Isotopic and elemental data for tracing the origin of European olive oils

Fingerprinting of monovarietal olive oils from Argentina and Uruguay via stable isotope, fatty acid profile, and chemometric analyses

Tracing methods of non-European EVOOs commercialized worldwide are becoming crucial for effective authenticity controls. Limited analytical studies of these oils are available on a global scale, similar to those of European EVOOs. We report for the first time the fatty acid concentrations, bulk-oil 2H/1H, 13C/12C, and 18O/16O ratios and fatty acid 13C/12C ratios of 43 authentic monovarietal EVOOs from different geographical regions in Argentina and Uruguay. The samples were obtained from a wide range of latitudes and altitudes along an E-W profile, from lowlands near the Atlantic Ocean to the pre-Andean highlands near the Pacific Ocean. Principal component scores were used to cluster EVOOs into three groups- central-western Argentina, central Argentina, and Uruguay-based on nine stable isotope ratios and the oleic-linoleic acid concentration ratio. The bulk 2H/1H and 18O/16O values and 13C/12C of palmitoleic and linoleic acids provide good tools for differentiating these oils via linear discriminant analysis.

Influence of Geographical Origin on Isotopic and Elemental Compositions of Pork Meat

Pigs are a primary source of meat, accounting for over 30% of global consumption. Consumers' preferences are determined by health considerations, paying more attention to foodstuffs quality, animal welfare, place of origin, and swine feeding regime, and being willing to pay a higher price for a product from a certain geographical region. In this study, the isotopic fingerprints (δ2H, δ18O, and δ13C) and 29 elements of loin pork meat samples were corroborated with chemometric methods to obtain the most important variables that could classify the samples' geographical origin. δ2H and δ18O values ranged from -71.0 to -21.2‱, and from -9.3 to -2.8‱, respectively. The contents of macro- and micro-essential elements are presented in the following order: K > Na > Mg > Ca > Zn > Fe > Cu > Cr. The LDA model assigned in the initial classification showed 91.4% separation of samples, while for the cross-validation procedure, a percentage of 90% was obtained. δ2H, K, Rb, and Pd were identified as the most representative parameters to differentiate the pork meat samples coming from Romania vs. those from abroad. The mean values of metal concentrations were used to estimate the potential health risks associated with the consumption of pork meat The results showed that none of the analyzed metals (As, Cd, Sn, Pb, Cu, and Zn) pose a carcinogenic risk.

Exploring the Potential of 87Sr/86Sr Isotope Ratio with Strontium and Rubidium Levels to Assess the Geographic Origin of Saffron

Saffron is regarded as the most expensive spice, mainly because of its laborious harvest. Only a few countries dominate the global saffron market, with Iran producing by far the most saffron, and the saffron production of all other countries thus being much smaller. However, the respective national production (not only of saffron) is usually preferred by local consumers with respect to foreign products and often has a higher price. Cases of saffron with mislabeled geographic origin have repeatedly occurred. Thus, to protect local saffron production, control of the declared geographic origin is required. In the present case, differentiation of the geographic origin by 87Sr/86Sr is performed. The results show the saffron of several countries of origin to vary within the range of marine carbonates; however, saffron samples of Moroccan and Indian origin mainly show elevated 87Sr/86Sr values. Within the Indian saffron samples, one sample from Kishtwar Valley can be differentiated from the Kashmir saffron samples. The results are thus promising, especially when using the combination of Sr and Rb concentrations to differentiate geographic origin whenever the regions are of homogenous bedrock geology within and of different geology between the regions. However, the reported findings need to be checked and confirmed by further and additional saffron samples.

Combined use of 87Sr/86Sr and carbon isotopes with multielemental analysis for the geographical authentication of Tunisian and European olive oils

The geographical authentication in the agrifood industry has become a major issue to guarantee the quality of food products. Olive oil (OO) is particularly a complex matrix and establishing a reliable approach for linking OO samples to their origin is an analytical challenge. In this study, the isotopic composition of carbon, strontium and the concentrations of seventeen elements were determined in OOs from Tunisia, Southern France and the South Basque country. The preliminary results overlapped and showed that, taken individually, the isotopic and elemental approaches were not discriminant. A linear discriminant analysis applied to δ¹³C, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and to the concentrations of 4 selected trace elements (Fe, Mn, V and Cr) allowed to classify, with high resolution, olive oils into 3 groups according to their provenance. The combination of the plant growing environment, the geological background, the mineral composition of the soil and the production process lead to a novel approach to deal with fraudulent practices in OO sector.

