqueous extract (CME) displayed hyaluronidase (HAase) inhibitory activity in a dose-dependent manner with the values of 8.31, 24.25, and 66.51% at concentrations of 1.00, 2.00, and 4 0.00 mg/mL, respectively. Eight potential compounds targeting HAase (compounds 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 20 and 21) from CME were screened using ultrafiltration affinity liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (UF-LC-MS) technology. The well-known inhibitor, dipotassium glycyrrhizinate (DG), was used as a positive control and competitive ligand to eliminate false positives. Then, four of these potential components (compounds 9, 10, 17, and 21), namely eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside, luteoloside, apigenin-7-O-glucoside and diosmetin-7-O-glucoside, were distinguished as potent HAase specific inhibitor candidates with high BD and CBD values. The enzyme inhibitory activities of candidate compounds were verified using enzyme inhibition assay. At a concentration of 1000 μM, compounds 9, 10, 17, and 21 showed 40.15, 44.85, 18.04, and 24.15% inhibition of HAase, respectively. Furthermore, all the four compounds significantly decreased the production of nitric oxide (NO) and IL-6, and significantly suppressed the mRNA expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and IL-1β in both murine and human macrophages.

Discrimination of chrysanthemum varieties using lipidomics based on UHPLC-HR-AM/MS/MS

BACKGROUND

Chrysanthemum is one of the most important and popular ornamentals over the world. Chrysanthemum drink is a type of traditional healthy drink like Chinese tea. Owing to the differences in the chemical compositions, different chrysanthemum varieties have different medicinal effects on human health. Thus, the identification of different chrysanthemum varieties is very important and necessary. This study aims to distinguish seven chrysanthemum varieties that are widely used in China. First, total lipids were obtained from chrysanthemums. After that, lipid profiles were characterized using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography hyphenated with a Q Exactive™ high resolution-accurate-mass mass spectrometer.

RESULTS

A total of 163 lipid molecular species from 17 types of lipid classes in seven varieties of chrysanthemums were determined. Principal component analysis indicated that three lipid molecules, lysophosphatidylethanolamine(18:2) (LPE(18:2)), LPE(16:0), and phosphatidic acid(18:2/18:3) (variable importance in projection >3, P < 0.001), can be used as potential biomarkers to distinguish seven chrysanthemum varieties. Hierarchical cluster analysis showed that the lipid molecular profiles of 'Gongju' were most similar to 'Jinzijianju', followed by 'Huaibaiju', 'Boju', 'Hangbaiju', 'Chuju', and 'Fubaiju'.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive analysis provided a new method to identify chrysanthemum varieties through the perspective of lipidomics combined with chemometrics. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

CmHY5 functions in apigenin biosynthesis by regulating flavone synthase II expression in chrysanthemum flowers

The predominant flavones in the ray florets of chrysanthemum flowers are apigenin and its derivatives. CmHY5 participates in apigenin biosynthesis by directly regulating the expression of FNSII-1 in chrysanthemum. Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) flowers have been used for centuries as functional food and in herbal tea and traditional medicine. The chrysanthemum flower contains significant amounts of the biologically active compound flavones, which has medicinal properties. However, the mechanism regulating flavones biosynthesis in chrysanthemum flowers organs is still unclear. Here, we compared the transcriptomes and metabolomes of different floral organs between two cultivars with contrasting flavone levels in their flowers. We identified 186 flavonoids by metabolome analysis. The predominant flavones in the ray florets of chrysanthemum flowers are apigenin and its derivatives, of which the contents are highly correlated with the expression of flavones synthase II gene CmFNSII-1. We also determined that CmHY5 is a direct upstream regulator of CmFNSII-1 transcription. We showed that CmHY5 RNAi interference lines in chrysanthemum have lower contents of apigenin compared to wild-type chrysanthemum. Our results demonstrated that CmHY5 participates in flavone biosynthesis by directly regulating the expression of FNSII-1 in chrysanthemum.

The genus Chrysanthemum: Phylogeny, biodiversity, phytometabolites, and chemodiversity

The ecologically and economically important genus Chrysanthemum contains around 40 species and many hybrids and cultivars. The dried capitulum of Chrysanthemum morifolium (CM) Ramat. Tzvel, i.e., Flos Chrysanthemi, is frequently used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and folk medicine for at least 2,200 years. It has also been a popular tea beverage for about 2,000 years since Han Dynasty in China. However, the origin of different cultivars of CM and the phylogenetic relationship between Chrysanthemum and related Asteraceae genera are still elusive, and there is a lack of comprehensive review about the association between biodiversity and chemodiversity of Chrysanthemum. This article aims to provide a synthetic summary of the phylogeny, biodiversity, phytometabolites and chemodiversity of Chrysanthemum and related taxonomic groups, focusing on CM and its wild relatives. Based on extensive literature review and in light of the medicinal value of chrysanthemum, we give some suggestions for its relationship with some genera/species and future applications. Mining chemodiversity from biodiversity of Chrysanthemum containing subtribe Artemisiinae, as well as mining therapeutic efficacy and other utilities from chemodiversity/biodiversity, is closely related with sustainable conservation and utilization of Artemisiinae resources. There were eight main cultivars of Flos Chrysanthemi, i.e., Hangju, Boju, Gongju, Chuju, Huaiju, Jiju, Chuanju and Qiju, which differ in geographical origins and processing methods. Different CM cultivars originated from various hybridizations between multiple wild species. They mainly contained volatile oils, triterpenes, flavonoids, phenolic acids, polysaccharides, amino acids and other phytometabolites, which have the activities of antimicrobial, anti-viral, antioxidant, anti-aging, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and closely related taxonomic groups could also be useful as food, medicine and tea. Despite some progresses, the genetic/chemical relationships among varieties, species and relevant genera have yet to be clarified; therefore, the roles of pharmacophylogeny and omics technology are highlighted.

