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Shukla M, Rathi K, Hassam M, Yadav DK, Karnatak M, Rawat V, Verma VP. An overview on the antimalarial activity of 1,2,4-trioxanes, 1,2,4-trioxolanes and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes. Med Res Rev 2024; 44:66-137. [PMID: 37222435 DOI: 10.1002/med.21979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The demand for novel, fast-acting, and effective antimalarial medications is increasing exponentially. Multidrug resistant forms of malarial parasites, which are rapidly spreading, pose a serious threat to global health. Drug resistance has been addressed using a variety of strategies, such as targeted therapies, the hybrid drug idea, the development of advanced analogues of pre-existing drugs, and the hybrid model of resistant strains control mechanisms. Additionally, the demand for discovering new potent drugs grows due to the prolonged life cycle of conventional therapy brought on by the emergence of resistant strains and ongoing changes in existing therapies. The 1,2,4-trioxane ring system in artemisinin (ART) is the most significant endoperoxide structural scaffold and is thought to be the key pharmacophoric moiety required for the pharmacodynamic potential of endoperoxide-based antimalarials. Several derivatives of artemisinin have also been found as potential treatments for multidrug-resistant strain in this area. Many 1,2,4-trioxanes, 1,2,4-trioxolanes, and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes derivatives have been synthesised as a result, and many of these have shown promise antimalarial activity both in vivo and in vitro against Plasmodium parasites. As a consequence, efforts to develop a functionally straight-forward, less expensive, and vastly more effective synthetic pathway to trioxanes continue. This study aims to give a thorough examination of the biological properties and mode of action of endoperoxide compounds derived from 1,2,4-trioxane-based functional scaffolds. The present system of 1,2,4-trioxane, 1,2,4-trioxolane, and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxane compounds and dimers with potentially antimalarial activity will be highlighted in this systematic review (January 1963-December 2022).
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Shukla
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali University, Newai, Rajasthan, India
| | - Komal Rathi
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali University, Newai, Rajasthan, India
| | - Mohammad Hassam
- Department of Chemistry, Chemveda Life Sciences Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Dinesh Kumar Yadav
- Department of Chemistry, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Manvika Karnatak
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali University, Newai, Rajasthan, India
| | - Varun Rawat
- School of Chemistry, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ved Prakash Verma
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali University, Newai, Rajasthan, India
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2
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Herrmann L, Leidenberger M, Sacramento de Morais A, Mai C, Çapci A, da Cruz Borges Silva M, Plass F, Kahnt A, Moreira DRM, Kappes B, Tsogoeva SB. Autofluorescent antimalarials by hybridization of artemisinin and coumarin: in vitro/ in vivo studies and live-cell imaging. Chem Sci 2023; 14:12941-12952. [PMID: 38023498 PMCID: PMC10664590 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc03661h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria is one of our planet's most widespread and deadliest diseases, and there is an ever-consistent need for new and improved pharmaceuticals. Natural products have been an essential source of hit and lead compounds for drug discovery. Antimalarial drug artemisinin (ART), a highly effective natural product, is an enantiopure sesquiterpene lactone and occurs in Artemisia annua L. The development of improved antimalarial drugs, which are highly potent and at the same time inherently fluorescent is particularly favorable and highly desirable since they can be used for live-cell imaging, avoiding the requirement of the drug's linkage to an external fluorescent label. Herein, we present the first antimalarial autofluorescent artemisinin-coumarin hybrids with high fluorescence quantum yields of up to 0.94 and exhibiting excellent activity in vitro against CQ-resistant and multidrug-resistant P. falciparum strains (IC50 (Dd2) down to 0.5 nM; IC50 (K1) down to 0.3 nM) compared to reference drugs CQ (IC50 (Dd2) 165.3 nM; IC50 (K1) 302.8 nM) and artemisinin (IC50 (Dd2) 11.3 nM; IC50 (K1) 5.4 nM). Furthermore, a clear correlation between in vitro potency and in vivo efficacy of antimalarial autofluorescent hybrids was demonstrated. Moreover, deliberately designed autofluorescent artemisinin-coumarin hybrids, were not only able to overcome drug resistance, they were also of high value in investigating their mode of action via time-dependent imaging resolution in living P. falciparum-infected red blood cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Herrmann