δ34S and Geochemical Analyses for the Determination of, and Discrimination between, Salt Samples of Different Geographic Origin: A Feasibility Study

The geographic origin of salt is usually regarded as unimportant, as it is a one-quality product produced in vast quantities. However, certain salt brands, especially sea salt (fleur de sel), are sold at significantly higher prices. Thus, it is necessary to control the declared geographic origin of salt. Such controls are already frequently carried out for foodstuffs, but salt is an inorganic commodity. Thus, δ³⁴S analysis combined with element concentration analysis was carried out. The results show very similar δ³⁴S values for all sea salt samples, which is to be expected due to the homogenous marine δ³⁴S value. Still, slightly higher values have been found in Mediterranean salt samples. Rock salt samples show differing δ³⁴S values depending on the time they were formed, and if the salt samples are of marine or terrestrial origin. Terrestrial/continental salt samples are characterized by elemental patterns significantly differing from marine ones. However, within marine samples (sea salt and rock salt) there also exist differences enabling the differentiation of samples.

Characterization of Beef Coming from Different European Countries through Stable Isotope (H, C, N, and S) Ratio Analysis

The need to guarantee the geographical origin of food samples has become imperative in recent years due to the increasing amount of food fraud. Stable isotope ratio analysis permits the characterization and origin control of foodstuffs, thanks to its capability to discriminate between products having different geographical origins and derived from different production systems. The Framework 6 EU-project "TRACE" generated hydrogen (²H/¹H), carbon (¹³C/¹²C), nitrogen (¹⁵N/¹⁴N), and sulphur (³⁴S/³²S) isotope ratio data from 227 authentic beef samples. These samples were collected from a total of 13 sites in eight countries. The stable isotope analysis was completed by combining IRMS with a thermal conversion elemental analyzer (TC/EA) for the analysis of δ(²H) and an elemental analyzer (EA) for the determination of δ(¹³C), δ(¹⁵N), and δ(³⁴S). The results show the potential of this technique to detect clustering of samples due to specific environmental conditions in the areas where the beef cattle were reared. Stable isotope measurements highlighted statistical differences between coastal and inland regions, production sites at different latitudes, regions with different geology, and different farming systems related to the diet the animals were consuming (primarily C3- or C4-based or a mixed one).

Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), a Useful Tool in Authenticity of Agricultural Products' and Foods' Origin

Fraudulent practices are the first and foremost concern of food industry, with significant consequences in economy and human's health. The increasing demand for food has led to food fraud by replacing, mixing, blending, and mislabeling products attempting to increase the profits of producers and companies. Consequently, there was the rise of a multidisciplinary field which encompasses a large number of analytical techniques aiming to trace and authenticate the origins of agricultural products, food and beverages. Among the analytical strategies have been developed for the authentication of geographical origin of foodstuff, Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) increasingly dominates the field as a robust, accurate, and highly sensitive technique for determining the inorganic elements in food substances. Inorganic elements are well known for evaluating the nutritional composition of food products while it has been shown that they are considered as possible tracers for authenticating the geographical origin. This is based on the fact that the inorganic component of identical food type originating from different territories varies due to the diversity of matrix composition. The present systematic literature review focusing on gathering the research has been done up-to-date on authenticating the geographical origin of agricultural products and foods by utilizing the ICP-MS technique. The first part of the article is a tutorial about food safety/control and the fundaments of ICP-MS technique, while in the second part the total research review is discussed.

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in extra virgin olive oil authentication

Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is a high-quality product that has become one of the stars in the food fraud context in recent years. EVOO can encounter different types of fraud, from adulteration with cheaper oils to mislabeling, and for this reason, the assessment of its authenticity and traceability can be challenging. There are several officially recognized analytical methods for its authentication, but they are not able to unambiguously trace the geographical and botanical origin of EVOOs. The application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to EVOO is reviewed here as a reliable and rapid tool to verify different aspects of its adulteration, such as undeclared blends with cheaper oils and cultivar and geographical origin mislabeling. This technique makes it possible to use both targeted and untargeted approaches and to determine the olive oil metabolomic profile and the quantification of its constituents.

