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Gao X, Wang H, Chen K, Guo Y, Zhou J, Xie W. Toxicological and Pharmacological Activities, and Potential Medical Applications, of Marine Algal Toxins. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:9194. [PMID: 39273145 PMCID: PMC11394994 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25179194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2024] [Revised: 08/22/2024] [Accepted: 08/23/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Marine algal toxins have garnered significant attention in the research community for their unique biochemical properties and potential medical applications. These bioactive compounds, produced by microalgae, pose significant risks due to their high toxicity, yet offer promising therapeutic benefits. Despite extensive research identifying over 300 marine algal toxins, including azaspiracids, brevetoxins, cyclic imines, and yessotoxins, gaps remain in the understanding of their pharmacological potential. In this paper, we critically review the classification, bioactive components, toxicology, pharmacological activities, and mechanisms of these toxins, with a particular focus on their clinical applications. Our motivation stems from the increasing interest in marine algal toxins as candidates for drug development, driven by their high specificity and affinity for various biological receptors. We aim to bridge the gap between toxicological research and therapeutic application, offering insights into the advantages and limitations of these compounds in comparison to other bioactive substances. This review not only enhances the understanding of marine algal toxins' complexity and diversity, but also highlights their extensive application potential in medicine and bioscience, providing a foundation for future research and development in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Health Science and Technology, Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Hanyi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Open FIESTA Center, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Kuilin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Health Science and Technology, Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yifan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Open FIESTA Center, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Jin Zhou
- Institute for Ocean Engineering, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Weidong Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Open FIESTA Center, Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
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Chen ZH, Guo YW, Li XW. Recent advances on marine mollusk-derived natural products: chemistry, chemical ecology and therapeutical potential. Nat Prod Rep 2023; 40:509-556. [PMID: 35942896 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00021k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 2011-2021Marine mollusks, which are well known as rich sources of diverse and biologically active natural products, have attracted significant attention from researchers due to their chemical and pharmacological properties. The occurrence of some of these marine mollusk-derived natural products in their preys, predators, and associated microorganisms has also gained interest in chemical ecology research. Based on previous reviews, herein, we present a comprehensive summary of the recent advances of interesting secondary metabolites from marine mollusks, focusing on their structural features, possible chemo-ecological significance, and promising biological activities, covering the literature from 2011 to 2021.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Hui Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park, Shanghai 201203, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yue-Wei Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park, Shanghai 201203, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
- Shandong Laboratory of Yantai Drug Discovery, Bohai Rim Advanced Research Institute for Drug Discovery, Yantai, Shandong 264117, China
| | - Xu-Wen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park, Shanghai 201203, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
- Shandong Laboratory of Yantai Drug Discovery, Bohai Rim Advanced Research Institute for Drug Discovery, Yantai, Shandong 264117, China
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A Generic LC-HRMS Screening Method for Marine and Freshwater Phycotoxins in Fish, Shellfish, Water, and Supplements. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110823. [PMID: 34822607 PMCID: PMC8619867 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Phycotoxins occur in various marine and freshwater environments, and can accumulate in edible species such as fish, crabs, and shellfish. Human exposure to these toxins can take place, for instance, through consumption of contaminated species or supplements and through the ingestion of contaminated water. Symptoms of phycotoxin intoxication include paralysis, diarrhea, and amnesia. When the cause of an intoxication cannot directly be found, a screening method is required to identify the causative toxin. In this work, such a screening method was developed and validated for marine and freshwater phycotoxins in different matrices: fish, shellfish, water, and food supplements. Two LC methods were developed: one for hydrophilic and one for lipophilic phycotoxins. Sample extracts were measured in full scan mode with an Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometer. Additionally, a database was created to process the data. The method was successfully validated for most matrices, and in addition, regulated lipophilic phycotoxins, domoic acid, and some paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins could be quantified in shellfish. The method showed limitations for hydrophilic phycotoxins in sea water and for lipophilic phycotoxins in food supplements. The developed method is a screening method; in order to confirm suspected compounds, comparison with a standard or an additional analysis such as NMR is required.
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Sandvik M, Miles CO, Løvberg KLE, Kryuchkov F, Wright EJ, Mudge EM, Kilcoyne J, Samdal IA. In Vitro Metabolism of Azaspiracids 1-3 with a Hepatopancreatic Fraction from Blue Mussels ( Mytilus edulis). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:11322-11335. [PMID: 34533950 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c03831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins produced by the marine dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma spp. that can accumulate in shellfish and cause food poisoning in humans. Of the 60 AZAs identified, levels of AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3 are regulated in shellfish as a food safety measure based on occurrence and toxicity. Information about the metabolism of AZAs in shellfish is limited. Therefore, a fraction of blue mussel hepatopancreas was made to study the metabolism of AZA1-3 in vitro. A range of AZA metabolites were detected by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry analysis, most notably the novel 22α-hydroxymethylAZAs AZA65 and AZA66, which were also detected in naturally contaminated mussels. These appear to be the first intermediates in the metabolic conversion of AZA1 and AZA2 to their corresponding 22α-carboxyAZAs (AZA17 and AZA19). α-Hydroxylation at C-23 was also a prominent metabolic pathway, producing AZA8, AZA12, and AZA5 as major metabolites of AZA1-3, respectively, and AZA67 and AZA68 as minor metabolites via double-hydroxylation of AZA1 and AZA2, but only low levels of 3β-hydroxylation were observed in this study. In vitro generation of algal toxin metabolites, such as AZA3, AZA5, AZA6, AZA8, AZA12, AZA17, AZA19, AZA65, and AZA66 that would otherwise have to be laboriously purified from shellfish, has the potential to be used for the production of standards for analytical and toxicological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morten Sandvik
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | | | - Fedor Kryuchkov
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Elliott J Wright
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Elizabeth M Mudge
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
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Wright EJ, McCarron P. A mussel tissue certified reference material for multiple phycotoxins. Part 5: profiling by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:2055-2069. [PMID: 33661347 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-03133-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A freeze-dried mussel tissue-certified reference material (CRM-FDMT1) was prepared containing the marine algal toxin classes azaspiracids, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins, yessotoxins, pectenotoxins, cyclic imines, and domoic acid. Thus far, only a limited number of analogues in CRM-FDMT1 have been assigned certified values; however, the complete toxin profile is significantly more complex. Liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry was used to profile CRM-FDMT1. Full-scan data was searched against a list of previously reported toxin analogues, and characteristic product ions extracted from all-ion-fragmentation data were used to guide the extent of toxin profiling. A series of targeted and untargeted acquisition MS/MS experiments were then used to collect spectra for analogues. A number of toxins previously reported in the literature but not readily available as standards were tentatively identified including dihydroxy and carboxyhydroxyyessotoxin, azaspiracids-33 and -39, sulfonated pectenotoxin analogues, spirolide variants, and fatty acid acyl esters of okadaic acid and pectenotoxins. Previously unreported toxins were also observed including compounds from the pectenotoxin, azaspiracid, yessotoxin, and spirolide classes. More than one hundred toxin analogues present in CRM-FDMT1 are summarized along with a demonstration of the major acyl ester conjugates of several toxins. Retention index values were assigned for all confirmed or tentatively identified analogues to help with qualitative identification of the broad range of lipophilic toxins present in the material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliott J Wright
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3Z1, Canada.