- Organic Chemistry Chair I and Interdisciplinary Center for Molecular Materials (ICMM), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Straße 10 91054 Erlangen Germany
| | - Maria Leidenberger
- Institute of Medical Biotechnology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Paul-Gordon-Straße 3 91052 Erlangen Germany
| | | | - Christina Mai
- Organic Chemistry Chair I and Interdisciplinary Center for Molecular Materials (ICMM), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Straße 10 91054 Erlangen Germany
| | - Aysun Çapci
- Organic Chemistry Chair I and Interdisciplinary Center for Molecular Materials (ICMM), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Straße 10 91054 Erlangen Germany
| | | | - Fabian Plass
- Leibniz Institute of Surface Engineering (IOM) Permoserstrasse 15 04318 Leipzig Germany
- Physical Chemistry Chair I, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Egerlandstrasse 3 91058 Erlangen Germany
| | - Axel Kahnt
- Leibniz Institute of Surface Engineering (IOM) Permoserstrasse 15 04318 Leipzig Germany
- Physical Chemistry Chair I, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Egerlandstrasse 3 91058 Erlangen Germany
| | - Diogo R M Moreira
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Salvador 40296-710 Brazil
| | - Barbara Kappes
- Institute of Medical Biotechnology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Paul-Gordon-Straße 3 91052 Erlangen Germany
| | - Svetlana B Tsogoeva
- Organic Chemistry Chair I and Interdisciplinary Center for Molecular Materials (ICMM), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Straße 10 91054 Erlangen Germany
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3
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Shiryaev VA, Sokolova IV, Gorbachova AM, Rybakov VB, Shiryaev AK, Klimochkin YN. Convenient synthesis of endo,endo- and endo,exo-bicyclo[3.3.1]nonane diamines. Tetrahedron 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2022.132828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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4
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The Role of the Iron Protoporphyrins Heme and Hematin in the Antimalarial Activity of Endoperoxide Drugs. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15010060. [PMID: 35056117 PMCID: PMC8779033 DOI: 10.3390/ph15010060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium has evolved to regulate the levels and oxidative states of iron protoporphyrin IX (Fe-PPIX). Antimalarial endoperoxides such as 1,2,4-trioxane artemisinin and 1,2,4-trioxolane arterolane undergo a bioreductive activation step mediated by heme (FeII-PPIX) but not by hematin (FeIII-PPIX), leading to the generation of a radical species. This can alkylate proteins vital for parasite survival and alkylate heme into hematin–drug adducts. Heme alkylation is abundant and accompanied by interconversion from the ferrous to the ferric state, which may induce an imbalance in the iron redox homeostasis. In addition to this, hematin–artemisinin adducts antagonize the spontaneous biomineralization of hematin into hemozoin crystals, differing strikingly from artemisinins, which do not directly suppress hematin biomineralization. These hematin–drug adducts, despite being devoid of the peroxide bond required for radical-induced alkylation, are powerful antiplasmodial agents. This review addresses our current understanding of Fe-PPIX as a bioreductive activator and molecular target. A compelling pharmacological model is that by alkylating heme, endoperoxide drugs can cause an imbalance in the iron homeostasis and that the hematin–drug adducts formed have strong cytocidal effects by possibly reproducing some of the toxifying effects of free Fe-PPIX. The antiplasmodial phenotype and the mode of action of hematin–drug adducts open new possibilities for reconciliating the mechanism of endoperoxide drugs and for malaria intervention.