Differentiation of Apricots of Different Geographic Origin in Central and Southern Europe by Applying 87Sr/86Sr Analysis: Potential and Limitations

Consumers prefer food commodities of certain origins over the same products of other provenances and are willing to pay higher prices for them. Thus, it is possible to increase profit simply by giving an incorrect geographic origin to a product. To effectively control the declared geographic origin of food, the product itself has to be investigated to discover whether it actually originates from the declared origin, or if it has been mislabeled. Conventionally, control of a geographic origin is conducted by stable isotope analysis of the main elements, which has proven to be successful in numerous cases, but often reference data have to be produced anew for every harvest to control, resulting in additional costs and delays. Applying entirely geogenic parameters for the control of provenance requires reference data to be produced only once. As they do not vary between years and harvests, they can often be used for different (food) commodities. Here, we investigate whether the geographic origin of apricot samples can be controlled by their ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios measured by TIMS. The results show that Slovak and Hungarian apricots can be differentiated from the Wachau apricots, a well-known regional Austrian brand, and those from other regions in Austria, even though the differentiation from the latter is only partial. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr investigations can be a very potent tool; however, its success depends on the exact question that needs to be answered.

Olive Oil Traceability Studies Using Inorganic and Isotopic Signatures: A Review

The olive oil industry is subject to significant fraudulent practices that can lead to serious economic implications and even affect consumer health. Therefore, many analytical strategies have been developed for olive oil’s geographic authentication, including multi-elemental and isotopic analyses. In the first part of this review, the range of multi-elemental concentrations recorded in olive oil from the main olive oil-producing countries is discussed. The compiled data from the literature indicates that the concentrations of elements are in comparable ranges overall. They can be classified into three categories, with (1) Rb and Pb well below 1 µg kg⁻¹; (2) elements such as As, B, Mn, Ni, and Sr ranging on average between 10 and 100 µg kg⁻¹; and (3) elements including Cr, Fe, and Ca ranging between 100 to 10,000 µg kg⁻¹. Various sample preparations, detection techniques, and statistical data treatments were reviewed and discussed. Results obtained through the selected analytical approaches have demonstrated a strong correlation between the multi-elemental composition of the oil and that of the soil in which the plant grew. The review next focused on the limits of olive oil authentication using the multi-elemental composition method. Finally, different methods based on isotopic signatures were compiled and critically assessed. Stable isotopes of light elements have provided acceptable segregation of oils from different origins for years already. More recently, the determination of stable isotopes of strontium has proven to be a reliable tool in determining the geographical origin of food products. The ratio ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr is stable over time and directly related to soil geology; it merits further study and is likely to become part of the standard tool kit for olive oil origin determination, along with a combination of different isotopic approaches and multi-elemental composition.

Effects of phenotypic variability on the oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions of grains in different winter wheat varieties

Stable isotope analyses are the leading method for geographic origin determination, especially of plant-based agricultural products. Origin analysis is typically done by comparing a suspicious sample to reference materials with known geographic origin. Reference materials are usually collected at the species level, assuming different varieties of a species to have comparable isotope compositions within a given location. We evaluated whether different phenotypes that are expressed in different varieties of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) influence the oxygen (δ¹⁸O) and hydrogen (δ²H) isotope composition of plant tissue water and organic compounds. We found that mean δ¹⁸O and δ²H values among winter wheat varieties did not differ significantly in leaf water, however, differed significantly in bulk dried grain tissue. The differences in bulk dried grain δ¹⁸O and δ²H values among varieties can be related to differences in phenotypic trait expression among varieties. Despite this substantial phenotypic variability, the overall variability of bulk dried grain δ¹⁸O and δ²H values among varieties was small (SD 0.54 ‰ for oxygen, 3.60 ‰ for hydrogen). We thus conclude that reference materials collected at the species level should be sufficient for geographic origin analysis of winter wheat and possibly other cereals using δ¹⁸O and δ²H values.