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Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, del Mazo J, Grasl‐Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Chipman KJ, Leblanc J, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Wallace H, Martinez AG, Gerssen A, Tubaro A, Cascio C, Abrahantes JC, Steinkellner H, Hoogenboom L(R. Evaluation of the shucking of certain species of scallops contaminated with lipophilic toxins with a view to the production of edible parts meeting the safety requirements foreseen in the Union legislation. EFSA J 2021; 19:e06422. [PMID: 33732388 PMCID: PMC7942228 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
EFSA was asked by the European Commission to provide information on levels of lipophilic shellfish toxins in whole scallops that would ensure levels in edible parts below the regulatory limits after shucking, i.e. removal of non-edible parts. This should include the okadaic acid (OA), the azaspiracid (AZA) and the yessotoxin (YTX) groups, and five species of scallops. In addition, EFSA was asked to recommend the number of scallops in an analytical sample. To address these questions, EFSA received suitable data on the three toxin groups in two scallop species, Aequipecten opercularis and Pecten maximus, i.e. data on individual and pooled samples of edible and non-edible parts from contamination incidents. The majority of the concentration levels were below limit of quantification (LOQ)/limit of detection (LOD), especially in adductor muscle but also in gonads. Shucking in most cases resulted in a strong decrease in the toxin levels. For Pecten maximus, statistical analysis showed that levels in whole scallops should not exceed 256 μg OA eq/kg or 217 μg AZA1 eq/kg to ensure that levels in gonads are below the regulatory limits of 160 μg OA or AZA1 eq/kg with 99% certainty. Such an analysis was not possible for yessotoxins or any toxin in Aequipecten opercularis and an assessment could only be based on upper bound levels. To ensure a 95% correct prediction on whether the level in scallops in an area or lot is correctly predicted to be compliant/non-compliant, it was shown that 10 scallops per sample would be sufficient to predict with 95% certainty if levels of OA-group toxins in the area/lot were 25% below or above the regulatory limit. However, to predict with a 95% certainty for levels between 140 and 180 μg OA eq/kg, a pooled sample of more than 30 scallops would have to be tested.
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Mudge EM, Miles CO, Hardstaff WR, McCarron P. Fatty acid esters of azaspiracids identified in mussels ( Mytilus edulis) using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Toxicon X 2020; 8:100059. [PMID: 33073234 PMCID: PMC7549145 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2020.100059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are lipophilic polyether toxins produced by Azadinium and Amphidoma species of marine microalgae. The main dinoflagellate precursors AZA1 and AZA2 are metabolized by shellfish to produce an array of AZA analogues. Many marine toxins undergo fatty acid esterification in shellfish, therefore mussel tissues contaminated with AZAs were screened for intact fatty acid esters of AZAs using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Acyl esters were primarily observed for AZAs containing hydroxy groups at C-3 with 3-O-palmitoylAZA4 identified as the most abundant acyl ester, while other fatty acid esters including 18:1, 16:1, 17:0, 20:2 and 18:0 acyl esters were detected. The structures of these acyl derivatives were determined through LC-MS/MS experiments, and supported by periodate cleavage reactions and semi-synthesis of palmitate esters of the AZAs. Esters of the hydroxy groups at C-20 or C-21 were not observed in mussel tissue. The relative proportion of the most abundant AZA ester was less than 3% of the sum of the major free AZA analogues. These findings reveal an additional metabolic pathway for AZAs in shellfish. Fatty acid esters of azaspiracids were identified in mussels (Mytilus edulis). Fatty acid esters of azaspiracids with hydroxy groups at C-3 were primarily observed. Fatty acid esters of regulated azaspiracids (AZA1, 2, −3) were absent. Structures were determined with LC-HRMS and confirmed by semi-synthesis of palmitate esters and periodate cleavage. This work reveals an additional metabolic pathway for azaspiracids in shellfish.
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Effects of Temperature, Growth Media, and Photoperiod on Growth and Toxin Production of Azadinium spinosum. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17090489. [PMID: 31443393 PMCID: PMC6780083 DOI: 10.3390/md17090489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are microalgal toxins that can accumulate in shellfish and lead to human intoxications. To facilitate their study and subsequent biomonitoring, purification from microalgae rather than shellfish is preferable; however, challenges remain with respect to maximizing toxin yields. The impacts of temperature, growth media, and photoperiod on cell densities and toxin production in Azadinium spinosum were investigated. Final cell densities were similar at 10 and 18 °C, while toxin cell quotas were higher (~3.5-fold) at 10 °C. A comparison of culture media showed higher cell densities and AZA cell quotas (2.5-5-fold) in f10k compared to f/2 and L1 media. Photoperiod also showed differences, with lower cell densities in the 8:16 L:D treatment, while toxin cell quotas were similar for 12:12 and 8:16 L:D treatments but slightly lower for the 16:8 L:D treatment. AZA1, -2 and -33 were detected during the exponential phase, while some known and new AZAs were only detected once the stationary phase was reached. These compounds were additionally detected in field water samples during an AZA event.
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Dhanji-Rapkova M, O'Neill A, Maskrey BH, Coates L, Swan SC, Teixeira Alves M, Kelly RJ, Hatfield RG, Rowland-Pilgrim SJ, Lewis AM, Turner AD. Variability and profiles of lipophilic toxins in bivalves from Great Britain during five and a half years of monitoring: azaspiracids and yessotoxins. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 87:101629. [PMID: 31349886 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2019.101629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 05/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cefas has been responsible for the delivery of official control biotoxin testing of bivalve molluscs from Great Britain for just over a decade. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) methodology has been used for the quantitation of lipophilic toxins (LTs) since 2011. The temporal and spatial distribution of okadaic acid group toxins and profiles in bivalves between 2011 and 2016 have been recently reported. Here we present data on the two other groups of regulated lipophilic toxins, azaspiracids (AZAs) and yessotoxins (YTXs), over the same period. The latter group has also been investigated for a potential link with Protoceratium reticulatum and Lingulodinium polyedra, both previously recognised as YTXs producing phytoplankton. On average, AZAs were quantified in 3.2% of all tested samples but notable inter-annual variation in abundance was observed. The majority of all AZA contaminated samples were found between July 2011 and August 2013 in Scotland, while only two, three-month long, AZA events were observed in 2015 and 2016 in the south-west of England. Maximum concentrations were generally reached in late summer or early autumn. Reasons for AZAs persistence during the 2011/2012 and 2012/2013 winters are discussed. Only one toxin profile was identified, represented by both AZA1 and AZA2 toxins at an approximate ratio of 2 : 1, suggesting a single microalgal species was the source of AZAs in British bivalves. Although AZA1 was always the most dominant toxin, its proportion varied between mussels, Pacific oysters and surf clams. The YTXs were the least represented group among regulated LTs. YTXs were found almost exclusively on the south-west coast of Scotland, with the exception of 2013, when the majority of contaminated samples originated from the Shetland Islands. The highest levels were recorded in the summer months and followed a spike in Protoceratium reticulatum cell densities. YTX was the most dominant toxin in shellfish, further strengthening the link to P. reticulatum as the YTX source. Neither homo-YTX, nor 45-OH homo-YTX were detected throughout the monitored period. 45-OH YTX, thought to be a shellfish metabolite associated with YTX elimination, contributed on average 26% in mussels. Although the correlation between 45-OH YTX abundance and the speed of YTX depuration could not be confirmed, we noted the half-life of YTX was more than two-times longer in queen scallops, which contained 100% YTX, than in mussels. No other bivalve species were affected by YTXs. This is the first detailed evaluation of AZAs and YTXs occurrences and their profiles in shellfish from Great Britain over a period of multiple years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom.