Study on the chemical profile of chrysanthemum and the evaluation of the similarities and differences between different cultivars

Chrysanthemum originates in China and has been cultivated for tea and food utilizations over 2 thousand years. According to differences in origin and processing methods, Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. can be categorized into many cultivars. This study aims to investigate the chemical components of chrysanthemum and clarify the similarities and differences between different chrysanthemum varieties. A total of 55 non-volatile components and 66 volatile components in chrysanthemum were identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) methods, respectively. A rapid UPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of 13 active components in 30 batches chrysanthemum samples of ten different cultivars. Multivariate statistical techniques were applied to analyze the samples. The result indicated that Boju, Huaiju and Chuju were more similar in terms of the ingredient content and Qiju, Jinsihuangju, Huangju, Hangju, Gongju, Fubaiju, Baiju have a high degree of similarity. Furthermore, isochlorogenic acid C, luteolin, apigenin-7-glucoside, chlorogenic acid, apigenin and cryptochlorogenic acid plays an important role in distinguishing different varieties of chrysanthemum. The established strategy explains the similarities and differences between different varieties of chrysanthemums to some extent, and provides certain reference value for the choice of chrysanthemums for eating or medicinal purposes in daily life.

Effect of steam explosion pretreatment on the composition and bioactive characteristic of phenolic compounds in Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. Hangbaiju powder with various sieve fractions

Steam explosion (SE) pretreatment is an efficient technique to promote the fiber degradation and disrupt materials' cell wall. In this study, the effect of SE pretreatment on the changes in phenolic profile, and the in vitro digestion property of a Chinese indigenous herb "Hangbaiju" (HBJ) powder with various sieve fractions (150-, 180-, 250-, 425-, and 850-μm sieves) were studied. After SE pretreatment, the morphological structure, color attributes, and composition of phenolic compounds were altered significantly (p < .05). The composition and content of phenolic compounds were strongly correlated with particle sizes. The higher extraction yield of phenolic compounds was reached in the intermediate sieve fraction (ca. 250-μm sieves). During in vitro digestion, the changes in phenolic compounds were significant due to the transition from an acidic to the alkaline environment (p < .05). Based on the multivariate statistical analysis, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, and linarin, were viewed as the characteristic compounds among various samples. The results highlighted that the phytochemical properties mainly including the composition of phenolic compounds, and in vitro digestion properties of HBJ powder with intermediate sieve fraction could be improved after SE pretreatment.

Comparison of the antioxidant activities of nonfumigated and sulphur-fumigated Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Hang-ju induced by oxidative stress

CONTEXT

The traditional drying method, sun drying, for Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. cv. Hang-ju (Compositae) (HJ) is widely replaced by sulphur fumigation (SF), which has an unknown effect on its efficacy.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate protective effects of nonfumigated HJ (NHJ) and sulphur-fumigated HJ (SHJ) water extracts against oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats were administered high-fat diet to induce hyperlipidaemia and randomly divided into eight groups (n = 6): control, fenofibrate, NHJ and SHJ extracts (1, 2 or 4 g crude drugs/kg/d; intragastric administration for 8 weeks). Serum total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were detected. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were treated with NHJ and SHJ extracts (50, 100 or 200 μg/mL) for 24 h, followed by oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL, 20 μg/mL) for 2 h in vitro. Cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), SOD and MDA levels and apoptosis were evaluated.

RESULTS

NHJ was more effective than SHJ in decreasing serum TG, TC, LDL-C, LDL/HDL and MDA while increasing serum HDL-C and SOD levels at high doses. SHJ (IC₅₀=19.9 mg/mL) suppressed HUVEC growth stronger than NHJ (IC₅₀=186.7 mg/mL). At 200 μg/mL, NHJ was more effective than SHJ in downregulating ROS and MDA levels, reducing HUVECs apoptosis rate and elevating SOD activity in ox-LDL-treated HUVECs.

CONCLUSIONS

SF causes oxidative damage and attenuates antioxidative activity in ox-LDL-treated HUVECs, which promotes lipid peroxidation. SF is not recommended for processing HJ.

Discovery of Quality Markers of Nucleobases, Nucleosides, Nucleotides and Amino Acids for Chrysanthemi Flos From Different Geographical Origins Using UPLC-MS/MS Combined With Multivariate Statistical Analysis