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Studies of Potency and Efficacy of an Optimized Artemisinin-Quinoline Hybrid against Multiple Stages of the Plasmodium Life Cycle. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14111129. [PMID: 34832911 PMCID: PMC8620906 DOI: 10.3390/ph14111129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A recently developed artemisinin-quinoline hybrid, named 163A, has been shown to display potent activity against the asexual blood stage of Plasmodium, the malaria parasite. In this study, we determined its in vitro cytotoxicity to mammalian cells, its potency to suppress P. berghei hepatic infection and to decrease the viability of P. falciparum gametocytes, in addition to determining whether the drug exhibits efficacy of a P. berghei infection in mice. This hybrid compound has a low level of cytotoxicity to mammalian cells and, conversely, a high level of selectivity. It is potent in the prevention of hepatic stage development as well as in killing gametocytes, denoting a potential blockage of malaria transmission. The hybrid presents a potent inhibitory activity for beta-hematin crystal formation, in which subsequent assays revealed that its endoperoxide component undergoes bioactivation by reductive reaction with ferrous heme towards the formation of heme-drug adducts; in parallel, the 7-chloroquinoline component has binding affinity for ferric hemin. Both structural components of the hybrid co-operate to enhance the inhibition of beta-hematin, and this bitopic ligand property is essential for arresting the growth of asexual blood parasites. We demonstrated the in vivo efficacy of the hybrid as an erythrocytic schizonticide agent in comparison to a chloroquine/artemisinin combination therapy. Collectively, the findings suggest that the bitopic property of the hybrid is highly operative on heme detoxification suppression, and this provides compelling evidence for explaining the action of the hybrid on the asexual blood stage. For sporozoite and gametocyte stages, the hybrid conserves the potency typically observed for endoperoxide drugs, and this is possibly achieved due to the redox chemistry of endoperoxide components with ferrous heme.
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6
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Woodley CM, Amado PSM, Cristiano MLS, O'Neill PM. Artemisinin inspired synthetic endoperoxide drug candidates: Design, synthesis, and mechanism of action studies. Med Res Rev 2021; 41:3062-3095. [PMID: 34355414 DOI: 10.1002/med.21849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs) have been used as the first-line treatments against Plasmodium falciparum malaria for decades. Recent advances in chemical proteomics have shed light on the complex mechanism of action of semi-synthetic artemisinin (ARTs), particularly their promiscuous alkylation of parasite proteins via previous heme-mediated bioactivation of the endoperoxide bond. Alarmingly, the rise of resistance to ART in South East Asia and the synthetic limitations of the ART scaffold have pushed the course for the necessity of fully synthetic endoperoxide-based antimalarials. Several classes of synthetic endoperoxide antimalarials have been described in literature utilizing various endoperoxide warheads including 1,2-dioxanes, 1,2,4-trioxanes, 1,2,4-trioxolanes, and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes. Two of these classes, the 1,2,4-trioxolanes (arterolane and artefenomel) and the 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes (N205 and E209) based antimalarials, have been explored extensively and are still in active development. In contrast, the most recent publication pertaining to the development of the 1,2-dioxane, Arteflene, and 1,2,4-trioxanes fenozan-50F, DU1301, and PA1103/SAR116242 was published in 2008. This review summarizes the synthesis, biological and clinical evaluation, and mechanistic studies of the most developed synthetic endoperoxide antimalarials, providing an update on those classes still in active development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrícia S M Amado
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.,Center of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal.,Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Maria L S Cristiano
- Center of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal.,Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Paul M O'Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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7
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Sissoko A, Vásquez-Ocmín P, Maciuk A, Barbieri D, Neveu G, Rondepierre L, Grougnet R, Leproux P, Blaud M, Hammad K, Michel S, Lavazec C, Clain J, Houzé S, Duval R. A Chemically Stable Fluorescent Mimic of Dihydroartemisinin, Artemether, and Arteether with Conserved Bioactivity and Specificity Shows High Pharmacological Relevance to the Antimalarial Drugs. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:1532-1547. [PMID: 32267151 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.9b00430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Three novel tracers designed as fluorescent surrogates of artemisinin-derived antimalarial drugs (i.e., dihydroartemisinin, artemether, arteether, and artemisone) were synthesized from dihydroartemisinin. One of these tracers, corresponding to a dihydroartemisinin/artemether/arteether mimic, showed a combination of excellent physicochemical and biological properties such as hydrolytic stability, high inhibitory potency against blood-stage parasites, similar ring-stage survival assay values than the clinical antimalarials, high cytopermeability and specific labeling of live P. falciparum cells, alkylation of heme, as well as specific covalent labeling of drug-sensitive and drug-resistant P. falciparum proteomes at physiological concentrations, consistent with a multitarget action of the drugs. Our study demonstrates that probes containing the complete structural core of clinical artemisinin derivatives can be stable in biochemical and cellular settings, and recapitulate the complex mechanisms of these frontline, yet threatened, antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdoulaye Sissoko
