Production and physicochemical properties of functional-butterfat through enzymatic interesterification in a continuous reactor

Synthesis of cocoa butter alternatives from palm kernel stearin, coconut oil and fully hydrogenated palm stearin blends by chemical interesterification

BACKGROUND

Chemical interesterification (CIE) is one of the important technological processes for the production of zero-trans fats. The aim of this study was to produce trans-free cocoa butter alternatives (CBAs) from palm kernel stearin (PKS), coconut oil (CNO) and fully-hydrogenated palm stearin (FHPS) blends via CIE using sodium methoxide as a catalyst. The physicochemical properties, crystallization and melting behavior, solid fat content (SFC), crystal morphology and polymorphism of the structured lipids (SLs) obtained and the corresponding physical blends (PBs) were characterized and compared with commercial CBAs.

RESULTS

After CIE, randomization of fatty acid distribution within and among triacylglycerol (TAG) molecules of PKS, CNO and FHPS resulted in a modification in TAG compositions of the PKS/CNO/FHPS blends and improved the properties and crystallization behavior of the blends. SFC and slip melting points of all SLs decreased from those of their respective PBs. In particular, SLs obtained from CIE of blends with 60-70% wt. PKS (blend ratios 60:10:30 and 70:10:20) exhibited the melting characteristic, SFC curves, crystal morphology and polymorphic form most similar to the commercial CBAs. In addition, these blends melted almost completely at body temperature, an improvement from that of the commercial CBAs.

CONCLUSION

SLs obtained from CIE of blends with 60-70% wt. PKS has high potential to be used commercially as trans-free CBAs for the confectionery industry. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

The effects of interesterification on the physicochemical properties of Pangasius bocourti oil and its fractions

Soft and solid fats which were fractionated from Pangasius bocourti oil (PBO), namely, Pangasius bocourti olein (PBOL) and Pangasius bocourti stearin (PBST), respectively, were introduced as new base oils for plastic fats. The physicochemical properties of PBO and its fractions were modified after interesterification. Enzymatic interesterification (EIE) reduced the sn-2 palmitic acid content attributed to the occurrence of acyl migration. The PBO solid fat content (SFC) at 20-40 °C increased after chemical interesterification whereas under similar range of temperature, the SFC of PBST decreased after EIE and a steep melting curve was obtained. The effect of interesterification on the crystal polymorphisms was less prominent whereby the initial and interesterified samples exhibited similar crystal forms. The solid state of PBOL was improved after interesterification but post-hardening was observed. Free fatty acids were produced via partial hydrolysis during EIE which contributed to the reduced oxidative stability in the EIE fats.

Development and Physicochemical Properties of Low Saturation Alternative Fat for Whipping Cream

We developed an alternative whipping cream fat using shea butter but with low saturation. Enriched stearic-oleic-stearic (SOS) solid fat was obtained from shea butter via solvent fractionation. Acyl migration reactant, which mainly contains asymmetric SSO triacylglycerol (TAG), was prepared through enzymatic acyl migration to obtain the creaming quality derived from the β'-crystal form. Through enzymatic acyl migration, we obtained a 3.4-fold higher content of saturated-saturated-unsaturated (SSU) TAG than saturated-unsaturated-saturated (SUS) TAG. The acyl migration reactant was refined to obtain refined acyl migration reactant (RAMR). An alternative fat product was prepared by blending RAMR and hydrogenated palm kernel oil (HPKO) at a ratio of 4:6 (w/w). The melting points, solid fat index (SFI), and melting curves of the alternative products were similar to those of commercial whipping cream fat. The alternative fat had a content of total unsaturated fatty acids 20% higher than that of HPKO. The atherogenic index (AI) of alternative fat was 3.61, much lower than those of whipping cream fat (14.59) and HPKO (1220.3), because of its low atherogenic fatty acid content and high total unsaturated fatty acids. The polymorphic crystal form determined by X-ray diffraction spectroscopy showed that the β'-crystal form was predominant. Therefore, the alternative fat is comparable with whipping cream that requires creaming quality, and has a reduced saturated fat content.

Design of new lipids from bovine milk fat for baby nutrition

The lipid phase of infant formulas is generally composed of plant-based lipids structured with a high concentration of palmitic acid (C16:0) esterified at the sn-2 position of triacylglycerol since this structure favors the absorption and metabolism of fatty acids. Palm oil is commonly used to make up the lipid phase of infant formulas due to its high concentration of palmitic acid and solids profile and melting point similar to human milk fat. However, the addition of palm oil to infant formulas has been associated with the presence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters, a group of glycerol-derived chemical contaminants (1,2,3-propanotriol), potentially toxic, formed during the refining process of vegetable oil. Bovine milk fat obtained from the complex biosynthesis in the mammary gland has potential as a technological alternative to replace palm oil and its fractions for the production of structured lipids to be used in infant formulas. Its application as a substitute is due to its composition and structure, which resembles breast milk fat, and essentially to the preferential distribution pattern of palmitic acids (C16:0) with approximately 85% distributed at the sn-1 and sn-2 position of triacylglycerol. This review will address the relationship between the chemical composition and structure of lipids in infant nutrition, as well as the potential of bovine milk fat as a basis for the production of structured lipids in substitution for the lipid phase of vegetable origin currently used in infant formulas.

