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Filkin SY, Lipkin AV, Fedorov AN. Phospholipase Superfamily: Structure, Functions, and Biotechnological Applications. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2020; 85:S177-S195. [DOI: 10.1134/s0006297920140096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Zhang S, Li Y, Qin Z, Tu G, Chen G, Yan A. SAR study on inhibitors of GIIA secreted phospholipase A
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using machine learning methods. Chem Biol Drug Des 2019; 93:666-684. [DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.13470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shengde Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource EngineeringDepartment of Pharmaceutical EngineeringBeijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing China
| | - Yang Li
- Institute of Science and TechnologyShandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Ji'nan Shandong China
| | - Zijian Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource EngineeringDepartment of Pharmaceutical EngineeringBeijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing China
| | - Guipin Tu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource EngineeringDepartment of Pharmaceutical EngineeringBeijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing China
| | - Guang Chen
- College of Life Science and TechnologyBeijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing China
| | - Aixia Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource EngineeringDepartment of Pharmaceutical EngineeringBeijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing China
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Jiang KM, Luesakul U, Zhao SY, An K, Muangsin N, Neamati N, Jin Y, Lin J. Tautomeric-Dependent Lactam Cycloaddition with Nitrile Oxide: Facile Synthesis of 1,2,4-Oxadiazole[4,5- a]indolone Derivatives. ACS OMEGA 2017; 2:3123-3134. [PMID: 30023685 PMCID: PMC6044867 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b00490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A concise, metal-free, and gram-scale strategy to convert indoline-2,3-diones to 1,2,4-oxadiazole[4,5-a]indolones through an improved [3 + 2] cycloaddition of α-ketone-lactam with nitrile oxides has been developed. The lactim form of the resonance structure of isatin in protic solvents is the key active dipolarophile that shows chemo- and regioselectivity under experimental and theoretical conditions. This strategy conveniently enabled the assembly of several 1,2,4-oxadiazole[4,5-a]indolines with a broad range of functional groups. Compounds 3a and 4b exhibit cytotoxicity in the NCI/ADR-RES, SKOV3, and OVCAR8 cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun-Ming Jiang
- Key
Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of
Education, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, P. R. China
| | - Urarika Luesakul
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, and Translational Oncology
Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Shu-Yue Zhao
- Key
Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of
Education, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, P. R. China
| | - Kun An
- Key
Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of
Education, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, P. R. China
| | - Nongnuj Muangsin
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Nouri Neamati
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, and Translational Oncology
Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Yi Jin
- Key
Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of
Education, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, P. R. China
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, and Translational Oncology
Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Jun Lin
- Key
Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of
Education, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, P. R. China
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Endogenous secreted phospholipase A2 group X regulates cysteinyl leukotrienes synthesis by human eosinophils. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2015; 137:268-277.e8. [PMID: 26139511 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2015.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Revised: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phospholipase A2s mediate the rate-limiting step in the formation of eicosanoids such as cysteinyl leukotrienes (CysLTs). Group IVA cytosolic PLA2α (cPLA2α) is thought to be the dominant PLA2 in eosinophils; however, eosinophils also have secreted PLA2 (sPLA2) activity that has not been fully defined. OBJECTIVES To examine the expression of sPLA2 group X (sPLA2-X) in eosinophils, the participation of sPLA2-X in the formation of CysLTs, and the mechanism by which sPLA2-X initiates the synthesis of CysLTs in eosinophils. METHODS Peripheral blood eosinophils were obtained from volunteers with asthma and/or allergy. A rabbit polyclonal anti-sPLA2-X antibody identified sPLA2-X by Western blot. We used confocal microscopy to colocalize the sPLA2-X to intracellular structures. An inhibitor of sPLA2-X (ROC-0929) that does not inhibit other mammalian sPLA2s, as well as inhibitors of the mitogen-activated kinase cascade (MAPK) and cPLA2α, was used to examine the mechanism of N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP)-mediated formation of CysLT. RESULTS Eosinophils express the mammalian sPLA2-X gene (PLA2G10). The sPLA2-X protein is located in the endoplasmic reticulum, golgi, and granules of eosinophils and moves to the granules and lipid bodies during fMLP-mediated activation. Selective sPLA2-X inhibition attenuated the fMLP-mediated release of arachidonic acid and CysLT formation by eosinophils. Inhibitors of p38, extracellular-signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (p44/42 MAPK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and cPLA2α also attenuated the fMLP-mediated formation of CysLT. The sPLA2-X inhibitor reduced the phosphorylation of p38 and extracellular-signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (p44/42 MAPK) as well as cPLA2α during cellular activation, indicating that sPLA2-X is involved in activating the MAPK cascade leading to the formation of CysLT via cPLA2α. We further demonstrate that sPLA2-X is activated before secretion from the cell during activation. Short-term priming with IL-13 and TNF/IL-1β increased the expression of PLA2G10 by eosinophils. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that sPLA2-X plays a significant role in the formation of CysLTs by human eosinophils. The predominant role of the enzyme is the regulation of MAPK activation that leads to the phosphorylation of cPLA2α. The sPLA2-X protein is regulated by proteolytic cleavage, suggesting that an inflammatory environment may promote the formation of CysLTs through this mechanism. These results have important implications for the treatment of eosinophilic disorders such as asthma.