- Université de Paris, MERIT, IRD, F-75006 Paris, France
- Laboratoire d’Excellence GR-Ex, Paris, France
| | | | - Alexandre Maciuk
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, BioCIS, F-92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Daniela Barbieri
- Laboratoire d’Excellence GR-Ex, Paris, France
- Université de Paris, U1016, INSERM, and UMR 8104,
CNRS, F-75014 Paris, France
| | - Gaëlle Neveu
- Laboratoire d’Excellence GR-Ex, Paris, France
- Université de Paris, U1016, INSERM, and UMR 8104,
CNRS, F-75014 Paris, France
| | - Laurine Rondepierre
- Université de Paris, MERIT, IRD, F-75006 Paris, France
- Laboratoire d’Excellence GR-Ex, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Magali Blaud
- Université de Paris, CiTCoM, CNRS, F-75006 Paris, France
| | - Karim Hammad
- Université de Paris, CiTCoM, CNRS, F-75006 Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Michel
- Université de Paris, CiTCoM, CNRS, F-75006 Paris, France
| | - Catherine Lavazec
- Laboratoire d’Excellence GR-Ex, Paris, France
- Université de Paris, U1016, INSERM, and UMR 8104,
CNRS, F-75014 Paris, France
| | - Jérôme Clain
- Université de Paris, MERIT, IRD, F-75006 Paris, France
- Laboratoire d’Excellence GR-Ex, Paris, France
| | - Sandrine Houzé
- Université de Paris, MERIT, IRD, F-75006 Paris, France
- CNR du Paludisme, AP-HP, Hôpital Bichat − Claude-Bernard, F-75018 Paris, France
| | - Romain Duval
- Université de Paris, MERIT, IRD, F-75006 Paris, France
- Laboratoire d’Excellence GR-Ex, Paris, France
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8
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Xuan W, Xia Y, Li T, Wang L, Liu Y, Tan W. Molecular Self-Assembly of Bioorthogonal Aptamer-Prodrug Conjugate Micelles for Hydrogen Peroxide and pH-Independent Cancer Chemodynamic Therapy. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 142:937-944. [PMID: 31858794 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b10755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) has demonstrated new possibilities for selective and logical cancer intervention by specific manipulation of dysregulated tumorous free radical homeostasis. Current CDT methods largely rely on conversion of endogenous hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into highly toxic hydroxyl radicals via classical Fenton or Haber-Weiss chemistry. However, their anticancer efficacies are greatly limited by the requirement of strong acidity for efficient chemical reactions, insufficient tumorous H2O2, and upregulated antioxidant defense to counteract free radical-caused oxidative damage. Here, we present a new concept whereby bioorthogonal chemistry and prodrug are combined to create a new type of aptamer drug conjugate (ApDC): aptamer-prodrug conjugate (ApPdC) micelle for improved and cancer-targeted CDT. The hydrophobic prodrug bases can not only promote self-assembly of aptamers but also act as free radical generators via bioorthogonal chemistry. In depth mechanistic studies reveal that, unlike traditional CDT systems, ApPdC micelles enable in situ activation and self-cycling generation of toxic C-centered free radicals in cancer cells through cascading bioorthogonal reactions, with no dependence on either H2O2 or pH, yet concurrently with diminished cancerous antioxidation by GSH depletion for a synergistic CDT effect. We expect this work to provide new insights into the design of targeted cancer therapies and studies of free radical-related molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Xuan
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Aptamer Engineering Center of Hunan Province , Hunan University , Changsha 410082 , China
| | - Yinghao Xia
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Aptamer Engineering Center of Hunan Province , Hunan University , Changsha 410082 , China
| | - Ting Li
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Aptamer Engineering Center of Hunan Province , Hunan University , Changsha 410082 , China
| | - Linlin Wang
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Aptamer Engineering Center of Hunan Province , Hunan University , Changsha 410082 , China
| | - Yanlan Liu
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Aptamer Engineering Center of Hunan Province , Hunan University , Changsha 410082 , China
| | - Weihong Tan
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Aptamer Engineering Center of Hunan Province , Hunan University , Changsha 410082 , China.,Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences , The Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310022 , China.,Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution , 13709 Progress Boulevard , Alachua , Florida 32615 , United States
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9