Nucleobases, nucleosides, nucleotides and amino acids, as crucial nutrient compositions, play essential roles in determining the flavor, function and quality of Chrysanthemi Flos. The quality of Chrysanthemi Flos from different geographical origins is uneven, but there have been no reports about the screening of their quality markers based on nutritional ingredients. Here, we developed a comprehensive strategy integrating ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple-quadrupole linear ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) and multivariate statistical analysis to explore quality markers of Chrysanthemi Flos from different geographical origins and conduct quality evaluation and discrimination of them. Firstly, a fast, sensitive, and reliable UPLC-MS/MS method was established for simultaneous quantification 28 nucleobases, nucleosides, nucleotides and amino acids of Chrysanthemi Flos from nine different regions in China. The results demonstrated that Chrysanthemi Flos from nine different cultivation regions were rich in the above 28 nutritional contents and their contents were obvious different; however, correlation analysis showed that altitude was not the main factor for these differences, which required further investigation. Subsequently, eight crucial quality markers for nine different geographical origins of Chrysanthemi Flos, namely, 2'-deoxyadenosine, guanosine, adenosine 3',5'-cyclic phosphate (cAMP), guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cGMP), arginine, proline, glutamate and tryptophan, were screened for the first time using partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and the plot of variable importance for projection (VIP). Moreover, a hierarchical clustering analysis heat map was employed to intuitively clarify the distribution of eight quality markers in the nine different regions of Chrysanthemi Flos. Finally, based on the contents of selected eight quality markers, support vector machines (SVM) model was established to predict the geographical origins of Chrysanthemi Flos, which yielded excellent prediction performance with an average prediction accuracy of 100%. Taken together, the proposed strategy was suitable to discover the quality markers of Chrysanthemi Flos and could be used to discriminate its geographical origin.

Comparison of Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Effects of Different Varieties of Chrysanthemum Flos in China

Chrysanthemum Flos is the prestigious traditional Chinese medicinal material and the popular health drink. This article comprehensively evaluated the chemical constituents, antioxidant activity, and hepatoprotective effects of 25 common chrysanthemum varieties in China. Firstly, we analyzed the chemical compositions of water extracts of chrysanthemum using UPLC/Q-TOF-MS, and identified 29 chemical components. The results displayed that chrysanthemum was rich in chemical constituents, but there were significant differences in the contents of four phenolic acids and five flavonoids among different varieties, and the coefficient of variation (CVs) ranged from 35.96 % to 114.62 %. Then, the antioxidant activities of different chrysanthemums were investigated, respectively via 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assays. The spectrum-effect relationships between nine main components and antioxidant activities were investigated to identify the antioxidant constitutes in chrysanthemums. Meanwhile, H₂ O₂ -induced hepatocyte injury testing showed wide variation in cultivar antioxidant capacity, with Tongchengju (TCJ) producing the best effect (90.32 %), followed by Chuju (CJ; 85.78 %). In addition, the hepatoprotective effects of 8 mainstream varieties were determined by the model of acute alcoholic liver injury. They protected liver from injury by affecting relevant liver function and antioxidant indexes. Huangshangongju (HSG) could decrease aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity by 39.27 % in liver tissue; Hangju-Fubaiju (HJ-FBJ), Jinsihuangju (JSH), and Chuju (CJ) significantly decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) content of liver tissue, which reduced by more than 40 %; Jinsihuangju (JSH) of used for tea could double the content of glutathione (GSH) and had the similar effect on superoxide dismutase (SOD) as the positive group, showing significant antioxidant capacity. Therefore, this study confirmed that chrysanthemums are potential resources as antioxidants, functional foods, and medicinal materials. Importantly, it may provide a scientific support for further development and utilization of chrysanthemum, and screen excellent varieties for different demands.

Protective Effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju Hot-Water Extracts Against ARPE-19 Cell Oxidative Damage by Activating PI3K/Akt-Mediated Nrf2/HO-1 Signaling Pathway

Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju is a kind of widely consumed herb tea with multiple health benefits. The present study was aimed to evaluate the protective capacity of C. morifolium cv. Fubaiju hot-water extracts (CMs) against ARPE-19 cell oxidative damage. The results showed that pretreatment with 100 μg/mL CM could significantly reduce cell oxidative damage and apoptosis. Proapoptotic protein expression such as Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) was significantly decreased after CM addition, while the expression level of antioxidant enzymes including catalase, glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLc), superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2), and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO-1) was significantly promoted. Meanwhile, CM treatment upregulated Akt phosphorylation, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) nuclear translocation, and the expression level of antioxidant gene heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in a dose-dependent manner under oxidative stress. Knockdown of Nrf2 by targeted small interfering RNA (siRNA) alleviated CM-mediated HO-1 transcription and almost abolished CM-mediated protection against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced cell damage. Correspondingly, the protective effect of CM was dramatically blocked after interference with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt inhibitor LY294002, indicating that the protective effect of CM on cell oxidative damage was attributed to PI3K/Akt-mediated Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway.

Nutraceutical potential of dietary phytochemicals in edible flowers-A review

Edible flowers have been in traditional cuisine and phytotherapy for centuries. Recently, the consumption of edible flowers has increased significantly as the phytochemicals in them are known to have numerous health benefits. Information on nutraceutical potentials and health benefits of the phytochemicals available in different varieties of edible flowers and their uses are discussed. It is found that the major groups of dietary phytochemicals in edible flowers include flavonoids, phenolic acids, and anthocyanins and they are capable of exerting antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anticancer, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective gastroprotective, and genoprotective effects. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Edible flowers are good sources of phytochemicals and possessing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory properties, anticancer, anti-diabetic, and cardio-protective properties. However, many edible flowers remain unexplored and underutilized. This review gives eye openings that more in-depth investigations need to be conducted on different edible flowers and they need to be incorporated into commercialized foods and drugs or need to be used for novel nutraceutical development to deliver the potential health benefits to consumers.

The flower head of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Juhua): A paradigm of flowers serving as Chinese dietary herbal medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dietary herbal medicines are widely used for the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases due to their pharmacological activities in China. Juhua (the flower head of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.), the most representative flower-derived one, which is mainly used for the treatment of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, shows significant activities, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer, and, neuroprotective, as well as effects on the cardiovascular system.