| | - Alison O'Neill
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Lewis Coates
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah C Swan
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca J Kelly
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Robert G Hatfield
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Stephanie J Rowland-Pilgrim
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Adam M Lewis
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
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10
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Samdal IA, Løvberg KE, Kristoffersen AB, Briggs LR, Kilcoyne J, Forsyth CJ, Miles CO. A Practical ELISA for Azaspiracids in Shellfish via Development of a New Plate-Coating Antigen. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:2369-2376. [PMID: 30763083 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b05652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins that appear periodically in shellfish and can cause food poisoning in humans. Current methods for quantifying the regulated AZAs are restricted to LC-MS but are not well suited to detecting novel and unregulated AZAs. An ELISA method for total AZAs in shellfish was reported recently, but unfortunately, it used relatively large amounts of the AZA-1-containing plate-coating conjugate, consuming significant amounts of pure AZA-1 per assay. Therefore, a new plate-coater, OVA-cdiAZA1 was produced, resulting in an ELISA with a working range of 0.30-4.1 ng/mL and a limit of quantification of 37 μg/kg for AZA-1 in shellfish. This ELISA was nearly twice as sensitive as the previous ELISA while using 5-fold less plate-coater. The new ELISA displayed broad cross-reactivity toward AZAs, detecting all available quantitative AZA reference materials as well as the precursors to AZA-3 and AZA-6, and results from shellfish analyzed with the new ELISA showed excellent correlation ( R2 = 0.99) with total AZA-1-10 by LC-MS. The results suggest that the new ELISA is suitable for screening samples for total AZAs, even in cases where novel AZAs are present and regulated AZAs are absent, such as was reported recently from Puget Sound and the Bay of Naples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | | | - Lyn R Briggs
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre , Hamilton 3214 , New Zealand
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , The Ohio State University , Columbus , Ohio 43220 , United States
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- National Research Council Canada , 1411 Oxford St , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
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11
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Murk AJ, Nicolas J, Smulders FJ, Bürk C, Gerssen A. Marine biotoxins: types of poisoning, underlying mechanisms of action and risk management programmes. CHEMICAL HAZARDS IN FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN 2019. [DOI: 10.3920/978-90-8686-877-3_09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Albertinka J. Murk
- Department of Animal Sciences, Marine Animal Ecology group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jonathan Nicolas
- 68300 Saint-Louis, France, formerly affiliated with Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research Centre, the Netherlands
| | - Frans J.M. Smulders
- Institute of Meat Hygiene, Meat Technology and Food Science, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christine Bürk
- Milchwirstschaftliche Untersuchungs- und Versuchsanstalt (MUVA) Kempten, GmbH, Ignaz-Kiechle-Straße 20-22, 87437 Kempten (Allgäu), Germany
| | - Arjen Gerssen
- RIKILT, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 230, 6708 WB Wageningen, the Netherlands
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Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Abal P, Cagide E, Carrera C, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Human Poisoning from Marine Toxins: Unknowns for Optimal Consumer Protection. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E324. [PMID: 30096904 PMCID: PMC6116008 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10080324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine biotoxins are produced by aquatic microorganisms and accumulate in shellfish or finfish following the food web. These toxins usually reach human consumers by ingestion of contaminated seafood, although other exposure routes like inhalation or contact have also been reported and may cause serious illness. This review shows the current data regarding the symptoms of acute intoxication for several toxin classes, including paralytic toxins, amnesic toxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, tetrodotoxins, diarrheic toxins, azaspiracids and palytoxins. The information available about chronic toxicity and relative potency of different analogs within a toxin class are also reported. The gaps of toxicological knowledge that should be studied to improve human health protection are discussed. In general, gathering of epidemiological data in humans, chronic toxicity studies and exploring relative potency by oral administration are critical to minimize human health risks related to these toxin classes in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Paula Abal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Eva Cagide
- Laboratorio CIFGA S.A., Plaza Santo Domingo 20-5°, 27001 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Cristina Carrera
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Twiner MJ, Rise F, Hess P, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Identification of 21,22-Dehydroazaspiracids in Mussels ( Mytilus edulis) and in Vitro Toxicity of Azaspiracid-26. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2018; 81:885-893. [PMID: 29488755 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by the genera Azadinium and Amphidoma, pelagic marine dinoflagellates that may accumulate in shellfish resulting in human illness following consumption. The complexity of these toxins has been well documented, with more than 40 structural variants reported that are produced by dinoflagellates, result from metabolism in shellfish, or are extraction artifacts. Approximately 34 μg of a new AZA with MW 823 Da (AZA26 (3)) was isolated from blue mussels ( Mytilus edulis), and its structure determined by MS and NMR spectroscopy. AZA26, possibly a bioconversion product of AZA5, lacked the C-20-C-21 diol present in all AZAs reported thus far and had a 21,22-olefin and a keto group at C-23. Toxicological assessment of 3 using an in vitro model system based on Jurkat T lymphocyte cells showed the potency to be ∼30-fold lower than that of AZA1. The corresponding 21,22-dehydro-23-oxo-analogue of AZA10 (AZA28) and 21,22-dehydro analogues of AZA3, -4, -5, -6, -9, and -10 (AZA25, -48 (4), -60, -27, -49, and -61, respectively) were also identified by HRMS/MS, periodate cleavage reactivity, conversion from known analogues, and NMR (for 4 that was present in a partially purified sample of AZA7).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore , Co. Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council Canada , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Michael J Twiner
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Detroit Receiving Hospital , Wayne State University , Detroit , Michigan 48202 , United States
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of Chemistry , University of Oslo , N-0315 Oslo , Norway
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines , Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu , 44311 Nantes , France
| | - Alistair L Wilkins
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council Canada , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo , Norway
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14
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Miles CO, Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Giddings SD, Waaler T, Rundberget T, Samdal IA, Løvberg KE. Selective Extraction and Purification of Azaspiracids from Blue Mussels ( Mytilus edulis) Using Boric Acid Gel. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:2962-2969. [PMID: 29502403 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids belong to a family of more than 50 polyether toxins originating from marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium spinosum. All of the azaspiracids reported thus far contain a 21,22-dihydroxy group. Boric acid gel can bind selectively to compounds containing vic-diols or α-hydroxycarboxylic acids via formation of reversible boronate complexes. Here we report use of the gel to selectively capture and release azaspiracids from extracts of blue mussels. Analysis of the extracts and fractions by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS) showed that this procedure resulted in an excellent cleanup of the azaspiracids in the extract. Analysis by enzyme-linked immunoasorbent assay (ELISA) and LC-MS indicated that most azaspiracid analogues were recovered in good yield by this procedure. The capacity of boric acid gel for azaspiracids was at least 50 μg/g, making this procedure suitable for use in the early stages of preparative purification of azaspiracids. In addition to its potential for concentration of dilute samples, the extensive cleanup provided by boric acid gel fractionation of azaspiracids in mussel samples almost eliminated matrix effects during subsequent LC-MS and could be expected to reduce matrix effects during ELISA analysis. The method may therefore prove useful for quantitative analysis of azaspiracids as part of monitoring programs. Although LC-MS data showed that okadaic acid analogues also bound to the gel, this was much less efficient than for azaspiracids under the conditions used. The boric acid gel methodology is potentially applicable to other important groups of natural toxins containing diols including ciguatoxins, palytoxins, pectenotoxins, tetrodotoxin, trichothecenes, and toxin glycosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council , 1411 Oxford Street , Halifax , Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co., Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council , 1411 Oxford Street , Halifax , Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Sabrina D Giddings