Geographical identification of strawberries based on stable isotope ratio and multi-elemental analysis coupled with multivariate statistical analysis: A Slovenian case study

The geographical classification and authentication of strawberries were attempted using discriminant and class-modelling methods applied to stable isotopes of light elements and elemental composition. The work involved creating a database of 92 authentic Slovenian strawberry samples and 32 imported samples. All samples were harvested between 2018 and 2020. A good geographical classification of Slovenian and non-Slovenian strawberries was obtained despite different production years using discriminant approaches. However, for verifying compliance with a given specification (geographical indications), a class-modelling approach was used to build an unbiased verification model. Class models generated by data-driven soft independent modelling of class analogy (DD-SIMCA) had high sensitivity (96% to 97%) and good specificity (81% to 91%) on a yearly basis, while a more generalised model combining total yearly data gave a lower specificity (63%). Of the 33 commercially available samples (test samples) with declared Slovenian origin, 39% were from outside of Slovenia.

Trace Elements Analysis of Tunisian and European Extra Virgin Olive Oils by ICP-MS and Chemometrics for Geographical Discrimination

The aim of this study was to investigate the levels of trace elements in olive oils from different locations and their use for geographical authentication. Concentrations of seventeen elements were determined in a total of 42 olive oils from Tunisia, Spain (Basque country), and southern France, and in nine soil samples from Tunisia by quadrupole inductively plasma mass spectrometry. The compilation of appropriate techniques integrated into the analytical procedure achieved a precision (RSD) between 2% and 15% and low limits of detection (between 0.0002 and 0.313 µg kg^-1). The accuracy of the analytical method applied for olive oil analysis was evaluated using SRM NIST 2387 Peanut butter. The recoveries obtained after microwave-assisted digestion for the certified elements ranged between 86% and 102%. Concentrations of non-certified elements (V, Cr, Co, Ni, Ba, Rb, Sr, Cd, Pb, and As) were presented. The use of Pearson correlation applied on paired Tunisian oil/soil samples has shown that several elements (Mg, Mn, Ni, and Sr) were significantly correlated. The multivariate statistics using principal component analysis have successfully discriminated against three studied origins. The most significant variables were the elemental concentrations of Cu, Cr, Fe, Mn, Sr, V, and Zn. This study shows the potential of applying trace elements profiles for olive oil geographical discrimination.

Isotope Analysis (13C, 18O) of Wine From Central and Eastern Europe and Argentina, 2008 and 2009 Vintages: Differentiation of Origin, Environmental Indications, and Variations Within Countries

In this study, we compare the stable isotope composition of oxygen and carbon of wines from four Central and Southeastern European countries and from Argentina to study the similarities and differences in the isotope signatures and, thus, the potential of differentiation of the various wine-growing countries. We observe similar trends for wines from Austria, Slovenia, and Romania with respect to the vintages 2008 and 2009, which are absent in the Montenegrin and Argentinean samples. It is speculated that the weather develops similarly for Austria, Slovenia, and Romania, as these countries are positioned at a similar latitude and not too far away from each other (general central and eastern European weather situation), whereas Montenegro is not influenced by the latter being situated farther south and dominantly influenced by the Adriatic Sea. Investigations on further vintages are needed to test this assumption.

Evaluation of a quick one-step sample preparation method for the determination of the isotopic fingerprint of rapeseed (Brassica napus): Investigation of the influence of the use of 2,2-dimethoxypropane on compound-specific stable carbon and hydrogen isotope analyses by gas chromatography combustion/pyrolysis isotope ratio mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Gas chromatographic analyses for vegetable oils require transesterification, which generally involves multiple steps, mainly to generate fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs). A quick method based on acid-catalyzed transesterification using 2,2-dimethoxypropane (DMP) enables the conversion in one step, in a single reactor. For compound-specific stable carbon and hydrogen isotope analyses (C- and H-CSIA) of individual fatty acids (FAs) in oil, the verification of this one-step method has not yet been reported.

METHODS

In this study, we evaluated the feasibility of the one-step method for C- and H-CSIA of individual FAMEs in rapeseed samples. The focus was on the investigation of the influence of methanol, which was produced from the reactions of DMP with glycerol and water during transesterification, on the accuracy of isotope composition of FAMEs, consequently of the FAs. The reproducibility of the one-step method was assessed by the measurement of the FAMEs from rapeseed and rapeseed oil. For the C- and H-CSIA of individual FAMEs, a gas chromatography combustion/pyrolysis isotope ratio mass spectrometry system was used.