AIMS OF THIS REVIEW

This review aims to provide an overview of the crucial roles of flowers in Chinese dietary herbal medicine, and the pharmaceutical research progress of Juhua (the paradigm of dietary herbal medicine derived from the flower) including its applications in Traditional Chinese medicine and diet, cultivars, phytochemistry, quality control, pharmacology, and toxicity, along with chrysanthemum breeding and biotechnology.

METHOD

The information associated with Chinese dietary herbal medicine, flower-derived medicine, dietary flower, and pharmaceutical research of Juhua, was collected from government reports, classic books of Traditional Chinese medicine, the thesis of doctors of philosophy and maters, and database including Pubmed, Scifinder, Web of Science, Google Scholar, China National Knowledge Internet; and others.

RESULT

All flower-originated crude medicines recorded in Chinese pharmacopeia and their applications were summarized for the first time in this paper. The edible history and development of flowers in China, the theory of Chinese dietary herbal medicines, as well as flowers serving as dietary herbal medicines, were discussed. Moreover, applications in Traditional Chinese medicine and diet, cultivars, phytochemistry, quality control, pharmacology, and safety evaluation of Juhua, together with chrysanthemum breeding and biotechnology, were summarized in this paper.

CONCLUSION

The theory of dietary herbal medicines, which are an important part of the Traditional Chinese medicine system, has a history of thousands of years. Many herbal flowers, serving as dietary herbal medicines, contribute significantly to the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases for Chinese people. To better benefit human health, more effective supervision practice for dietary herbal medicines is needed. Although various investigations on Juhua have been done, there is a lack of analytical methods for discrimination of cultivar flowers and identification of authenticity. Research on the major compounds with bioactivities, especially those related to its clinical application or healthcare function, as well as their possible mechanize, need be strengthened. More safety evaluation of Juhua should be carried out. The research limitations Juhua is facing exist in all dietary herbal medicine.

Simultaneous Determination of 6 Antiallergic Components in Asarum sieboldii Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

Owing to the side effects of current drugs for treating atopic dermatitis (AD), a chronic disease in the skin, traditional herbal medicine is receiving much attention as an alternative treatment. Asarum sieboldii has traditionally been used to treat colds, fevers, headaches, coughs, neuralgia, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and allergies. In this study, 6 compounds (echinacoside, vanillic acid, kakuol, methyl eugenol, sesamin, and asarinin) in A. sieboldii were analyzed simultaneously using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the proposed analytical method was validated. In addition, the inhibitory effects of the A. sieboldii extract and the 6 analyzed compounds on the expression of chemokine were evaluated in HaCaT cells. The HPLC method showed high linearity, with a correlation coefficient of ≥0.9999. The limits of detection for the 6 compounds ranged from 0.00 to 0.02 µg/mL, and the limits of quantification ranged from 0.01 to 0.05 µg/mL. The intraday and interday precisions were 0.15%-1.90%; the accuracy was 97.36%-103.23%, and the recoveries of the 6 compounds were 97.45%-103.93%. The content of each compound in A. sieboldii, as determined using the corresponding calibration curve, was in the range of 0.380-12.062 mg/g. This optimized simultaneous quantification method will be suitable for improving the quality control of A. sieboldii. Moreover, the 6 compounds in A. sieboldii showed an inhibitory effect on the production of chemokines, which suggests that A. sieboldii has an antiallergic effect.

Chrysanthemum ethanol extract induced loss of Kupffer cells via the mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway

Chrysanthemum has been viewed as an important traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with a long history. Research studies indicated many potential pharmaceutical effects of chrysanthemum extract. However, hardly any investigation has been performed to describe its toxicity. In this study, acute application of chrysanthemum ethanol extract (CEE, 300 mg kg^-1) was found to induce apoptosis of hepatic Kupffer cells in vivo. CEE was also observed to induce apoptosis of RAW264.7 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Further analysis using flow cytometry and western blotting revealed that CEE induced apoptosis of RAW264.7 cells via a mitochondria-dependent pathway. After a HPLC combined screening assay, we narrowed down the toxicity caused by the petroleum extract of CEE (CEE-PE, 66 μg mL^-1). In vivo effects of CEE-PE were also tested in mice. Additionally, nine potential toxic compounds were isolated and identified from CEE-PE. In all, we found that components with small polarities in CEE could induce apoptosis of Kupffer cells and macrophages via a mitochondrial dependent pathway, which might draw attention to the safety issues of everyday use of chrysanthemum.

Variation in bioactive compounds, antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Iranian Chrysanthemum morifolium cultivars and determination of major polyphenolic compounds based on HPLC analysis

In this study, chemical profiling, phenolic and flavonoid contents, as well as the antibacterial and antioxidant activity of 17 Iranian Chrysanthemum morifolium cultivars were evaluated. The high performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed the presence of eight compounds with the major constituents including chlorogenic acid (0-934.7 mg/100 g), ferulic acid (12.7-171.6 mg/100 g), rutin (0-225.8 mg/100 g) and luteolin (2.83-213.5 mg/100 g). The cultivar "Ashna" with 63.6 mg tannic acid equivalents g^-1 DW had the highest amount of total phenol, while the highest flavonoid content (13.52 mg quercetin equivalents g^-1DW) was observed in cultivar "Shokoh". The antioxidant activities of the samples were determined using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and the reducing power assay. The results showed that the cultivars "Poya3" (IC₅₀ = 385.7) and "Dorna2" (IC₅₀ = 489.4) possessed a higher antioxidant activity than the others in DPPH model system. Antimicrobial activity was also evaluated based on minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration values. MIC values were in the range of 5-10 mg ml^-1 against Salmonella enterica and Bacillus cereus and 10-20 mg ml^-1 against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Finally, Chrysanthemum cultivars with high bioactive compounds were introduced for beneficial usage in food and industrial applications.