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council , 1411 Oxford Street , Halifax , Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Thor Waaler
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Thomas Rundberget
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research , N-0349 Oslo , Norway
| | - Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
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15
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Kenton NT, Adu‐Ampratwum D, Okumu AA, Zhang Z, Chen Y, Nguyen S, Xu J, Ding Y, McCarron P, Kilcoyne J, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO, Forsyth CJ. Total Synthesis of (6
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)‐Azaspiracid‐3 Reveals Non‐Identity with the Natural Product. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:805-809. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201711006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel T. Kenton
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Daniel Adu‐Ampratwum
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Antony A. Okumu
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Zhigao Zhang
- Shanghai Hengrui Pharmaceutical Inc. No. 279 Wenjing Road Shanghai 200245 P. R. China
| | - Yong Chen
- Asymchem Life Science No. 71 7th Ave., TEDA Tianjin 300000 P. R. China
| | - Son Nguyen
- Johnson Matthey Pharma Services 25 Patton Road Devens MA 01434 USA
| | - Jianyan Xu
- Shanghai Hengrui Pharmaceutical Inc. No. 279 Wenjing Road Shanghai 200245 P. R. China
| | - Yue Ding
- Viva Biotech Ltd. 581 Shenkuo Rd., Pudong District Shanghai 201203 China
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, RinvilleOranmore, Co. Galway Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Oslo 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Alistair L. Wilkins
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
- Chemistry DepartmentUniversity of Waikato Private Bag 3105 3240 Hamilton New Zealand
| | - Christopher O. Miles
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
| | - Craig J. Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
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16
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Kenton NT, Adu‐Ampratwum D, Okumu AA, Zhang Z, Chen Y, Nguyen S, Xu J, Ding Y, McCarron P, Kilcoyne J, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO, Forsyth CJ. Total Synthesis of (6
R
,10
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,13
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,14
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,16
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,17
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,19
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,20
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,21
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,24
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,30
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,32
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,36
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)‐Azaspiracid‐3 Reveals Non‐Identity with the Natural Product. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201711006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel T. Kenton
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Daniel Adu‐Ampratwum
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Antony A. Okumu
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Zhigao Zhang
- Shanghai Hengrui Pharmaceutical Inc. No. 279 Wenjing Road Shanghai 200245 P. R. China
| | - Yong Chen
- Asymchem Life Science No. 71 7th Ave., TEDA Tianjin 300000 P. R. China
| | - Son Nguyen
- Johnson Matthey Pharma Services 25 Patton Road Devens MA 01434 USA
| | - Jianyan Xu
- Shanghai Hengrui Pharmaceutical Inc. No. 279 Wenjing Road Shanghai 200245 P. R. China
| | - Yue Ding
- Viva Biotech Ltd. 581 Shenkuo Rd., Pudong District Shanghai 201203 China
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, RinvilleOranmore, Co. Galway Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Oslo 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Alistair L. Wilkins
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
- Chemistry DepartmentUniversity of Waikato Private Bag 3105 3240 Hamilton New Zealand
| | - Christopher O. Miles
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
| | - Craig J. Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
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17
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Ji Y, Qiu J, Xie T, McCarron P, Li A. Accumulation and transformation of azaspiracids in scallops (Chlamys farreri) and mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) fed with Azadinium poporum, and response of antioxidant enzymes. Toxicon 2017; 143:20-28. [PMID: 29229237 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.12.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 12/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracid (AZA) producing microalgae have been reported internationally and could potentially impact a variety of seafood. Scallops (Chlamys farreri) and mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from China were fed with the AZA2 producer, Azadinium poporum, to study uptake, metabolism and oxidative stress in the shellfish. LC-MS/MS showed significant accumulation and differential metabolism of AZA2 in the scallops and mussels. In mussels AZA2 was metabolized to AZA19, with subsequent decarboxylation to AZA6. In scallops no AZA19 or AZA6 was observed, however, a novel AZA metabolite was formed that is isobaric with AZA19 ([M+H]+, m/z 886), but elutes at a different retention time. In addition it was noted that the scallop metabolite was stable during heating, while AZA19 has been shown to decarboxylate. Concentrations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activities of antioxidant enzymes were monitored. ROS levels increased slightly in the meat of scallops and mussels due to starvation in the acclimation and depuration periods, but reduced in the feeding periods with non-toxic Isochrysis galbana or toxic A. poporum. No obvious variations were found in activities for a range of antioxidant enzymes. These results provide new insights on the potential for accumulation and metabolism of AZAs in bivalve species relevant to this area of China, which is of importance considering the recent finding of AZA producing microalgae in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ji
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Tian Xie
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, B3H 3Z1, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, China.
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18
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Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) after acute oral exposure of azaspiracid 1, -2 and -3 in mice. Toxicol Lett 2017; 282:136-146. [PMID: 29107028 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine algal toxins that can be accumulated by edible shellfish to cause a foodborne gastrointestinal poisoning in humans. In the European Union, only AZA1, -2 and -3 are currently regulated and their concentration in shellfish is determined through their toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) derived from the intraperitoneal lethal potency in mice. Nevertheless, considering the potential human exposure by oral route, AZAs TEFs should be calculated by comparative oral toxicity data. Thus, the acute oral toxicity of AZA1, -2 and -3 was investigated in female CD-1 mice treated with different doses (AZA1: 135-1100μg/kg; AZA2 and AZA3: 300-1100μg/kg) and sacrificed after 24h or 14days. TEFs derived from the median lethal doses (LD50) were 1.0, 0.7 and 0.5, respectively for AZA1, -2 and -3. In fact, after 24h from gavage administration, LD50s were 443μg/kg (AZA1; 95% CL: 350-561μg/kg), 626μg/kg (AZA2; 95% CL: 430-911μg/kg) and 875μg/kg (AZA3; 95% CL: 757-1010μg/kg). Mice dead more than 5h after the treatment or those sacrificed after 24h (doses: ≥175μg AZA1/kg, ≥500μg AZA2/kg and ≥600μg AZA3/kg) showed enlarged pale liver, while increased serum markers of liver alteration were recorded even at the lowest doses. Blood chemistry revealed significantly increased serum levels of K+ ions (≥500mg/kg), whereas light microscopy showed tissue changes in the gastrointestinal tract, liver and spleen. No lethality, macroscopic, tissue or haematological changes were recorded two weeks post exposure, indicating reversible toxic effects. LC-MS/MS analysis of the main organs showed a dose-dependency in gastrointestinal absorption of these toxins: at 24h, the highest levels were detected in the stomach and, in descending order, in the intestinal content, liver, small intestine, kidneys, lungs, large intestine, heart as well as detectable traces in the brain. After 14days, AZA1 and AZA2 were still detectable in almost all the organs and intestinal content.