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Giannangelo C, Anderson D, Wang X, Vennerstrom JL, Charman SA, Creek DJ. Ozonide Antimalarials Alkylate Heme in the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum. ACS Infect Dis 2019; 5:2076-2086. [PMID: 31622078 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.9b00257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism of action of ozonide antimalarials involves activation by intraparasitic iron and the formation of highly reactive carbon-centered radicals that alkylate malaria parasite proteins. Given free intraparasitic heme is generally thought to be the iron source responsible for ozonide activation and its likely close proximity to the activated drug, we investigated heme as a possible molecular target of the ozonides. Using an extraction method optimized for solubilization of free heme, untargeted LC-MS analysis of ozonide-treated parasites identified several regioisomers of ozonide-alkylated heme, which resulted from covalent modification of the heme porphyrin ring by an ozonide-derived carbon-centered radical. In addition to the intact alkylated heme adduct, putative ozonide-alkylated heme degradation products were also detected. This study directly demonstrates ozonide modification of heme within the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, revealing that this process may be important for the biological activity of ozonide antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Giannangelo
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Dovile Anderson
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Xiaofang Wang
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Jonathan L. Vennerstrom
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Susan A. Charman
- Centre for Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Darren J. Creek
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
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Narula AK, Azad CS, Nainwal LM. New dimensions in the field of antimalarial research against malaria resurgence. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 181:111353. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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11
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Brecht K, Kirchhofer C, Bouitbir J, Trapani F, Keiser J, Krähenbühl S. Exogenous Iron Increases Fasciocidal Activity and Hepatocellular Toxicity of the Synthetic Endoperoxides OZ78 and MT04. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20194880. [PMID: 31581457 PMCID: PMC6801819 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20194880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The synthetic peroxides OZ78 and MT04 recently emerged as fasciocidal drug candidates. However, the effect of iron on fasciocidal activity and hepatocellular toxicity of these compounds is unknown. We investigated the in vitro fasciocidal activity and hepatocellular toxicity of OZ78 and MT04 in absence and presence of Fe(II)chloride and hemin, and conducted a toxicological study in mice. Studies were performed in comparison with the antimalarial artesunate (AS), a semisynthetic peroxide. Fasciocidal effects of OZ78 and MT04 were confirmed and enhanced by Fe2+ or hemin. In HepG2 cells, AS reduced cellular ATP and impaired membrane integrity concentration-dependently. In comparison, OZ78 or MT04 were not toxic at 100 µM and reduced the cellular ATP by 13% and 19%, respectively, but were not membrane-toxic at 500 µM. The addition of Fe2+ or hemin increased the toxicity of OZ78 and MT04 significantly. AS inhibited complex I, II, and IV of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and MT04 impaired complex I and II, whereas OZ78 was not toxic. All three compounds increased cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration-dependently, with a further increase by Fe2+ or hemin. Mice treated orally with up to 800 mg OZ78, or MT04 showed no relevant hepatotoxicity. In conclusion, we confirmed fasciocidal activity of OZ78 and MT04, which was increased by Fe2+ or hemin. OZ78 and MT04 were toxic to HepG2 cells, which was explained by mitochondrial damage associated with ROS generation in the presence of iron. No relevant hepatotoxicity was observed in mice in vivo, possibly due to limited exposure and/or high antioxidative hepatic capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Brecht
- Division of Biopharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Carla Kirchhofer
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, University of Basel, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Jamal Bouitbir
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, Department of Medicine, University of Basel, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland.
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland.
- Swiss Centre of Applied Human Toxicology (SCAHT), University of Basel, CH-4001 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Francesca Trapani
- Institute of Pathology, University of Basel, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Jennifer Keiser
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, University of Basel, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, Department of Medicine, University of Basel, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland.
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland.
- Swiss Centre of Applied Human Toxicology (SCAHT), University of Basel, CH-4001 Basel, Switzerland.