Identifying mechanisms underlying the amelioration effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. 'Boju' extract on hyperuricemia using biochemical characterization and UPLC-ESI-QTOF/MS-based metabolomics

This study was aimed at evaluating the prospect of edible chrysanthemum extract as a potential substance for the prevention and treatment of hyperuricemia. Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. 'Boju' extract (CBE), which had the strongest xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity, showed a significant hypouricemic effect on potassium oxonate-induced hyperuricemic rats through inhibiting serum xanthine oxidase activity, regulating renal uric acid transport-related protein (ABCG2, URAT1 and GLUT9) expression and blood lipid levels, and protecting renal function. Serum metabolomics based on UPLC-ESI-QTOF/MS was used to illustrate mechanisms underlying the amelioration effect of CBE on hyperuricemia. A total of 35 potential biomarkers were identified. CBE prevented the pathological process of hyperuricemia by regulating 16/17 biomarkers associated with tryptophan, sphingolipid, glycerophospholipid and arachidonic acid metabolisms. CBE could alleviate hyperuricemia-related diseases including chronic kidney disease, hyperlipidemia and inflammation via reducing indoxyl sulfate, lysophosphatidylcholines and arachidonic acid levels, exhibiting its applicability and superiority in the treatment of hyperuricemia.

Experimental and Theoretical Study of the Stability of the Complex Fisetin-Cu(II) and A Comparative Study of Free Ligand and Complex Interaction with Molecular Singlet Oxygen

In this work, the flavonol fisetin was selected in order to study its reactivity against Cu(II), a metal ion of interest in biological media and industry. The stoichiometry and apparent formation constant of the complex in ethanolic medium at 25°C were evaluated using spectrophotometric techniques. The resulting stoichiometry was a 1:1 ligand:metal complex, and a log K = 5.17 ± 0.12 was determined. Since two possible chelation sites can be proposed for the complex formation, quantum chemistry calculations were performed on these structures. Calculations suggest that the hydroxyl-keto site is more stable for the complex formation than the catechol site. Flavonoids could exert protection against oxidative damage caused by reactive oxygen species, and this biological activity could be affected by chelation with metal ions. This led us to perform a study on the interaction of both, free flavonoid and complex, with reactive oxygen species. Our results showed both compounds quench molecular singlet oxygen photogenerated with visible light, mainly in a physical fashion. In order to analyze a possible protective effect of flavonoid and its complex against oxidative damage in biological environments, the amino acid tryptophan was selected as a model oxidation system. Free flavonoid does not have a marked protective effect, whereas its complex showed a relevant protective effect.

Current achievements and future prospects in the genetic breeding of chrysanthemum: a review

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) is a leading flower with applied value worldwide. Developing new chrysanthemum cultivars with novel characteristics such as new flower colors and shapes, plant architectures, flowering times, postharvest quality, and biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in a time- and cost-efficient manner is the ultimate goal for breeders. Various breeding strategies have been employed to improve the aforementioned traits, ranging from conventional techniques, including crossbreeding and mutation breeding, to a series of molecular breeding methods, including transgenic technology, genome editing, and marker-assisted selection (MAS). In addition, the recent extensive advances in high-throughput technologies, especially genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and microbiomics, which are collectively referred to as omics platforms, have led to the collection of substantial amounts of data. Integration of these omics data with phenotypic information will enable the identification of genes/pathways responsible for important traits. Several attempts have been made to use emerging molecular and omics methods with the aim of accelerating the breeding of chrysanthemum. However, applying the findings of such studies to practical chrysanthemum breeding remains a considerable challenge, primarily due to the high heterozygosity and polyploidy of the species. This review summarizes the recent achievements in conventional and modern molecular breeding methods and emerging omics technologies and discusses their future applications for improving the agronomic and horticultural characteristics of chrysanthemum.

Comparison of Phenolic Compounds and the Antioxidant Activities of Fifteen Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. 'Hangbaiju' in China

This study investigated the phenolic compounds of 15 Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. ‘Hangbaiju’, including 6 ‘Duoju’ and 9 ‘Taiju’, using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The antioxidant activities of these ‘Hangbaiju’ were estimated by DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays. Results show that a total of 14 phenolic compounds were detected in these flowers, including 3 mono-caffeoylquinic acids, 3 di-caffeoylquinic acids, 1 phenolic acid and 7 flavonoids. ‘Duoju’ and ‘Taiju’ possess different concentrations of phenolic compounds, and ‘Taiju’ exhibits higher caffeoylquinic acids and stronger antioxidant activities than ‘Duoju’. Caffeoylquinic acids show a strong correlation with the antioxidant activities of the samples. Principal component analysis (PCA) reveals an obvious separation between ‘Duoju’ and ‘Taiju’, using phenolic compounds as variables. Apigenin-7-O-glucoside, 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, luteolin and acacetin were found to be the key phenolic compounds to differentiate ‘Duoju’ from ‘Taiju’.