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19
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Presence of azaspiracids in bivalve molluscs from Northern Spain. Toxicon 2017; 137:135-143. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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20
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Leonardo S, Rambla-Alegre M, Samdal IA, Miles CO, Kilcoyne J, Diogène J, O'Sullivan CK, Campàs M. Immunorecognition magnetic supports for the development of an electrochemical immunoassay for azaspiracid detection in mussels. Biosens Bioelectron 2017; 92:200-206. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2017.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Revised: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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21
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Doerr B, O'Halloran J, O'Brien N, van Pelt F. Investigation of the genotoxic potential of the marine biotoxins azaspiracid 1-3. Toxicon 2016; 121:61-69. [PMID: 27576062 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are the most recently discovered group of biotoxins and are the cause of azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP) in humans. To date over thirty analogues have been identified. However, toxicological studies of AZAs are limited due to the lack of availability of toxins and toxin standards. Most data available are on acute toxicity and there are no data available on genotoxicity of AZAs. This study presents an integrated approach investigating the genotoxic potential of AZA1-3 in cell culture systems using the Comet assay combined with assays to provide information on possible apoptotic processes, cytotoxicity and changes in cell number. Results demonstrate a time and dose dependent increase in DNA fragmentation in most cell lines, indicating a genotoxic effect of AZA1-3. However, a significant reduction in cell number and a clear shift from early to late apoptosis was observed for all analogues in Jurkat T cells and HepG-2 cells; CaCo-2 cells did not show a clear apoptotic profile. Late apoptotic/necrotic cells correlate well with the percentage of tail DNA for all analogues in all three cell lines. All data taken together indicate that AZA1-3 is not genotoxic per se and demonstrate apoptotic/necrotic processes to be involved to some extent in AZAs toxicity. The sensitivities of cell lines and the different potencies of AZA1-3 are in agreement with the literature available. The order of sensitivity for all three AZAs tested in the present study is, in increasing order, CaCo-2 cells < HepG-2 cells < Jurkat T cells. The order of potency of AZA1-3 varies among the cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Doerr
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - John O'Halloran
- Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Nora O'Brien
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Frank van Pelt
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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22
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Zendong Z, Bertrand S, Herrenknecht C, Abadie E, Jauzein C, Lemée R, Gouriou J, Amzil Z, Hess P. Passive Sampling and High Resolution Mass Spectrometry for Chemical Profiling of French Coastal Areas with a Focus on Marine Biotoxins. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:8522-8529. [PMID: 27463836 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Passive samplers (solid phase adsorption toxin tracking: SPATT) are able to accumulate biotoxins produced by microalgae directly from seawater, thus providing useful information for monitoring of the marine environment. SPATTs containing 0.3, 3, and 10 g of resin were deployed at four different coastal areas in France and analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry. Quantitative targeted screening provided insights into toxin profiles and showed that toxin concentrations and profiles in SPATTs were dependent on the amount of resin used. Between the three amounts of resin tested, SPATTs containing 3 g of resin appeared to be the best compromise, which is consistent with the use of 3 g of resin in SPATTs by previous studies. MassHunter and Mass Profiler Professional softwares were used for data reprocessing and statistical analyses. A differential profiling approach was developed to investigate and compare the overall chemical diversity of dissolved substances in different coastal water bodies. Principal component analysis (PCA) allowed for spatial differentiation between areas. Similarly, SPATTs retrieved from the same location at early, medium, and late deployment periods were also differentiated by PCA, reflecting seasonal variations in chemical profiles and in the microalgal community. This study used an untargeted metabolomic approach for spatial and temporal differentiation of marine environmental chemical profiles using SPATTs, and we propose this approach as a step forward in the discovery of chemical markers of short- or long-term changes in the microbial community structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zita Zendong
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
- LUNAM, Université de Nantes, MMS EA2160 , Faculté de Pharmacie, 9 rue Bias, 44035 Nantes, France
| | - Samuel Bertrand
- LUNAM, Université de Nantes, MMS EA2160 , Faculté de Pharmacie, 9 rue Bias, 44035 Nantes, France
| | - Christine Herrenknecht
- LUNAM, Université de Nantes, MMS EA2160 , Faculté de Pharmacie, 9 rue Bias, 44035 Nantes, France
| | - Eric Abadie
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Environnement Ressources du Languedoc-Roussillon, Centre for Marine Biodiversity, Exploitation and Conservation (MARBEC), CS30171 Sète Cedex 03 34200, France
| | - Cécile Jauzein
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06 , CNRS, LOV, UMR 7093, Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche/mer, Paris F-06230, France
| | - Rodolphe Lemée
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06 , CNRS, LOV, UMR 7093, Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche/mer, Paris F-06230, France
| | - Jérémie Gouriou
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Environnement Ressources Bretagne Occidentale (LER-BO), Station de Biologie Marine, Place de la Croi, BP 40537, Concarneau F-29185, France
| | - Zouher Amzil
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
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23
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Rodríguez I, Alfonso A, Antelo A, Alvarez M, Botana LM. Evaluation of the Impact of Mild Steaming and Heat Treatment on the Concentration of Okadaic Acid, Dinophysistoxin-2 and Dinophysistoxin-3 in Mussels. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8060175. [PMID: 27275833 PMCID: PMC4926142 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8060175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
This study explores the effect of laboratory and industrial steaming on mussels with toxin concentrations above and below the legal limit. We used mild conditions for steaming, 100 °C for 5 min in industrial processing, and up to 20 min in small-scale laboratory steaming. Also, we studied the effect of heat on the toxin concentration of mussels obtained from two different locations and the effect of heat on the levels of dinophysistoxins 3 (DTX3) in both the mussel matrix and in pure form (7-O-palmitoyl okadaic ester and 7-O-palmytoleyl okadaic ester). The results show that the loss of water due to steaming was very small with a maximum of 9.5%, that the toxin content remained unchanged with no concentration effect or increase in toxicity, and that dinophysistoxins 3 was hydrolyzed or degraded to a certain extent under heat treatment. The use of liquid-certified matrix showed a 55% decrease of dinophysistoxins 3 after 10 min steaming, and a 50% reduction in total toxicity after treatment with an autoclave (121 °C for 20 min).
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Affiliation(s)
- Inés Rodríguez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Lugo, USC, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Lugo, USC, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Alvaro Antelo
- Laboratorio CIFGA S.A., Plaza de Santo Domingo 20 5 planta, Lugo 27001, Spain.
| | - Mercedes Alvarez
- Laboratorio CIFGA S.A., Plaza de Santo Domingo 20 5 planta, Lugo 27001, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Lugo, USC, Lugo 27002, Spain.
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24
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Effect of the industrial canning on the toxicity of mussels contaminated with diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins. Toxicon 2016; 112:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.01.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Revised: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Hess P, Miles CO. Effects of Heating on Proportions of Azaspiracids 1-10 in Mussels (Mytilus edulis) and Identification of Carboxylated Precursors for Azaspiracids 5, 10, 13, and 15. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:10980-10987. [PMID: 26631586 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins that induce human illness following the consumption of contaminated shellfish. European Union regulation stipulates that only raw shellfish are tested, yet shellfish are often cooked prior to consumption. Analysis of raw and heat-treated mussels (Mytilus edulis) naturally contaminated with AZAs revealed significant differences (up to 4.6-fold) in AZA1-3 (1-3) and 6 (6) values due to heat-induced chemical conversions. Consistent with previous studies, high levels of 3 and 6 were detected in some samples that were otherwise below the limit of quantitation before heating. Relative to 1, in heat-treated mussels the average (n = 40) levels of 3 (range, 11-502%) and 6 (range, 3-170%) were 62 and 31%, respectively. AZA4 (4) (range, <1-27%), AZA5 (5) (range, 1-21%), and AZA8 (8) (range, 1-27%) were each ∼5%, whereas AZA7 (7), AZA9 (9), and AZA10 (10) (range, <1-8%) were each under 1.5%. Levels of 5, 10, AZA13 (13), and AZA15 (15) increased after heating, leading to the identification of novel carboxylated AZA precursors in raw shellfish extracts, which were shown by deuterium labeling to be precursors for 5, 10, 13, and 15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council Canada , Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Philipp Hess
- Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Ifremer , Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
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Samdal IA, Løvberg KE, Briggs LR, Kilcoyne J, Xu J, Forsyth CJ, Miles CO. Development of an ELISA for the Detection of Azaspiracids. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:7855-7861. [PMID: 26245830 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins that cause food poisoning in humans. These toxins are produced by small marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium spinosum and accumulate in shellfish. Ovine polyclonal antibodies were produced and used to develop an ELISA for quantitating AZAs in shellfish, algal cells, and culture supernatants. Immunizing antigens were prepared from synthetic fragments of the constant region of AZAs, while plate coating antigen was prepared from AZA-1. The ELISA provides a sensitive and rapid analytical method for screening large numbers of samples. It has a working range of 0.45-8.6 ng/mL and a limit of quantitation for total AZAs in whole shellfish at 57 μg/kg, well below the maximum permitted level set by the European Commission. The ELISA has good cross-reactivity to AZA-1-10, -33, and -34 and 37-epi-AZA-1. Naturally contaminated Irish mussels gave similar results whether they were cooked or uncooked, indicating that the ELISA also detects 22-carboxy-AZA metabolites (e.g., AZA-17 and AZA-19). ELISA results showed excellent correlation with LC-MS/MS analysis, both for mussel extract spiked with AZA-1 and for naturally contaminated Irish mussels. The assay is therefore well suited to screening for AZAs in shellfish samples intended for human consumption, as well as for studies on AZA metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Lyn R Briggs
- AgResearch, Ruakura, East Street, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland
| | - Jianyan Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University , Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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Kilcoyne J, Twiner MJ, McCarron P, Crain S, Giddings SD, Foley B, Rise F, Hess P, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Structure Elucidation, Relative LC-MS Response and In Vitro Toxicity of Azaspiracids 7-10 Isolated from Mussels (Mytilus edulis). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:5083-5091. [PMID: 25909151 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by dinoflagellates that can accumulate in shellfish, which if consumed can lead to poisoning events. AZA7-10, 7-10, were isolated from shellfish and their structures, previously proposed on the basis of only LC-MS/MS data, were confirmed by NMR spectroscopy. Purified AZA4-6, 4-6, and 7-10 were accurately quantitated by qNMR and used to assay cytotoxicity with Jurkat T lymphocyte cells for the first time. LC-MS(MS) molar response studies performed using isocratic and gradient elution in both selected ion monitoring and selected reaction monitoring modes showed that responses for the analogues ranged from 0.3 to 1.2 relative to AZA1, 1. All AZA analogues tested were cytotoxic to Jurkat T lymphocyte cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner; however, there were distinct differences in their EC50 values, with the potencies for each analogue being: AZA6 > AZA8 > AZA1 > AZA4 ≈ AZA9 > AZA5 ≈ AZA10. This data contributes to the understanding of the structure-activity relationships of AZAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- †Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland
- ‡School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Michael J Twiner
- §School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Pearse McCarron
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Sheila Crain
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Sabrina D Giddings
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Barry Foley
- ‡School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- ∥Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, N-0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Philipp Hess
- ▽Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
| | | | - Christopher O Miles
- ○Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo Norway
- #Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo Norway
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Blanco J, Arévalo F, Correa J, Porro MC, Cabado AG, Vieites JM, Moroño A. Effect of the industrial steaming on the toxicity, estimated by LC-MS/MS, of mussels exposed for a long time to diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins. Food Chem 2015; 177:240-7. [PMID: 25660882 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Revised: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The effect of industrial steaming on mussels that had been naturally exposed to DSP toxins for a long time was studied using LC-MS/MS. The estimated toxicity increased with steaming by a percentage that cannot be explained by weight loss. The estimated toxin content per mussel increased substantially with the treatment, which can only be explained by an incorrect estimation by the technique (at the extraction or analytical level) or by the presence of unknown derivatives or analogues. Direct alkaline hydrolysis of the mussel meat yielded more toxin than the standard hydrolysis (hydrolysis of the methanolic extracts), suggesting that extraction was, at least in part, responsible for the increase of toxin content. In situations as the one described in this work, it can be expected that mussels with toxicities well below the regulatory limit could easily surpass that level after industrial steaming, thus producing important losses for food processors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Blanco
- CIMA (Centro de Investigacións Mariñas), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain.
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Jorge Correa
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - M Corina Porro
- ANFACO-CECOPESCA, Carretera de Colexio Universitario, 16, 36310 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Ana G Cabado
- ANFACO-CECOPESCA, Carretera de Colexio Universitario, 16, 36310 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Juan M Vieites
- ANFACO-CECOPESCA, Carretera de Colexio Universitario, 16, 36310 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Angeles Moroño
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
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Kilcoyne J, Nulty C, Jauffrais T, McCarron P, Herve F, Foley B, Rise F, Crain S, Wilkins AL, Twiner MJ, Hess P, Miles CO. Isolation, structure elucidation, relative LC-MS response, and in vitro toxicity of azaspiracids from the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:2465-2474. [PMID: 25356854 DOI: 10.1021/np500555k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We identified three new azaspiracids (AZAs) with molecular weights of 715, 815, and 829 (AZA33 (3), AZA34 (4), and AZA35, respectively) in mussels, seawater, and Azadinium spinosum culture. Approximately 700 μg of 3 and 250 μg of 4 were isolated from a bulk culture of A. spinosum, and their structures determined by MS and NMR spectroscopy. These compounds differ significantly at the carboxyl end of the molecule from known AZA analogues and therefore provide valuable information on structure-activity relationships. Initial toxicological assessment was performed using an in vitro model system based on Jurkat T lymphocyte cytotoxicity, and the potencies of 3 and 4 were found to be 0.22- and 5.5-fold that of AZA1 (1), respectively. Thus, major changes in the carboxyl end of 1 resulted in significant changes in toxicity. In mussel extracts, 3 was detected at low levels, whereas 4 and AZA35 were detected only at extremely low levels or not at all. The structures of 3 and 4 are consistent with AZAs being biosynthetically assembled from the amino end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, Galway, Ireland
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McCarron P, Giddings SD, Reeves KL, Hess P, Quilliam MA. A mussel (Mytilus edulis) tissue certified reference material for the marine biotoxins azaspiracids. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 407:2985-96. [PMID: 25335820 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-8250-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are lipophilic biotoxins produced by marine algae that can contaminate shellfish and cause human illness. The European Union (EU) regulates the level of AZAs in shellfish destined for the commercial market, with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) being used as the official reference method for regulatory analysis. Certified reference materials (CRMs) are essential tools for the development, validation, and quality control of LC-MS methods. This paper describes the work that went into the planning, preparation, characterization, and certification of CRM-AZA-Mus, a tissue matrix CRM, which was prepared as a wet homogenate from mussels (Mytilus edulis) naturally contaminated with AZAs. The homogeneity and stability of CRM-AZA-Mus were evaluated, and the CRM was found to be fit for purpose. Extraction and LC-MS/MS methods were developed to accurately certify the concentrations of AZA1 (1.16 mg/kg), AZA2 (0.27 mg/kg), and AZA3 (0.21 mg/kg) in the CRM. Quantitation methods based on standard addition and matrix-matched calibration were used to compensate for the matrix effects in LC-MS/MS. Other toxins present in this CRM at lower levels were also measured with information values reported for okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-2, yessotoxin, and several spirolides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pearse McCarron
- National Research Council of Canada, Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada,
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Abstract
This review covers the literature published in 2012 for marine natural products, with 1035 citations (673 for the period January to December 2012) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, cnidarians, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates, echinoderms, mangroves and other intertidal plants and microorganisms. The emphasis is on new compounds (1241 for 2012), together with the relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that lead to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Blunt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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32
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Twiner MJ, Nulty C, Crain S, Quilliam MA, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Epimers of azaspiracids: Isolation, structural elucidation, relative LC-MS response, and in vitro toxicity of 37-epi-azaspiracid-1. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:587-600. [PMID: 24506502 DOI: 10.1021/tx400434b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Since azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) was identified in 1998, the number of AZA analogues has increased to over 30. The development of an LC-MS method using a neutral mobile phase led to the discovery of isomers of AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3, present at ~2-16% of the parent analogues in phytoplankton and shellfish samples. Under acidic mobile phase conditions, isomers and their parents are not separated. Stability studies showed that these isomers were spontaneous epimerization products whose formation is accelerated with the application of heat. The AZA1 isomer was isolated from contaminated shellfish and identified as 37-epi-AZA1 by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and chemical analyses. Similar analysis indicated that the isomers of AZA2 and AZA3 corresponded to 37-epi-AZA2 and 37-epi-AZA3, respectively. The 37-epimers were found to exist in equilibrium with the parent compounds in solution. 37-epi-AZA1 was quantitated by NMR, and relative molar response studies were performed to determine the potential differences in LC-MS response of AZA1 and 37-epi-AZA1. Toxicological effects were determined using Jurkat T lymphocyte cells as an in vitro cell model. Cytotoxicity experiments employing a metabolically based dye (i.e., MTS) indicated that 37-epi-AZA1 elicited a lethal response that was both concentration- and time-dependent, with EC50 values in the subnanomolar range. On the basis of EC50 comparisons, 37-epi-AZA1 was 5.1-fold more potent than AZA1. This data suggests that the presence of these epimers in seafood products should be considered in the analysis of AZAs for regulatory purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County, Galway, Ireland
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33
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Jauffrais T, Kilcoyne J, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Miles CO, Hess P. Dissolved azaspiracids are absorbed and metabolized by blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). Toxicon 2013; 65:81-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2012] [Revised: 01/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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34
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Jauffrais T, Contreras A, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Tillmann U, Hess P. Effect of Azadinium spinosum on the feeding behaviour and azaspiracid accumulation of Mytilus edulis. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2012; 124-125:179-187. [PMID: 22982497 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2012.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Revised: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/21/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Azadinium spinosum, a small toxic dinoflagellate, was recently isolated and identified as a primary producer of azaspiracid toxins (AZAs). Previous experiments related to AZA accumulation in blue mussels upon direct feeding with A. spinosum revealed increased mussel mortality and had negative effects on the thickness of the digestive gland tubules. Therefore we conducted follow up experiments in order to study effects of A. spinosum on mussel feeding behaviour. Individual assessment of mussel feeding time activity (FTA), clearance rate (CR), filtration rate (TFR), absorption rate (AR), faeces and pseudofaeces production were carried out on mussel fed either toxic (A. spinosum) or non-toxic (Isochrisis aff. galbana (T-Iso)) diets. Furthermore, AZA accumulation and biotransformation in mussels were followed using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A. spinosum had a significant effect on mussel feeding behaviour compared to T-Iso: CR was lower by a factor of 6, FTA by a factor of 5, TFR by a factor of 3 and AR even decreased to negative values for the last day of exposure. Even so, a rapid AZA accumulation was observed during the first hours of the trial; less than 6h of feeding were required to reach AZA concentration in mussel above regulatory level. In consistence with physiological observations, AZA concentration of about 200 μg kg(-1) did not increase further until the end of the study. AZA bioconversion was also found to be a fast process: after 3h of exposure AZA17, -19 and AZA7-10 were already found, with a proportion of AZA17 equal to AZA2. These results show a negative effect of A. spinosum on blue mussel feeding activity and indicate a possible regulation of AZA uptake by decreasing filtration and increasing pseudofaeces production.