Strategies and Challenges for the Development of Industrial Enzymes Using Fungal Cell Factories

Industrial enzymes have been produced from microorganisms for more than a century. Today, a large share of enzyme products is manufactured using recombinant microorganisms. This chapter focuses on major industrial fungal species belonging to the ascomycetes like Aspergillus niger, A. oryzae, and Trichoderma reesei. Many of the commercially available recombinant enzymes are manufactured using fungi. Examples of fungal enzymes used in food products are described. The enzyme industry is to a large extent cost-driven, so the enzyme product needs to meet strict COGS (cost of goods sold) targets. Therefore, the cell factory must be very efficient to produce the enzyme in high titers and efficiently utilize raw materials. Secondly, it must be designed for a robust and generic fermentation process. When developing fungal hosts for enzyme production, several properties of the system need to be considered relating to efficiency of the cell factory, purity of the product, and safety of both the cell factory and the product. Purity is secured by engineering of the cell factory, and properties related to safety must also be engineered into the fungal host. The methods used for strain improvement are continuously being developed to increase yields and are described herein. More automation using precision tools for modification of the genome (i.e., CRISPR) and low-cost sequencing have vastly expanded the possibilities and enabled fast strain development. Using systems biology approaches, better understanding of cellular processes is now possible enabling advanced engineering of fungal cell factories. Surprisingly, a survey of innovation in the field revealed a decrease in the number of patent applications in recent years. Finally, the requirements for enzyme approval, especially in food and feed, have increased significantly worldwide in the last few years. A description of the regulatory landscape and its challenges in food and feed is included.

Evaluation model for cocoa butter equivalents based on fatty acid compositions and triacylglycerol patterns

An effective evaluation model was established to digitize the quality of cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) based on determinations of total and sn-2 fatty acid compositions and triacylglycerol (TAG) profiles and the "deducting score" principle. Similarity scores for selected fats and oils calculated from the model revealed differences between them and parallel cocoa butter compositions. For CBE1 and CBE2, total similarity scores were 90.6 and 90.0, whereas those of mango (76.3), dhupa (84.1), sal fat (84.7), kokum (78.3), palm mid fractions (PMF, 77.9), shea butter (64.0), illipe butter (89.7) and Pentadesma butyracea butter (67.2), respectively. Similarity scores were found to agree with physical properties, including polymorphism, crystal morphology, crystallization or melting behaviors, and solid fat content. The present study provides an accurate means of assessing CBE quality and hopefully will contribute to the development of commercial CBEs.

Improvement of physical properties of palm stearin and soybean oil blends by enzymatic interesterification and their application in fast frozen food

Physical properties of blends were improved by enzymatic interesterification in a fluidized bed reactor, and the interesterified blends are well applied in fast frozen foods.

Chemical interesterification of blends with palm stearin and patawa oil

The present study sought to develop lipid bases from blends between patawa oil and palm stearin. These blends were analyzed before and after the chemical interesterification process for their fatty acid and triacylglycerol composition, free fatty acid (FFA) content, peroxide index, thermal properties, melting point, consistency, and solid fat content (SFC). Blends with unsaturated fatty acid contents between 60 and 70% were obtained, with a good ratio between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, which indicates a healthy content of fatty acids. Variations in the triacylglycerol contents and melting and crystallization thermograms evidenced the reaction. The blend with 50% stearin and 50% patawa oil showed the best results after the chemical interesterification reaction regarding the possible application in fatty products for its appropriate melting point, SFC similar to that of soft table margarines, plastic and spreadable consistency at refrigeration temperature, thus combining physical and nutritional properties desirable for the food industry.

Physicochemical characteristics of phytonutrient retained red palm olein and butter-fat blends and its utilization for formulating chocolate spread

Phytonutrients retained palm olein (PRPOL) was prepared and blended into butterfat at different ratios. The physicochemical characteristics and the phytonutrient composition of blends, as well as its utilization in the preparation of functional chocolate spread were evaluated. The results showed that the redness, yellowness, slip melting point, free fatty acids, peroxide value, iodine value, unsaponifiable matter, diacylglycerol and monoacylglycerol increased while lightness, saponification value, and triacylglycerol significantly decreased upon incorporation of increased quantities of PRPOL into butterfat. The incorporation affected short chain, medium chain and long chain fatty acids content along with variation in the palmitic, stearic, oleic acids content of the blends as compared to butterfat alone. Improvement in carotenoids (6-27 fold), phytotosterols (3-15 fold), tocopherols and tocotrienols (4-17 fold), and squalene (1-6 fold) in blends was observed upon incorporation of PRPOL. Cholesterol level in the blends was reduced (10-50 %) as compared to the butterfat. The blends showed an intermediate solid fat content of PRPOL and butterfat. Moreover, radical scavenging activity of the blends increased with increase in PRPOL quantity. Prepared chocolate spreads showed similar fat, moisture, colour components (L*, a* and b*) and better emulsion stability. The hardness of the spreads was increased upon increasing quantity of PRPOL. The sensory evaluation showed that chocolate prepared by replacing butterfat with 20 % PRPOL had acceptable sensory attributes.