Comparative Analysis of Phytochemical Composition of Gamma-Irradiated Mutant Cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium

The flowers of chrysanthemum species are used as a herbal tea and in traditional medicine. In addition, members of the genus have been selected to develop horticultural cultivars of diverse floral colors and capitulum forms. In this research, we investigated the phytochemical composition of eight gamma-irradiation mutant cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium and their original cultivars. The mutant chrysanthemum cultivars were generated by treatment with various doses of ⁶⁰Co gamma irradiation of stem cuttings of three commercial chrysanthemum cultivars as follows: ‘ARTI-Dark Chocolate’ (50Gy), ‘ARTI-Purple Lady’ (30 Gy), and ‘ARTI-Yellow Star’ (50 Gy) derived from ‘Noble Wine’; ‘ARTI-Red Star’ (50 Gy) and ‘ARTI-Rising Sun’ (30 Gy) from ‘Pinky’; ‘ARTI-Purple’ (40 Gy) and ‘ARTI-Queen’ (30 Gy) from ‘Argus’; and ‘ARTI-Rollypop’ (70 Gy) from ‘Plaisir d’amour’. Quantitative analysis of flavonoids, phenolic acids, anthocyanins, and carotenoids in the flowers of the 12 chrysanthemum cultivars was performed using high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESIMS). Essential oils from the flowers of these cultivars were analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The mutant cultivars, ‘ARTI-Dark Chocolate’, ‘ARTI-Purple Lady’, ‘ARTI-Purple’, and ‘ARTI-Queen’ showed higher total amounts of flavonoid and phenolic acid compared with those of the respective original cultivars. The mutant cultivars, ‘ARTI-Dark Chocolate’, ‘ARTI-Purple Lady’ and ‘ARTI-Purple’, which produce purple to pink petals, contained more than two-times higher amounts of anthocyanins compared with those of their original cultivars. Of the mutant cultivars, ‘ARTI-Yellow Star’ in which petal color was changed to yellow, showed the greatest accumulation of carotenoids. Ninety-nine volatile compounds were detected, of which hydrocarbons and terpenoids were abundant in all cultivars analyzed. This is the first report that demonstrated the phytochemical analysis of novel chrysanthemum cultivars derived from C. morifolium hydrid using HPLC-DAD-ESIMS and GC-MS. These findings suggest that the selected mutant chrysanthemum cultivars show potential as a functional source of phytochemicals associated with the abundance of health-beneficial components, as well as good source for horticulture and pigment industries.

An integration of UPLC-DAD/ESI-Q-TOF MS, GC-MS, and PCA analysis for quality evaluation and identification of cultivars of Chrysanthemi Flos (Juhua)

BACKGROUND

Chrysanthemi Flos (CF), as a popular traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has five main cultivars in China, namely "Chuju", "Boju", "Gongju", "Huaiju" and "Hangju". Due to their habitats and processing methods, great quality variations occur yet no systematical study has ever been carried out to evaluate such variations.

PURPOSE

In this study, we aim to establish a new approach that can serve both as a quality control method and as an identification method for cultivars of CF.

METHOD

The components in CF samples were identified by a combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS. Furthermore, a multimodal quantitative method was established by UPLC-UV coupled with principal component analysis (PCA) and the similarity evaluation system (SES), which was used to control and identify four cultivars of CF.

RESULTS

18 compounds of flavonoids and caffeoylquinic acids were identified and ten of them were quantified using UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS. Different cultivars of CF could be clearly distinguished with the fingerprints evaluation and principal component analysis (PCA). A total of 74 volatile compounds were detected by GC/MS. The distinctness of volatile components was observed. By the combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS, an identification and quality control method for CF was successfully established.

CONCLUSION

The combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS could act as a comprehensive multimodal method for both identification and quality control of herbal medicines. This study provided new insights into the overall evaluation method for herbal medicines possessing different cultivars.

Chemical compositions of chrysanthemum teas and their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties

Seventeen commercial chrysanthemum teas (Chrysanthemum morifolium and Coreopsis tinctoria) were extracted with hot-H₂O, and examined and compared to the 75% methanol extracts for their chemical compositions using UPLC/Q-TOF-MS analysis. For the first time, 6, 8-C,C-diglucosylapigenin and eriodicyol-7-O-glucoside were detected in the Snow chrysanthemum, and acetylmarein was detected in HangJu, GongJu and HuaiJu. The extracts were also examined for their radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory activities in vitro. The hot-H₂O extract of Kunlunmiju 1 had the greatest total phenolic content, and relative DPPH and oxygen radical absorbance capacity values of 12.72 mg gallic acid equivalents/g, 105.48 and 1222.50 μmol Trolox equivalents/g, respectively. In addition, all the hot-H₂O extracts suppressed the lipopolysaccharide-induced interleukin-6, IL-1β and cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA expressions, and H₂O₂-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species production in cultured cells. The results from this research may be used to promote the consumption of chrysanthemum as a functional tea.