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12
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D'Alessandro S, Alfano G, Di Cerbo L, Brogi S, Chemi G, Relitti N, Brindisi M, Lamponi S, Novellino E, Campiani G, Gemma S, Basilico N, Taramelli D, Baratto MC, Pogni R, Butini S. Bridged bicyclic 2,3-dioxabicyclo[3.3.1]nonanes as antiplasmodial agents: Synthesis, structure-activity relationships and studies on their biomimetic reaction with Fe(II). Bioorg Chem 2019; 89:103020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.103020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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13
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Kazakov DV, Nazyrov TI, Safarov FE, Yaremenko IA, Terent'ev AO. Chemiluminescence in the reaction of 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes with ferrous ions in the presence of xanthene dyes: fundamentals and perspectives of analytical applications. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2019; 18:1130-1137. [DOI: 10.1039/c8pp00472b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The reaction of biologically active bridged 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes and diperoxide of trifluoroacetone with Fe2+ ions in the presence of xanthenes, methylene blue and methylene green is accompanied by bright chemiluminescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitri V. Kazakov
- Non-profit Scientific
- Educational and Innovational Partnership “Centre of Diagnostics for Nanostructures and Nanomaterials”
- 119991 Moscow
- Russia
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry – Subdivision of the Ufa Federal Research Centre of Russian Academy of Sciences
| | - Timur I. Nazyrov
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry – Subdivision of the Ufa Federal Research Centre of Russian Academy of Sciences
- 450054 Ufa
- Russia
| | - Farit E. Safarov
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry – Subdivision of the Ufa Federal Research Centre of Russian Academy of Sciences
- 450054 Ufa
- Russia
| | - Ivan A. Yaremenko
- N.D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry of the RAS
- 119991 Moscow
- Russia
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14
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Makhmudiyarova NN, Ishmukhametova IR, Tyumkina TV, Ibragimov AG, Dzhemilev UM. Synthesis of N -aryl-hexaoxazadispiroalkanes using lanthanide catalysts. Tetrahedron Lett 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2018.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Yamansarov EY, Kazakov DV, Medvedeva NI, Khusnutdinova EF, Kazakova OB, Legostaeva YV, Ishmuratov GY, Huong LM, Ha TTH, Huong DT, Suponitsky KY. Synthesis and antimalarial activity of 3'-trifluoromethylated 1,2,4-trioxolanes and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxane based on deoxycholic acid. Steroids 2018; 129:17-23. [PMID: 29180289 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2017.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A series of new steroidal peroxides - 3'-trifluoromethylated 1,2,4-trioxolanes and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes based on deoxycholic acid were prepared via the reactions of the Griesbaum coozonolysis and peroxycondensation, respectively. 1,2,4-Trioxolanes were synthesized by the interaction of methyl O-methyl-3-oximino-12α-acetoxy-deoxycholate with CF3C(O)CH3 or CF3C(O)Ph and O3 as the mixtures of four possible stereoisomers at ratios of 1:2:2:1 and in yields of 50% and 38%, respectively. The major diastereomer of methyl 12α-acetoxy-5β-cholan-24-oate-3-spiro-5'-(3'-methyl-3'-trifluoromethyl-1',2',4'-trioxolane) was isolated via crystallization of a mixture of stereoisomers from hexane and its (3S,3'R)-configuration was determined using X-ray crystallographic analysis. Peroxycondensation of methyl 3-bishydroperoxy-12α-acetoxy-deoxycholate with CF3C(O)CH3 or acetone led to 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes in yields of 44% and 37%, respectively. Antimalarial activity of these new steroidal peroxides was evaluated in vitro against the chloroquine-sensitive (CQS) T96 and chloroquine-resistant (CQR) K1 strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Deoxycholic acid 3'-trifluoromethylated 1,2,4,5-tetraoxane demonstrated a good IC50 value against CQR-strain (IC50 (K1) = 7.6 nM) of P. falciparum. Tetraoxane with the acetone subunit demonstrated the best results among all tested peroxides with an IC50 value of 3 nM against the CQ-resistant K1 strain. In general, 1,2,4-trioxolanes of deoxycholic acid are less active than 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil Yu Yamansarov
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 71 prospect Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russian Federation
| | - Dmitri V Kazakov
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 71 prospect Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russian Federation; Noncommercial Partnership "Center for Diagnostic of Nanostructures and Nanomaterials", 4 ul. Kosygina, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Natal'ya I Medvedeva
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 71 prospect Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russian Federation
| | - Elmira F Khusnutdinova
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 71 prospect Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russian Federation
| | - Oxana B Kazakova
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 71 prospect Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russian Federation.