Lipase catalyzed interesterification of rice bran oil with hydrogenated cottonseed oil to produce trans free fat

Lipase catalyzed interesterification of rice bran oil (RBO) with hydrogenated cottonseed oil (HCSO) was carried out for producing a low trans free fat. The interesterification reaction was performed by varying parameters such as weight proportions of RBO and HCSO, reaction temperatures, time period and lipase concentration. Both non specific and specific lipases namely Novozym 435 and Lipozyme TL IM were employed for this study. Based on the data generated, the optimum reaction conditions were found to be: weight proportion of RBO and HCSO, 80:20; lipase concentration, 5 % (w/w) of substrates; reaction temperature, 60 °C; reaction time, 4 h for Lipozyme TL IM and 5 h for Novozym 435. The degree of interesterification, calculated based on the results of solid fat characteristics was used for comparing the catalytic activity of Novozym 435 and Lipozyme TL IM. It was observed that the degree of interesterification (DI) reached a near 100 % at the 4th hour for reaction employing Lipozyme TL IM with a rate constant of 0.191 h(-1) while Novozym 435 catalyzed reaction reached a near 100 % degree of interesterification at the 5th hour with a rate constant of 0.187 h(-1), suggesting that Lipozyme TL IM has a faster catalytic activity.

Preparation of recombined milk using modified butterfats containing α-linolenic acid

Modified butterfats (MBFs) were produced by lipase-catalyzed interesterification with 2 substrate blends (6:6:8 and 4:6:10, by weight) of anhydrous butterfat (ABF), palm stearin, and flaxseed oil in a stirred-batch type reactor after short path distillation. The 6:6:8 and 4:6:10 MBF contained 21.7% and 26.5%α-linolenic acid, respectively. Total saturated fatty acids of the MBFs ranged from 41.4% to 47.4%. The cholesterol contents of the 6:6:8 and 4:6:10 MBFs were 21.0 and 12.1 mg/100 g, respectively. In addition, the melting points of the 6:6:8 and 4:6:10 MBFs were 32 °C and 31 °C, respectively. After preparation of recombined milks (oil-in-water emulsions) with MBFs, the stability of emulsions prepared with the MBFs (6:6:8 and 4:6:10) was compared to those with ABF during 10-d storage at 30 °C. Skim milk powder (containing 1% protein) was added to prepare emulsions as an emulsifier. Microstructures of emulsions freshly prepared with the ABF and the MBFs consisted of uniform fat globules with no flocculation during 10-d storage. With respect to fat globule size distribution, the volume-surface mean droplet diameter (d(32)) of the 6:6:8 and 4:6:10 MBF emulsions ranged between 0.33 and 0.34 μm, which was similar to the distribution in ABF emulsion.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Milk, an expensive dairy food, has been widely used in various milk-derived food products. Modified butterfats (MBFs) contain α-linolenic acid as an essential fatty acid. Emulsion stability of recombined milks (oil-in-water emulsions) with MBFs was similar to that in anhydrous butterfat emulsion during 10-d storage. They may be a promising alternative for reconstituted milks to use in processed milk-based products.

Comparative analysis of lipid composition and thermal, polymorphic, and crystallization behaviors of granular crystals formed in beef tallow and palm oil

Six rectangular block all beef tallow (BT)-based and all palm oil (PO)-based model shortenings prepared on a laboratory scale, respectively denoted BTMS and POMS, were stored under temperature fluctuation cycles of 5-20 °C until granular crystals were observed. The lipid composition and thermal, polymorphic, and isothermal crystallization behaviors of the granular crystals and their surrounding materials separated from BTMS and POMS, respectively, were evaluated. The changes of nanostructure including the aggregation of high-melting triacylglycerols (TAGs) and polymorphic transformation from β' form of double chain length structures to complicated crystal structures, in which the β and β' form crystals of triple and double chain length structures simultaneously coexist, had occurred in granular crystals compared with surrounding materials, whether in BTMS or in POMS. Consequently, a slower crystallization rate appeared in granular crystal parts of both model shortenings noted above, which would yield larger and fewer crystals indicated by the Avrami model analysis that would further aggregate to form large granular crystals.