RESULTS

Our results showed that no significant differences arise in the carbon and hydrogen isotope compositions of the selected main FAMEs produced with and without DMP except for the H-CSIA value of C18:3. The reproducibility of the one-step method for rapeseed was in the range of ±0.1 mUr to ± 0.3 mUr for C-CSIA and ±1 mUr to ±3 mUr for H-CSIA of the main FAMEs.

CONCLUSIONS

DMP improves the transesterification efficiency without influencing the accuracy of the C- and H-CSIA of FAMEs. The performance of the one-step method for rapeseed samples for the determination of C- and H-CSIA values of FAMEs is satisfactory. Thus, the applicability of the one-step method for isotopic fingerprint analyses of FAs in oilseeds is reported for the first time.

Achieving Food Authenticity and Traceability Using an Analytical Method Focusing on Stable Isotope Analysis

High-value agricultural products are characterized by the geographical conditions of the production areas such as climatic and soil conditions. These products are protected by the geographical indication (GI) protection system, which has been introduced in more than 100 countries. Because GI products are expensive in the market, products are often mislabeled as GI. Thus, there is an urgent need for the development of analytical methods that enable the tracing of geographical origins of food materials. Stable isotope analysis is used to trace the geographical origin of food materials. In this study, we review the applications for tracing the geographical origin of agricultural products (especially rice, beef, and honey) focusing on an analytical method for analyzing stable isotopes (δD, δ13C, δ15N, δ18O, and δ34S).

Combination of Stable Isotope Analysis and Chemometrics to Discriminate Geoclimatically and Temporally the Virgin Olive Oils from Three Mediterranean Countries

The knowledge of the isotopic composition of virgin olive oil (VOO) allows the evaluation of authenticity and geographical origin, being an important tool against fraud. This study aimed to assess if VOOs produced in three Mediterranean regions could be discriminated on the basis of multivariate statistical analysis of geoclimatic and isotopic data. A total of 138 geo-referenced VOO samples from Portugal, France and Turkey from two different cultivation years were collected. The isotopic composition (δ13C, δ2H and δ18O) of VOOs was obtained using an elemental analyzer coupled to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (EA-IRMS). One-way analysis of variance for δ13C, δ2H and δ18O showed some significant differences either between crop years or geoclimatic conditions. Based on multiple regression analyses using meteorological and geographical parameters, a meteoric water line for olive oil from Portugal, France and Turkey, in two harvest years, were created to assess the impact of climate change on their δ2H and δ18O values. Principal component analysis and Linear Discriminant Analysis, used to sort samples according to geoclimatic origin, performed best for French and Portuguese olive oils. In light of the results, multivariate isotopic analysis of VOO samples may discriminate not only between geoclimatic regions but also among cultivation years.

Isotopic Traceability (13C and 18O) of Greek Olive Oil

In recent years, isotopic analysis has been proven a valuable tool for the determination of the origin of various materials. In this article, we studied the ¹⁸O and ¹³C isotopic values of 210 olive oil samples that were originated from different regions in Greece in order to verify how these values are affected by the climate regime. We observed that the δ¹⁸O isotopic values range from 19.2 ‱ to 25.2 ‱ and the δ¹³C values range from -32.7 ‱ to -28.3 ‱. These differences between the olive oils' isotopic values depended on the regional temperature, the meteoric water, and the distance from the sea. Furthermore, we studied the ¹³C isotopic values of biophenolic extracts, and we observed that they have same capability to differentiate the geographic origin. Finally, we compared the isotopic values of Greek olive oils with samples from Italy, and we concluded that there is a great dependence of oxygen isotopes on the climatic characteristics of the different geographical areas.

The Use of Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis to Trace European Sea Bass (D. labrax) Originating from Different Farming Systems

Simple Summary

European sea bass is one of the most economically important fish species in the Mediterranean area. The potential effects of farming systems on the final quality of this product and the recent popular demand for labels to certify the animal rearing origin, which is increasingly used as a marketing tool, have raised the use of analytical techniques that make it possible to differentiate this fish product according to the rearing farming system and authenticate their geographical origin. The aim of this study was to determine whether isotopic ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) can discriminate farmed European sea bass according to different farming systems (concrete tank inland, sea cages, and extensive methods in valleys or salt works) and geographic origins (different locations scattered throughout Italy). The results of this study showed the viability of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N to discriminate cultured sea bass from different farming systems (extensive vs. intensive) reared at different geographical sites in Italy. Meanwhile, the measurement of δ¹⁸O and δ²H made it possible to distinguish the geographical origin of the sea bass farmed extensively and intensively (in cages).