| | - Yuliya V Legostaeva
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 71 prospect Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russian Federation
| | - Gumer Yu Ishmuratov
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 71 prospect Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russian Federation
| | - Le Mai Huong
- Institute of Natural Products Chemistry, Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet Street, Cau Giay Dist., Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Tran Thi Hong Ha
- Institute of Natural Products Chemistry, Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet Street, Cau Giay Dist., Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Do Thi Huong
- Institute of Natural Products Chemistry, Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet Street, Cau Giay Dist., Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Kyrill Yu Suponitsky
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 ul. Vavilova, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
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16
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Zhu R, Jiang JL, Li XL, Deng J, Fu Y. A Comprehensive Study on Metal Triflate-Promoted Hydrogenolysis of Lactones to Carboxylic Acids: From Synthetic and Mechanistic Perspectives. ACS Catal 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.7b01569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Zhu
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical
Sciences at the Microscale, iChEM (Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials), CAS Key Laboratory
of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Biomass
Clean Energy, and Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, P. R. China
| | - Ju-Long Jiang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical
Sciences at the Microscale, iChEM (Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials), CAS Key Laboratory
of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Biomass
Clean Energy, and Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, P. R. China
| | - Xing-Long Li
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical
Sciences at the Microscale, iChEM (Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials), CAS Key Laboratory
of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Biomass
Clean Energy, and Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, P. R. China
| | - Jin Deng
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical
Sciences at the Microscale, iChEM (Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials), CAS Key Laboratory
of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Biomass
Clean Energy, and Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, P. R. China
| | - Yao Fu
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical
Sciences at the Microscale, iChEM (Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials), CAS Key Laboratory
of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Biomass
Clean Energy, and Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, P. R. China
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17
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Dong Y, Wang X, Kamaraj S, Bulbule VJ, Chiu FCK, Chollet J, Dhanasekaran M, Hein CD, Papastogiannidis P, Morizzi J, Shackleford DM, Barker H, Ryan E, Scheurer C, Tang Y, Zhao Q, Zhou L, White KL, Urwyler H, Charman WN, Matile H, Wittlin S, Charman SA, Vennerstrom JL. Structure–Activity Relationship of the Antimalarial Ozonide Artefenomel (OZ439). J Med Chem 2017; 60:2654-2668. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuxiang Dong
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Xiaofang Wang
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Sriraghavan Kamaraj
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Vivek J. Bulbule
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Francis C. K. Chiu
- Centre for
Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Jacques Chollet
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Manickam Dhanasekaran
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Christopher D. Hein
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Petros Papastogiannidis
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Julia Morizzi
- Centre for
Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - David M. Shackleford
- Centre for
Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Helena Barker
- Centre for
Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Eileen Ryan
- Centre for
Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Christian Scheurer
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Yuanqing Tang
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Qingjie Zhao
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Lin Zhou
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Karen L. White
- Centre for
Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Heinrich Urwyler
- Basilea Pharmaceutica Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 487, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - William N. Charman
- Centre for
Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Hugues Matile
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sergio Wittlin
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Susan A. Charman
- Centre for
Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Jonathan L. Vennerstrom
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986125 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
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18
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Asano M, Iwahashi H. Determination of the structures of radicals formed in the reaction of antimalarial drug artemisinin with ferrous ions. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 127:740-747. [PMID: 27823889 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.10.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
While artemisinin 1 has been widely used to treat malaria in traditional Chinese medicine, its exact antimalarial mechanism remains unclear. To elucidate the mechanisms of the antimalarial action by artemisinin, the reactions of artemisinin, artemether 2 and artesunate 3 with Fe2+ were analyzed using an electron spin resonance (ESR), high performance liquid chromatography-electron spin resonance (HPLC-ESR) and high performance liquid chromatography-electron spin resonance-mass spectrometer (HPLC-ESR-MS). α-(4-Pyridyl-1-oxide)-N-tert-butylnitrone (4-POBN) was used as a spin trap reagent in the reactions. Radicals were detected by ESR and structures of the radicals were determined by HPLC-ESR-MS. Based on the ions, m/z 478, m/z 418 and m/z 238 which were determined by HPLC-ESR-MS, we identified following radicals: artemisinin-derived primary and secondary radicals, 6 and 7; acetyl radical, 8; a radical formed through elimination of acetyl group from 6, 10 in the reaction of artemisinin with Fe2+. Radicals, 7 and 8 were also detected in the reaction of artemether and artesunate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Asano
- Department of Chemistry, Wakayama Medical University, 580 Mikazura, Wakayama 641-0011, Japan
| | - Hideo Iwahashi
- Department of Chemistry, Wakayama Medical University, 580 Mikazura, Wakayama 641-0011, Japan.