Phytochemical Composition and Antioxidant Activities of Two Different Color Chrysanthemum Flower Teas

Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat is a perennial flowering plant widely cultivated for use in a tea infusion and as a popular beverage. To identify and evaluate the tea infusion made with a γ-irradiated mutant chrysanthemum cultivar with dark purple petals (cv. ARTI-Dark Chocolate), its phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity were tested and compared with those of the commercially available chrysanthemum cultivar with yellow petals (cv. Gamguk) by HPLC-DAD-ESIMS, as well as DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays. The purple chrysanthemum tea contained anthocyanins and linarin, which were not detected in the yellow chrysanthemum tea and the content of chlorogenic acid, acacetin-7-O-β-glucoside, and luteolin was higher compared with the yellow chrysanthemum tea. In contrast, the yellow chrysanthemum tea had higher luteolin-7-O-β-glucoside, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, apigenin-7-O-β-glucoside, and apigenin contents in comparison with the purple chrysanthemum tea. In addition, the content and antioxidant activity of the two chrysanthemum teas were investigated according to different water temperatures and infusing time. The yellow chrysanthemum tea did not show any significant differences according to infusing time and temperature, while the purple chrysanthemum tea was more influenced by the infusing time than water temperature, showing the highest total compound content in the infusing condition of 100 °C and 4 min. Moreover, the floral scent volatiles of the two chrysanthemum tea sources were analyzed using HS-SPME-GC-MS. In the DPPH radical scavenging assay, the purple chrysanthemum tea broadly showed greater antioxidant activity than did the yellow chrysanthemum tea, corresponding to the high content of anthocyanins known as the powerful antioxidant. Further, both chrysanthemum flower teas exhibited strong ABTS radical scavenging effects ranging from 76% to 61% under all infusing conditions. Therefore, the purple chrysanthemum cultivar, ARTI-Dark Chocolate, is worthy of breeding as a new tea cultivar.

A metabolomic strategy based on integrating headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to differentiate the five cultivars of Chrysanthemum flower

The extreme complexity of the chemical composition of plant extracts requires an unbiased and comprehensive detection methodology to improve the potential of metabolomic study. The present work, taking five closely related cultivars of Chrysanthemum flowers as a typical case, attempts to develop a metabolomic strategy to find more markers of metabolites for precise differentiation based on headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HSGC-MS) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF/MS). In detail, 53 batches of Chrysanthemum flower samples were collected and analyzed. The fusion of datasets from HSGC-MS and UHPLC-QTOF/MS was done in two different ways. After comparison, the fusion of the total peak area normalized metabolomic data was performed for multivariate statistical analysis. A total of 21 marker compounds (including 14 volatile and 7 nonvolatile metabolites) were identified, and a heatmap was employed for clarifying the distribution of the identified metabolites among the five cultivars. The results indicated that the integrated platform benefited the metabolomic study of medicinal and edible herbs by providing complementary information through fully monitoring functional constituents.

A metabolomic strategy based on HSGC-MS and UPLC-QTOF/MS provided complementary information through fully monitoring functional constituents.

Bacillus licheniformis SA03 Confers Increased Saline-Alkaline Tolerance in Chrysanthemum Plants by Induction of Abscisic Acid Accumulation

Soil saline-alkalization is a major abiotic stress that leads to low iron (Fe) availability and high toxicity of sodium ions (Na+) for plants. It has recently been shown that plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) can enhance the ability of plants to tolerate multiple abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and nutrient deficiency. However, the possible involvement of PGPR in improving saline-alkaline tolerance of plants and the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the effects of Bacillus licheniformis (strain SA03) on the growth of Chrysanthemum plants under saline-alkaline conditions. Our results revealed that inoculation with SA03 alleviated saline-alkaline stress in plants with increased survival rates, photosynthesis and biomass. The inoculated plants accumulated more Fe and lower Na+ concentrations under saline-alkaline stress compared with the non-inoculated plants. RNA-Sequencing analyses further revealed that SA03 significantly activated abiotic stress- and Fe acquisition-related pathways in the stress-treated plants. However, SA03 failed to increase saline-alkaline tolerance in plants when cellular abscisic acid (ABA) and nitric oxide (NO) synthesis were inhibited by treatment with fluridone (FLU) and 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (c-PTIO), respectively. Importantly, we also found that NO acted downstream of SA03-induced ABA to activate a series of adaptive responses in host plants under saline-alkaline stress. These findings demonstrated the potential roles of B. licheniformis SA03 in enhancing saline-alkaline tolerance of plants and highlighted the intricate integration of microbial signaling in regulating cellular Fe and Na+ accumulation.

Chlorogenic acids and the acyl-quinic acids: discovery, biosynthesis, bioavailability and bioactivity

This review is focussed upon the acyl-quinic acids, the most studied group within theca.400 chlorogenic acids so far reported.

A rapid integrated bioactivity evaluation system based on near-infrared spectroscopy for quality control of Flos Chrysanthemi

For quality control of herbal medicines or functional foods, integral activity evaluation has become more popular in recent studies. The majority of researchers focus on the relationship between chromatography/mass spectroscopy and bioactivity, but the connection with spectrum-activity is easily ignored. In this paper, the near infrared reflection spectra (NIRS) of Flos Chrysanthemi samples were collected as a representative spectrum technology, and corresponding anti-inflammation activities were utilized to illustrate the spectrum-activity study. HPLC/Q-TOF-MS identification and heat map clustering were used to select the quality markers (Q-marker) from five cultivars of Flos Chrysanthemi. Using boxplot analysis and the interval limits of detection (LODs) theory, six crucial markers, namely, chlorogenic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, luteoloside, apigenin-7-O-β-d-glucoside, and luteolin-7-O-6-malonylglucoside were screened out. Then partial least squares regression (PLSR) calibration models combined with synergy interval partial least squares (siPLS) and 12 different spectral pretreatment methods were developed for the parameters optimization of these Q-markers in Flos Chrysanthemi powder. After comparing the relationship between Q-marker contents and anti-inflammation activity via three machine learning approaches and PLSR, back-propagation neural network (BP-ANN) displayed a more excellent non-linear fitting effect, as its R for new batches reached 0.89. These results indicated that the integrated NIRS and bioactive strategy was suitable for fast quality management in Flos Chrysanthemi, and also applied to other botanical food quality control.