Abstract

This study aimed to determine whether isotopic ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) can discriminate farmed European sea bass according to different farming systems and geographic origins. Dicentrarchus labrax of commercial size from three different rearing systems (concrete tank inland, sea cages, and extensive methods in valleys or salt works) were collected at the trading period (autumn–winter). For each farming type, different locations spread over Italy were monitored. Once the fish were harvested, the muscle and feed were sampled. For both muscle and feed, δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N were measured by continuous flow elemental analyzer isotope ratio mass spectrometry (CF-EA-IRMS) with the goal of discriminating samples based on the rearing system. Additional δ²H and δ¹⁸O measurements of fish samples were performed by continuous flow total combustion elemental analyzer isotope ratio mass spectrometry (CF-TC/EA-IRMS) to track the geographical origin. The measurements of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N made it possible to discriminate cultured sea bass from different farming systems (extensive vs. intensive) reared at different geographical sites in Italy. Additional information was obtained from δ¹⁸O and δ²H, which enabled the geographical areas of origin of the sea bass farmed extensively and intensively (in cages) to be distinguished.

Traceability in food processing: problems, methods, and performance evaluations-a review

Processed food has become an indispensable part of the human food chain. It provides rich nutrition for human health and satisfies various other requirements for food consumption. However, establishing traceability systems for processed food faces a different set of challenges compared to primary agro-food, because of the variety of raw materials, batch mixing, and resource transformation. In this paper, progress in the traceability of processed food is reviewed. Based on an analysis of the food supply chain and processing stage, the problem of traceability in food processing results from the transformations that the resources go through. Methods to implement traceability in food processing, including physical separation in different lots, defining and associating batches, isotope analysis and DNA tracking, statistical data models, internal traceability system development, artificial intelligence (AI), and blockchain-based approaches are summarized. Traceability is evaluated based on recall effects, TRUs (traceable resource units), and comprehensive granularity. Different methods have different advantages and disadvantages. The combined application of different methods should consider the specific application scenarios in food processing to improve granularity. On the other hand, novel technologies, including batch mixing optimization with AI, quality forecasting with big data, and credible traceability with blockchain, are presented in the context of improving traceability performance in food processing.

Sustainable Palm Oil-The Role of Screening and Advanced Analytical Techniques for Geographical Traceability and Authenticity Verification

Palm oil production from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is vital for the economy of Malaysia. As of late, sustainable production of palm oil has been a key focus due to demand by consumer groups, and important progress has been made in establishing standards that promote good agricultural practices that minimize impact on the environment. In line with the industrial goal to build a traceable supply chain, several measures have been implemented to ensure that traceability can be monitored. Although the palm oil supply chain can be highly complex, and achieving full traceability is not an easy task, the industry has to be proactive in developing improved systems that support the existing methods, which rely on recorded information in the supply chain. The Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) as the custodian of the palm oil industry in Malaysia has taken the initiative to assess and develop technologies that can ensure authenticity and traceability of palm oil in the major supply chains from the point of harvesting all the way to key downstream applications. This review describes the underlying framework related to palm oil geographical traceability using various state-of-the-art analytical techniques, which are also being explored to address adulteration in the global palm oil supply chain.

Potentials of truffles in nutritional and medicinal applications: a review

Truffles, the symbiotic hypogeous edible fungi, have been worldwide regarded as a great delicacy because of their unique flavor and high nutritional value. By identifying their bioactive components such as phenolics, terpenoids, polysaccharides, anandamide, fatty acids, and ergosterols, researchers have paid attention to their biological activities including antitumor, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective activities. In addition, numerous factors have been investigating that can affect the quality and productivity of truffles to overcome their difficulty in culturing and preserving. To provide the information for their potential applications in medicine as well as in functional food, this review summarizes the relevant literature about the biochemical composition, aromatic and nutritional benefits, and biological properties of truffles. Besides, various factors affecting their productivity and quality as well as the preservation methods are also highlighted.