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Quach ND, Arnold RD, Cummings BS. Secretory phospholipase A2 enzymes as pharmacological targets for treatment of disease. Biochem Pharmacol 2014; 90:338-48. [PMID: 24907600 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2014.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) cleave phospholipids preferentially at the sn-2 position, liberating free fatty acids and lysophospholipids. They are classified into six main groups based on size, location, function, substrate specificity and calcium requirement. These classes include secretory PLA2 (sPLA2), cytosolic (cPLA2), Ca(2+)-independent (iPLA2), platelet activating factor acetylhydrolases (PAF-AH), lysosomal PLA2 (LyPLA2) and adipose specific PLA2 (AdPLA2). It is hypothesized that PLA2 can serve as pharmacological targets for the therapeutic treatment of several diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis, immune disorders and cancer. Special emphasis has been placed on inhibitors of sPLA2 isoforms as pharmacological moieties, mostly due to the fact that these enzymes are activated during inflammatory events and because their expression is increased in several diseases. This review focuses on understanding how sPLA2 isoform expression is altered during disease progression and the possible therapeutic interventions to specifically target sPLA2 isoforms, including new approaches using nano-particulate-based strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nhat D Quach
- Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, United States
| | - Robert D Arnold
- Department of Drug Discovery & Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5503, United States
| | - Brian S Cummings
- Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, United States.
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Indrasena Reddy K, Aruna C, Sudhakar Babu K, Vijayakumar V, Manisha M, Padma Sridevi J, Yogeeswari P, Sriram D. General and efficient synthesis of benzoxazol-2(3H)-ones: evolution of their anti-cancer and anti-mycobacterial activities. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra07123a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel class of benzo[d]oxazol-2(3H)-one derivatives has been synthesized and their in vitro cytotoxicity against human pancreatic adenocarcinoma and human non-small cell lung carcinoma cancer cell lines was evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Indrasena Reddy
- Vector Biosciences Pvt. Ltd
- Hyderabad, India
- Department of Chemistry
- Sri Krishnadevaraya University
- Anantapur, India
| | - C. Aruna
- Department of Chemistry
- Sri Krishnadevaraya University
- Anantapur, India
| | | | - V. Vijayakumar
- Centre for Organic and Medicinal Chemistry
- VIT University
- Vellore, India
| | - M. Manisha
- DBT-HTS
- Piramal Entreprises Limited
- Mumbai, India
| | - J. Padma Sridevi
- Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani
- Hyderabad Campus, India
| | - P. Yogeeswari
- Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani
- Hyderabad Campus, India
| | - D. Sriram
- Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani
- Hyderabad Campus, India
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Dennis EA, Cao J, Hsu YH, Magrioti V, Kokotos G. Phospholipase A2 enzymes: physical structure, biological function, disease implication, chemical inhibition, and therapeutic intervention. Chem Rev 2011; 111:6130-85. [PMID: 21910409 PMCID: PMC3196595 DOI: 10.1021/cr200085w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 820] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Edward A. Dennis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0601
| | - Jian Cao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0601
| | - Yuan-Hao Hsu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0601
| | - Victoria Magrioti
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 15771, Greece
| | - George Kokotos
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 15771, Greece
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Hallstrand TS, Lai Y, Ni Z, Oslund RC, Henderson WR, Gelb MH, Wenzel SE. Relationship between levels of secreted phospholipase A₂ groups IIA and X in the airways and asthma severity. Clin Exp Allergy 2011; 41:801-10. [PMID: 21255140 PMCID: PMC3093436 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2010.03676.