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Krock B, Tillmann U, Voß D, Koch BP, Salas R, Witt M, Potvin É, Jeong HJ. New azaspiracids in Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae). Toxicon 2012; 60:830-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Jauffrais T, Marcaillou C, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Nicolau E, Tillmann U, Hess P. Azaspiracid accumulation, detoxification and biotransformation in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) experimentally fed Azadinium spinosum. Toxicon 2012; 60:582-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.04.351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Jauffrais T, Kilcoyne J, Séchet V, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Hervé F, Bérard JB, Nulty C, Taylor S, Tillmann U, Miles CO, Hess P. Production and isolation of azaspiracid-1 and -2 from Azadinium spinosum culture in pilot scale photobioreactors. Mar Drugs 2012; 10:1360-1382. [PMID: 22822378 PMCID: PMC3397445 DOI: 10.3390/md10061360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Revised: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracid (AZA) poisoning has been reported following consumption of contaminated shellfish, and is of human health concern. Hence, it is important to have sustainable amounts of the causative toxins available for toxicological studies and for instrument calibration in monitoring programs, without having to rely on natural toxin events. Continuous pilot scale culturing was carried out to evaluate the feasibility of AZA production using Azadinium spinosum cultures. Algae were harvested using tangential flow filtration or continuous centrifugation. AZAs were extracted using solid phase extraction (SPE) procedures, and subsequently purified. When coupling two stirred photobioreactors in series, cell concentrations reached 190,000 and 210,000 cell·mL−1 at steady state in bioreactors 1 and 2, respectively. The AZA cell quota decreased as the dilution rate increased from 0.15 to 0.3 day−1, with optimum toxin production at 0.25 day−1. After optimization, SPE procedures allowed for the recovery of 79 ± 9% of AZAs. The preparative isolation procedure previously developed for shellfish was optimized for algal extracts, such that only four steps were necessary to obtain purified AZA1 and -2. A purification efficiency of more than 70% was achieved, and isolation from 1200 L of culture yielded 9.3 mg of AZA1 and 2.2 mg of AZA2 of >95% purity. This work demonstrated the feasibility of sustainably producing AZA1 and -2 from A. spinosum cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Jauffrais
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; (T.J.); (P.H.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-40-00 (T.J.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-73 (T.J.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-42-57 (P.H.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-26 (P.H.)
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co., Galway, Ireland; (J.K.); (C.N.)
| | - Véronique Séchet
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | | | - Philippe Truquet
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | - Fabienne Hervé
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | | | - Cíara Nulty
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co., Galway, Ireland; (J.K.); (C.N.)
| | - Sarah Taylor
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | | | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; (T.J.); (P.H.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-40-00 (T.J.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-73 (T.J.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-42-57 (P.H.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-26 (P.H.)
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Kilcoyne J, Keogh A, Clancy G, LeBlanc P, Burton I, Quilliam MA, Hess P, Miles CO. Improved isolation procedure for azaspiracids from shellfish, structural elucidation of azaspiracid-6, and stability studies. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:2447-2455. [PMID: 22329755 DOI: 10.1021/jf2048788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids are a group of lipophilic polyether toxins produced by the small dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum. They may accumulate in shellfish and can result in illnesses when consumed by humans. Research into analytical methods, chemistry, metabolism, and toxicology of azaspiracids has been severely constrained by the scarcity of high-purity azaspiracids. Consequently, since their discovery in 1995, considerable efforts have been made to develop methods for the isolation of azaspiracids in sufficient amounts and purities for toxicological studies, in addition to the preparation of standard reference materials. A seven-step procedure was improved for the isolation of azaspiracids-1-3 (1, 2, and 3) increasing recoveries 2-fold as compared to previous methods and leading to isolation of sufficiently purified azaspiracid-6 (6) for structural determination by NMR spectroscopy. The procedure, which involved a series of partitioning and column chromatography steps, was performed on 500 g of Mytilus edulis hepatopancreas tissue containing ~14 mg of 1. Overall yields of 1 (52%), 2 (43%), 3 (43%), and 6 (38%) were good, and purities were confirmed by NMR spectroscopy. The structure of 6 was determined by one- and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. The stability of 6 relative to 1 was also assessed in three solvents in a short-term study that demonstrated the greatest stability in aqueous acetonitrile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Renville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland.