Optimization of the processing technology of Fructus Arctii by response surface methodology

The present study was designed to optimize the processing of Fructus Arctii by response surface methodology (RSM). Based on single factor studies, a three-variable, three-level Box-Behnken design (BBD) was used to monitor the effects of independent variables, including processing temperature and time, on the dependent variables. Response surfaces and contour plots of the contents of total lignans, chlorogenic acid, arctiin, and arctigenin were obtained through ultraviolet and visible (UV-Vis) monitoring and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Fructus Arctii should be processed under heating in a pot at 311 °C, medicine at 119 °C for 123s with flipping frequently. The experimental values under the optimized processing technology were consistent with the predicted values. In conclusion, RSM is an effective method to optimize the processing of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).

Repeatability Assessment by ISO 11843-7 in Quantitative HPLC for Herbal Medicines

We have proposed an assessment methods to estimate the measurement relative standard deviation (RSD) of chromatographic peaks in quantitative HPLC for herbal medicines by the methodology of ISO 11843 Part 7 (ISO 11843-7:2012), which provides detection limits stochastically. In quantitative HPLC with UV detection (HPLC-UV) of Scutellaria Radix for the determination of baicalin, the measurement RSD of baicalin by ISO 11843-7:2012 stochastically was within a 95% confidence interval of the statistically obtained RSD by repetitive measurements (n = 6). Thus, our findings show that it is applicable for estimating of the repeatability of HPLC-UV for determining baicalin without repeated measurements. In addition, the allowable limit of the "System repeatability" in "Liquid Chromatography" regulated in a pharmacopoeia can be obtained by the present assessment method. Moreover, the present assessment method was also successfully applied to estimate the measurement RSDs of quantitative three-channel liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (LC-3ECD) of Chrysanthemi Flos for determining caffeoylquinic acids and flavonoids. By the present repeatability assessment method, reliable measurement RSD was obtained stochastically, and the experimental time was remarkably reduced.

Special Effect of Ionic Liquids on the Extraction of Flavonoid Glycosides from Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat by Microwave Assistance

A microwave-assisted extraction approach based on ionic liquids of different chain lengths was successfully applied to the extraction of ten flavonoid glycosides from the flowering heads of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. The pretreated sample was quantified by HPLC-ESI-MSⁿ. The main components were identified as flavonoid glycosides, including three luteolin glycosides, three apigenin glycosides, three kaempferide glycosides, and one acacetin glycoside according to the characteristics of the corresponding CID mass spectrometric patterns. Eight ionic liquids from the imidazolium family with different chain lengths, namely, 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide, [C_nmim]Br, (n = 2–16) were studied as extraction medium in water. Results indicated that alkyl chain length had an irregular impact on the extraction efficiency. Moreover, the best extraction efficiency was achieved by 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide aqueous solution ([C₁₂mim]Br). Besides the alkyl chain length of the cations, other factors influencing extraction efficiency were systematically investigated, including concentration of the IL solutions, extraction time, matrix-to-solvent ratio and irradiation power.

A rapid method for simultaneous determination of 52 marker compounds in Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang by ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang (XQLT) is a classical Chinese medicine formula. It is generally used for the treatment of common cold, bronchial asthma, and allergic rhinitis in Asia. In this study, a multicomponent quantification fingerprinting approach based on ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry has been developed for the analysis of compounds in XQLT in 14.5 min. A total of 52 compounds were identified by co-chromatography of sample extract with authentic standards and comparing the retention time, UV spectra, molecular ions and characteristic fragment ions with those of authentic standards, or tentatively identified by MS(E) determination along with Mass Fragment software. Moreover, the method was validated for the simultaneous quantification of 16 components in XQLT commercial products. The method is practical for comprehensive standardization of XQLT and holistic comparison of its commercial products from different manufacturers.

Study on the effects of sulfur fumigation on chemical constituents and antioxidant activity of Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Hang-ju

The traditional after-harvesting drying method of C. morifolium cv. Hang-ju (HJ) is sun drying, but recently sulfur fumigation is increasingly used as a cheap and convenient method. However, the effects of sulfur fumigation on chemical constituents and potential activities of HJ were unknown. A comprehensively comparison of the chemical profiles between non-fumigated HJ (NHJ) and sulfur-fumigated HJ (SHJ) was conducted by HPLC fingerprints analysis and the discrepant peaks were identified or tentatively assigned by HPLC-ESI/MS(n). Dramatic chemical changes were found that the contents of 4 flavonoid aglycones remarkably increased while those of 7 glycosides significantly reduced which suggested that sulfur-fumigation induced flavonoid glycosides transformed into aglycons by hydrolysis reaction. A significant loss of hydroxycinnamoylquinic acids showed the sulfur fumigation was a destructive effect on HJ. Principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to rapidly discriminate NHJ and SHJ samples. By ICP-OES analysis, it was found that the residue of sulfur of SHJ were three times higher than NHJ (p<0.05). The antioxidant activity of NHJ and SHJ were evaluated by DPPH and FRAP assay, and the results showed that NHJ had much stronger antioxidant activities than SCF (p<0.05). Combining the results of chemical analysis, residue of sulfur and pharmacological evaluation, it showed that the sulfur fumigation was a destructive effect on HJ.