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Background Secreted phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2) ) may be important mediators of asthma, but the specific sPLA(2) s involved in asthma are not known. Objective To evaluate sPLA(2) group IIA, V, and X proteins (sPLA(2) -IIA, sPLA(2) -V, and sPLA(2) -X) in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, BAL cells, and airway epithelial cells of subjects with and without asthma, and examine the relationship between the levels of specific sPLA(2) enzymes and airway inflammation, asthma severity, and lung function. Methods The expression of sPLA(2) -IIA, sPLA(2) -V, and sPLA(2) -X in BAL cells and epithelial brushings was assessed by qPCR. The levels of these sPLA(2) proteins and sPLA(2) activity with and without group II and group X-specific inhibitors were measured in BAL fluid from 18 controls and 39 asthmatics. Results The airway epithelium expressed sPLA(2) -X at higher levels than either sPLA(2) -IIA or sPLA(2) -V, whereas BAL cells expressed sPLA(2) -IIA and sPLA(2) -X at similar levels. The majority of sPLA(2) activity in BAL fluid was attributed to either sPLA(2) -IIA or sPLA(2) -X. After 10-fold concentration of BAL fluid, the levels of sPLA(2) -X normalized to total protein were increased in asthma and were associated with lung function, the concentration of induced sputum neutrophils, and prostaglandin E(2) . The levels of sPLA(2) -IIA were elevated in asthma when normalized to total protein, but were not related to lung function, markers of airway inflammation or eicosanoid formation. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance These data indicate that sPLA(2) -IIA and sPLA(2) -X are the major sPLA(2) s in human airways, and suggest a link between the levels of sPLA(2) -X in the airways and several features of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- T S Hallstrand
- Department of Medicine, Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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Ombetta JE, Thelier N, Dong CZ, Plocki S, Tsagris L, Rannou F, Massicot F, Djimdé A, El-Hayek E, Shi Y, Heymans F, Gresh N, Chauvet C. Design of group IIA secreted/synovial phospholipase A(2) inhibitors: an oxadiazolone derivative suppresses chondrocyte prostaglandin E(2) secretion. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10914. [PMID: 20531958 PMCID: PMC2879362 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2010] [Accepted: 04/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Group IIA secreted/synovial phospholipase A2 (GIIAPLA2) is an enzyme involved in the synthesis of eicosanoids such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), the main eicosanoid contributing to pain and inflammation in rheumatic diseases. We designed, by molecular modeling, 7 novel analogs of 3-{4-[5(indol-1-yl)pentoxy]benzyl}-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-one, denoted C1, an inhibitor of the GIIAPLA2 enzyme. We report the results of molecular dynamics studies of the complexes between these derivatives and GIIAPLA2, along with their chemical synthesis and results from PLA2 inhibition tests. Modeling predicted some derivatives to display greater GIIAPLA2 affinities than did C1, and such predictions were confirmed by in vitro PLA2 enzymatic tests. Compound C8, endowed with the most favorable energy balance, was shown experimentally to be the strongest GIIAPLA2 inhibitor. Moreover, it displayed an anti-inflammatory activity on rabbit articular chondrocytes, as shown by its capacity to inhibit IL-1β-stimulated PGE2 secretion in these cells. Interestingly, it did not modify the COX-1 to COX-2 ratio. C8 is therefore a potential candidate for anti-inflammatory therapy in joints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Edouard Ombetta
- Laboratoire de Chimie Organique, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université François Rabelais, Tours, France
| | - Natacha Thelier
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie, Toxicologie et Signalisation Cellulaire, INSERM UMR-S-747, UFR Biomédicale des Saints Pères, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Chang Zhi Dong
- Equipe de Pharmacochimie, ITODYS, CNRS UMR7086, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Stéphanie Plocki
- Equipe de Pharmacochimie, ITODYS, CNRS UMR7086, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Lydia Tsagris
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie, Toxicologie et Signalisation Cellulaire, INSERM UMR-S-747, UFR Biomédicale des Saints Pères, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - François Rannou
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie, Toxicologie et Signalisation Cellulaire, INSERM UMR-S-747, UFR Biomédicale des Saints Pères, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
- Service de rééducation, AP-HP, Hôpital Cochin, Paris, France
| | - France Massicot
- Laboratoire de Chimie-Toxicologie analytique et cellulaire, EA4463, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Atimé Djimdé
- Equipe de Pharmacochimie, ITODYS, CNRS UMR7086, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Elissar El-Hayek
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie, Toxicologie et Signalisation Cellulaire, INSERM UMR-S-747, UFR Biomédicale des Saints Pères, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Yiming Shi
- Equipe de Pharmacochimie, ITODYS, CNRS UMR7086, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Françoise Heymans
- Equipe de Pharmacochimie, ITODYS, CNRS UMR7086, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Nohad Gresh