Advances in biocultural geography of olive tree (Olea europaea L.) landscapes by merging biological and historical assays

Olive tree is a vector of cultural heritage in Mediterranean. This study explored the biocultural geography of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) from the cultivar Ogliarola campana in Campania region, Italy. Here, the rich cultural elements related to olive tree and oil represent a suitable case study for a biocultural analysis. We joined analytical techniques, based on stable isotopes and trace elements of EVOOs, with humanistic analyses, based on toponymy and historical data. In order to provide a science-based assessment of the terroir concept, we set up a new method of data analysis that inputs heterogeneous data from analytical and anthropic variables and outputs an original global evaluation score, named terroir score, as a measure of biocultural distinctiveness of the production areas. The analysis highlighted two distinct cultural sub-regions in the production area of Ogliarola campana: a continental cluster in the inner area of Irpinia and a coastal one around Salerno province. Finally, a biocultural map displays the diversity of heterogeneous variables and may support science-based decision making for territory valorisation. This novel biocultural analysis is a promising approach to substantiate the terroir concept with science-based elements and appears suitable to characterize local agri-food products with old tradition and historical data.

Tracing the geographical origin of rice by stable isotopic analyses combined with chemometrics

Multivariate stable isotope analysis combined with chemometrics was used to investigate and discriminate rice samples from six rice producing provinces in China (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Hunan and Guizhou) and four other Asian rice producing countries (Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, and Pakistan). The stable isotope characteristics were analyzed for rice of different species cultivated with varied farming methods at different altitudes and latitudes/longitudes. The index groups of δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, δ¹⁸O, ^207/206Pb and ^208/207Pb were screened and established for the selected samples with different geographical features by means of principal component analysis (PCA) and discriminant analysis (DA), which would provide a sound technical solution for rice traceability and serve as a template for further research on the traceability of other agricultural products, especially plant-derived products.

Lipid Profiling and Stable Isotopic Data Analysis for Differentiation of Extra Virgin Olive Oils Based on Their Origin

To differentiate extra virgin olive oils (EVOO) according to the origin of purchase, such as monocultivar Italian EVOO with protected denomination of origin (PDO) and commercially-blended EVOO purchased in supermarkets, a number of samples was subjected to the analysis of various lipid species by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS, LC-ESI-IT-MS) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance analysis (¹H-NMR). Many putative chemical markers were extracted as differentiators by uni- and multivariate statistical analysis. Commercially-blended EVOO contained higher concentrations of the majority of minor lipids, including free fatty acids, their alkyl (methyl and ethyl) esters, monoglycerides, and diglycerides, which may be indicative of a higher degree of triglyceride lipolysis in these than in monocultivar PDO EVOO. Triterpenoids and particular TAG species were also found in higher proportions in the samples from the commercially-blended EVOO class, suggesting a possible influence of factors such as the cultivar and geographical origin. The largest differences between the classes were determined for the concentrations of uvaol and oleanolic acid. The results of the analysis by isotopic ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) were reasonably consistent with the information about the geographical origin declared on the labels of the investigated EVOOs, showing considerable variability, which possibly also contributed to the differences in lipid composition observed between the two investigated classes of EVOO.

Geographic authentication of the traditional Chinese medicine Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. (Baizhu) using stable isotope and multielement analyses

RATIONALE

Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (Baizhu) is a valuable traditional Chinese medicine, and medicines of that type originating from Zhejiang province are the most famous and much more expensive than those from other regions. Driven by the great difference in prices, fraudulent labeling often occurs. In order to protect the interests of consumers, producers and honest traders, reliable techniques for the geographic authentication of Baizhu are needed urgently.

METHODS

The stable isotope ratios of five light elements (C, N, H, O and S) in Baizhu samples originating from four provinces of China were determined with an elemental analyzer coupled to isotope ratio mass spectrometry, and the concentrations of 45 elements in these samples were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Chemometric approaches including principal component analysis (PCA) and orthodox partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were applied to the obtained data.

RESULTS

The PCA results showed that the techniques enabled clear classification of the Baizhu samples into three clusters: A (Zhejiang province), B (Shaanxi province) and C (Hebei and Ahui provinces). Furthermore, OPLS-DA using 27 key variables provided 100% correct discrimination between samples originating from Zhejiang province and those from the other three provinces.