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39
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Quantitative analysis of azaspiracids in Azadinium spinosum cultures. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:833-46. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-5849-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2011] [Revised: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Derivatization of azaspiracid biotoxins for analysis by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:8089-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2011] [Revised: 08/17/2011] [Accepted: 09/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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O'Driscoll D, Skrabáková Z, O'Halloran J, van Pelt FNAM, James KJ. Mussels increase xenobiotic (azaspiracid) toxicity using a unique bioconversion mechanism. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2011; 45:3102-3108. [PMID: 21401083 DOI: 10.1021/es103612c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracid Poisoning (AZP) is a human toxic syndrome which is associated with the consumption of bivalve shellfish. Unlike other shellfish, mussels contain a large array of azaspiracid analogs, many of which are suspected bioconversion products. These studies were conducted to elucidate the metabolic pathways of azaspiracid (AZA1) in the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and revealed that the main biotransformation product was the more toxic demethyl analog, AZA3. To elucidate the mechanism of this C-demethylation, an unprecedented xenobiotic bioconversion step in shellfish, AZA1 was fed to mussels that contained no detectable azaspiracids. Triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (MS) and high resolution Orbitrap MS were used to determine the uptake of AZA1 and the toxin profiles in three tissue compartments of mussels. The second most abundant bioconversion product was identified as AZA17, a carboxyl analog of AZA3, which is a key intermediate in the formation of AZA3. Also, two pairs of isomeric hydroxyl analogs, AZA4/AZA5 and AZA7/AZA8, have been confirmed as bioconversion products for the first time. Ultra high resolution (100 k) MS studies showed that the most probable structural assignment for AZA17 is 22-carboxy-AZA3 and a mechanism for its facile decarboxylation to form AZA3 has been proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel O'Driscoll
- PROTEOBIO (Mass Spectrometry Centre), Cork Institute of Technology, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland
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42
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A mussel tissue certified reference material for multiple phycotoxins. Part 2: liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, sample extraction and quantitation procedures. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:835-46. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4803-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Revised: 02/06/2011] [Accepted: 02/10/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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A mussel tissue certified reference material for multiple phycotoxins. Part 1: design and preparation. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:821-33. [PMID: 21416167 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4786-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2010] [Revised: 02/06/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The development of multi-analyte methods for lipophilic shellfish toxins based on liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry permits rapid screening and analysis of samples for a wide variety of toxins in a single run. Validated methods and appropriate certified reference materials (CRMs) are required to ensure accuracy of results. CRMs are essential for accurate instrument calibration, for assessing the complete analytical method from sample extraction to data analysis and for verifying trueness. However, CRMs have hitherto only been available for single toxin groups. Production of a CRM containing six major toxin groups was achieved through an international collaboration. Preparation of this material, CRM-FDMT1, drew on information from earlier studies as well as improved methods for isolation of toxins, handling bulk tissues and production of reference materials. Previous investigations of stabilisation techniques indicated freeze-drying to be a suitable procedure for preparation of shellfish toxin reference materials and applicable to a wide range of toxins. CRM-FDMT1 was initially prepared as a bulk wet tissue homogenate containing domoic acid, okadaic acid, dinophysistoxins, azaspiracids, pectenotoxin-2, yessotoxin and 13-desmethylspirolide C. The homogenate was then freeze-dried, milled and bottled in aliquots suitable for distribution and analysis. The moisture content and particle size distribution were measured, and determined to be appropriate. A preliminary toxin analysis of the final material showed a comprehensive toxin profile.
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McCarron P, Emteborg H, Giddings SD, Wright E, Quilliam MA. A mussel tissue certified reference material for multiple phycotoxins. Part 3: homogeneity and stability. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:847-58. [PMID: 21380752 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4787-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Revised: 02/06/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A candidate certified reference material (CRM) for multiple shellfish toxins (domoic acid, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins, pectenotoxins, yessotoxin, azaspiracids and spirolides) has been prepared as a freeze-dried powder from mussel tissues (Mytilus edulis). Along with the certified values, the most important characteristics for a reference material to be fit-for-purpose are homogeneity and stability. Acceptable between-bottle homogeneity was found for this CRM. Within-bottle homogeneity was assessed using domoic acid, and it was shown that repeated subsampling of the CRM can be performed precisely down to 0.35 g. Both short- and long-term stability studies carried out under isochronous conditions demonstrated excellent stability of the various toxins present in the material. While degradation of some analytes was observed at +60°C in short-term studies, it was determined that shipping at ambient temperature is adequate. No instability was detected in long-term stability studies, and it was shown that the material can be held at +18°C safely for up to 1 year. To guarantee stability of the CRM over its lifetime the stock will be maintained at -20°C. The results of the homogeneity and stability testing show that CRM-FDMT1 is appropriate for its intended use in quality assurance and quality control of shellfish toxin analysis methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pearse McCarron
- National Research Council Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, Halifax, NS, Canada.
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Kilcoyne J, Fux E. Strategies for the elimination of matrix effects in the liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis of the lipophilic toxins okadaic acid and azaspiracid-1 in molluscan shellfish. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:7123-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2010] [Revised: 08/23/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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46
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Perez RA, Rehmann N, Crain S, LeBlanc P, Craft C, MacKinnon S, Reeves K, Burton IW, Walter JA, Hess P, Quilliam MA, Melanson JE. The preparation of certified calibration solutions for azaspiracid-1, -2, and -3, potent marine biotoxins found in shellfish. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 398:2243-52. [PMID: 20827466 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4161-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2010] [Revised: 08/20/2010] [Accepted: 08/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The production and certification of a series of azaspiracid (AZA) calibration solution reference materials is described. Azaspiracids were isolated from contaminated mussels, purified by preparative liquid chromatography and dried under vacuum to the anhydrous form. The purity was assessed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The final concentration of each AZA in a CD(3)OH stock solution was determined by quantitative NMR spectroscopy. This solution was then diluted very accurately in degassed, high purity methanol to a concentration of 1.47 ± 0.08 μmol/L for CRM-AZA1, 1.52 ± 0.05 μmol/L for CRM-AZA2, and 1.37 ± 0.13 μmol/L for CRM-AZA3. Aliquots were dispensed into argon-filled glass ampoules, which were immediately flame-sealed. The calibration solutions are suitable for method development, method validation, calibration of liquid chromatography or mass spectrometry instrumentation and quality control of shellfish monitoring programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth A Perez
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
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Canás IR, O’Callaghan K, Moroney C, Hamilton B, James KJ, Furey A. The development of a rapid method for the isolation of four azaspiracids for use as reference materials for quantitative LC–MS–MS methods. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 398:1477-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4007-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2010] [Revised: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 07/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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48
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Furey A, O'Doherty S, O'Callaghan K, Lehane M, James KJ. Azaspiracid poisoning (AZP) toxins in shellfish: Toxicological and health considerations. Toxicon 2010; 56:173-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2008] [Accepted: 09/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry in food safety. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:4018-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2009] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Gerssen A, Pol-Hofstad IE, Poelman M, Mulder PP, van den Top HJ, de Boer J. Marine toxins: chemistry, toxicity, occurrence and detection, with special reference to the Dutch situation. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:878-904. [PMID: 22069615 PMCID: PMC3153220 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2040878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2010] [Revised: 04/14/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Various species of algae can produce marine toxins under certain circumstances. These toxins can then accumulate in shellfish such as mussels, oysters and scallops. When these contaminated shellfish species are consumed severe intoxication can occur. The different types of syndromes that can occur after consumption of contaminated shellfish, the corresponding toxins and relevant legislation are discussed in this review. Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP), Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP), Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) and Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) occur worldwide, Neurologic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) is mainly limited to the USA and New Zealand while the toxins causing DSP and AZP occur most frequently in Europe. The latter two toxin groups are fat-soluble and can therefore also be classified as lipophilic marine toxins. A detailed overview of the official analytical methods used in the EU (mouse or rat bioassay) and the recently developed alternative methods for the lipophilic marine toxins is given. These alternative methods are based on functional assays, biochemical assays and chemical methods. From the literature it is clear that chemical methods offer the best potential to replace the animal tests that are still legislated worldwide. Finally, an overview is given of the situation of marine toxins in The Netherlands. The rat bioassay has been used for monitoring DSP and AZP toxins in The Netherlands since the 1970s. Nowadays, a combination of a chemical method and the rat bioassay is often used. In The Netherlands toxic events are mainly caused by DSP toxins, which have been found in Dutch shellfish for the first time in 1961, and have reoccurred at irregular intervals and in varying concentrations. From this review it is clear that considerable effort is being undertaken by various research groups to phase out the animal tests that are still used for the official routine monitoring programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjen Gerssen
- RIKILT, Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands; (P.P.J.M.); (H.J.T.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +0031-317-480433; Fax: 0031-317-417717
| | - Irene E. Pol-Hofstad
- Microbiological Laboratory for Health Protection, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, A. van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands;
| | - Marnix Poelman
- IMARES, Wageningen UR, Korringaweg 5, 4401 NT Yerseke, The Netherlands;
| | - Patrick P.J. Mulder
- RIKILT, Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands; (P.P.J.M.); (H.J.T.)
| | - Hester J. van den Top
- RIKILT, Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands; (P.P.J.M.); (H.J.T.)
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Institute for Environmental Studies, VU University, De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
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