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biochimie Pharmacologique et Toxicologique, CNRS UMR8601, UFR Biomédicale des Saints Pères, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Caroline Chauvet
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie, Toxicologie et Signalisation Cellulaire, INSERM UMR-S-747, UFR Biomédicale des Saints Pères, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
- * E-mail:
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Hallstrand TS, Wurfel MM, Lai Y, Ni Z, Gelb MH, Altemeier WA, Beyer RP, Aitken ML, Henderson WR. Transglutaminase 2, a novel regulator of eicosanoid production in asthma revealed by genome-wide expression profiling of distinct asthma phenotypes. PLoS One 2010; 5:e8583. [PMID: 20052409 PMCID: PMC2797392 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 12/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A frequent manifestation of asthma, exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB), occurs in 30–50% of asthmatics and is characterized by increased release of inflammatory eicosanoids. The objective of this study was to identify genes differentially expressed in EIB and to understand the function of these genes in the biology of asthma. Methodology/Principal Findings Genome-wide expression profiling of airway leukocytes and epithelial cells obtained by induced sputum was conducted in two groups of subjects with asthma with and without EIB (n = 7 per group), at baseline and following exercise challenge. Based on the results of the gene expression study, additional comparisons were made with a normal control group (n = 10). Localization studies were conducted on epithelial brushings and biopsies from an additional group of asthmatics with EIB (n = 3). Genes related to epithelial repair and mast cell infiltration including β-tryptase and carboxypeptidase A3 were upregulated by exercise challenge in the asthma group with EIB. A gene novel to asthma pathogenesis, transglutaminase 2 (TGM2), was the most differentially expressed at baseline between the groups. In vivo studies confirmed the increased expression of TGM2 in airway cells and airway lining fluid, and demonstrate that TGM2 is avidly expressed in the asthmatic airway epithelium. In vitro studies using recombinant human enzymes reveal that TGM2 augments the enzymatic activity of secreted phospholipase A2 (PLA2) group X (sPLA2-X), an enzyme recently implicated in asthma pathogenesis. Conclusions/Significance This study found that TGM2, a mediator that is novel to asthma pathogenesis, is overexpressed in asthmatic airways and functions to increase sPLA2-X enzymatic activity. Since PLA2 serves as the first rate-limiting step leading to eicosanoid formation, these results suggest that TGM2 may be a key initiator of the airway inflammatory cascade in asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teal S Hallstrand
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
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Wang Q, Sun AY, Pardeike J, Müller RH, Simonyi A, Sun GY. Neuroprotective effects of a nanocrystal formulation of sPLA(2) inhibitor PX-18 in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion in gerbils. Brain Res 2009; 1285:188-95. [PMID: 19527696 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2009] [Revised: 06/04/2009] [Accepted: 06/05/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The group IIA secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA(2)-IIA) has been studied extensively because of its involvement in inflammatory processes. Up-regulation of this enzyme has been shown in a number of neurodegenerative diseases including cerebral ischemia and Alzheimer's disease. PX-18 is a selective sPLA(2) inhibitor effective in reducing tissue damage resulting from myocardial infarction. However, its use as a neuroprotective agent has been hampered due to its low solubility. In this study, we test the possible neuroprotective effects of PX-18 formulated as a suspension of nanocrystals. Transient global cerebral ischemia was induced in gerbils by occlusion of both common carotid arteries for 5 min. Four days after ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), extensive delayed neuronal death, DNA damage, and increases in reactive astrocytes and microglial cells were observed in the hippocampal CA1 region. PX-18 nanocrystals (30 and 60 mg/kg body wt) and vehicle controls were injected i.p. immediately after I/R. PX-18 nanocrystal injection significantly reduced delayed neuronal death, DNA damage, as well as glial cell activation. These findings demonstrated the effective neuroprotection of PX-18 in the form of nanocrystal against I/R-induced neuronal damage. The results also suggest that nanocrystals hold promise as an effective strategy for the delivery of compounds with poor solubility that would otherwise be precluded from preclinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qun Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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