CONCLUSIONS

Stable isotope ratio and multielement analyses in combination with chemometric approaches showed great potential for the geographic authentication of Baizhu, providing a promising method for the control of fraudulent labeling that frequently occurs with traditional herbal medicines in China.

Interregional traceability of Tunisian olive oils to the provenance soil by multielemental fingerprinting and chemometrics

The aim of this study was to prove the usefulness of multielements as provenance markers of olive oils by evaluating their link with soil composition and their discriminatory power. Eleven elements in twenty-one olive oils and their paired soils from four Tunisian regions were characterized. Chemometrics have been implemented for ICP-MS data processing. Principal component analysis identified the predominant geochemical source of the elements in the oils based on their associations according to Goldschmidt's rule. Although a clear correlation was not proven, correspondence was identified between the discriminating elements for both the soils and olive oils, which included Fe, Rb, Mg, and Pb. Linear discriminant analysis achieved classification and prediction rates of 92.1% and 87.3%, respectively. Our study substantiates the validity of multielements as markers of the olive oils' provenance, and that an elemental fingerprinting approach can be successfully applied in the construction of a database of Tunisian olive oils.

Tackling Fraudsters with Global Strategies to Expose Fraud in the Food Chain

Deliberate adulteration of food products is as old as food processing and production systems. Food adulteration is occurring increasingly often today. With globalization and complex distribution systems, adulteration may have a far-reaching impact and even adverse consequences on well-being. The means of the international community to confront and solve food fraud today are scattered and largely ineffective. A collective approach is needed to identify all stakeholders in the food supply chain, certify and qualify them, exclude those failing to meet applicable standards, and track food in a real time. This review provides some background into the drivers of fraudulent practices (economically motivated adulteration, food-industry perspectives, and consumers' perceptions of fraud) and discusses a wide range of the currently available technologies for detecting food adulteration followed by multivariate pattern recognition tools. Food chain integrity policies are discussed. Future directions in research, concerned not only with food adulterers but also with food safety and climate change, may be useful for researchers in developing interdisciplinary approaches to contemporary problems.

Combination of sugar and stable isotopes analyses to detect the use of nongrape sugars in balsamic vinegar must

"Aceto Balsamico di Modena" (ABM) is a protected geographical indication salad dressing obtained from cooked and/or concentrated grape must, with the addition of wine vinegar and a maximum of 2% caramel (EU Reg 583/2009). In this study, we investigated whether the combination of ¹³ C/¹² C of ethanol using isotope ratio mass spectrometry with ² H-site-specific natural isotope fractionation-nuclear magnetic resonance and minor sugars using ion chromatography with pulse amperometric and charged aerosol detection is able to improve detection of sugar addition to ABM must. A large selection of authentic Italian grape musts and different samples of balsamic vinegar with an increasing percentage of added beet, cane, and sugar syrups were considered. The possible degradation of sugars in the ABM matrix during shelf life was also investigated. While stable isotope ratios analysis remains the favoured method for determining cane and beet sugar addition, dosage of minor sugar (in particular maltose) proved to be very useful for detecting the addition of sugar syrup. Thanks to this innovative approach, 3 out of 27 commercial ABMs were identified as adulterated. A combination of stable isotope ratio and ion chromatography with pulse amperometric and charged aerosol detection analysis can be therefore proposed as a suitable tool for detecting the authenticity of ABM must.

A Multi-Methodological Protocol to Characterize PDO Olive Oils

An analytical approach including Panel Test, Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was proposed to characterize Italian “Colline Pontine” PDO olive oils (40 samples) of two consecutive crop years. Our approach has evidenced the high quality of these olive oils. Only 6 of 40 olive oils samples were defined as “defective” by the official Panel Test due to the detection of negative sensory attributes. The low variability of isotopic data monitored by IRMS confirmed that the olive oil samples all came from a limited geographical area. NMR spectra did not evidence any chemical composition anomaly in the investigated samples. In order to assess the influence of harvesting year over the olive oil chemical composition, the NMR analysis was extended to other 22 olive oil samples of a third harvesting year. NMR data were submitted to two different statistical methods, namely, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and principal component analysis (PCA) allowing olive oils of three consecutive harvesting years to be grouped.