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19
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Yaremenko IA, Vil’ VA, Demchuk DV, Terent’ev AO. Rearrangements of organic peroxides and related processes. Beilstein J Org Chem 2016; 12:1647-748. [PMID: 27559418 PMCID: PMC4979652 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.12.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This review is the first to collate and summarize main data on named and unnamed rearrangement reactions of peroxides. It should be noted, that in the chemistry of peroxides two types of processes are considered under the term rearrangements. These are conventional rearrangements occurring with the retention of the molecular weight and transformations of one of the peroxide moieties after O-O-bond cleavage. Detailed information about the Baeyer-Villiger, Criegee, Hock, Kornblum-DeLaMare, Dakin, Elbs, Schenck, Smith, Wieland, and Story reactions is given. Unnamed rearrangements of organic peroxides and related processes are also analyzed. The rearrangements and related processes of important natural and synthetic peroxides are discussed separately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan A Yaremenko
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Vera A Vil’
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Dmitry V Demchuk
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Alexander O Terent’ev
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, Moscow, 119991, Russia
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20
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Starkl Renar K, Iskra J, Križaj I. Understanding malarial toxins. Toxicon 2016; 119:319-29. [PMID: 27353131 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Recognized since antiquity, malaria is one of the most infamous and widespread infectious diseases in humans and, although the death rate during the last century has been diminishing, it still accounts for more than a half million deaths annually. It is caused by the Plasmodium parasite and typical symptoms include fever, shivering, headache, diaphoresis and nausea, all resulting from an excessive inflammatory response induced by malarial toxins released into the victim's bloodstream. These toxins are hemozoin and glycosylphosphatidylinositols. The former is the final product of the parasite's detoxification of haeme, a by-product of haemoglobin catabolism, while the latter anchor proteins to the Plasmodium cell surface or occur as free molecules. Currently, only two groups of antimalarial toxin drugs exist on the market, quinolines and artemisinins. As we describe, they both target biosynthesis of hemozoin. Other substances, currently in various phases of clinical trials, are directed towards biosynthesis of glycosylphosphatidylinositol, formation of hemozoin, or attenuation of the inflammatory response of the patient. Among the innovative approaches to alleviating the effects of malarial toxins, is the development of antimalarial toxin vaccines. In this review the most important lessons learned from the use of treatments directed against the action of malarial toxins in antimalarial therapy are emphasized and the most relevant and promising directions for future research in obtaining novel antimalarial agents acting on malarial toxins are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Starkl Renar
- Laboratory of Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Department of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Jernej Iskra
- Laboratory of Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Department of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Igor Križaj
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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21
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Makhmudiyarova NN, Khatmullina GM, Rakhimov RS, Meshcheryakova ES, Ibragimov AG, Dzhemilev UM. The first example of catalytic synthesis of N-aryl-substituted tetraoxazaspiroalkanes. Tetrahedron 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2016.04.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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22
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Schnermann MJ, Shenvi RA. Syntheses and biological studies of marine terpenoids derived from inorganic cyanide. Nat Prod Rep 2015; 32:543-77. [PMID: 25514696 DOI: 10.1039/c4np00109e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Isocyanoterpenes (ICTs) are marine natural products biosynthesized through an unusual pathway that adorns terpene scaffolds with nitrogenous functionality derived from cyanide. The appendage of nitrogen functional groups - isonitriles in particular - onto stereochemically-rich carbocyclic ring systems provides enigmatic, bioactive molecules that have required innovative chemical syntheses. This review discusses the challenges inherent to the synthesis of this diverse family and details the development of the field. We also present recent progress in isolation and discuss key aspects of the remarkable biological activity of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin J Schnermann
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21701, USA.
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23
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Lopes NS, Yoshitake AM, Silva AF, Oliveira VX, Silva LS, Pinheiro AAS, Ciscato LFML. Antimalarial Effect of 3-Methoxy-1,2-Dioxetanes on the Erythrocytic Cycle of Plasmodium falciparum. Chem Biol Drug Des 2015; 86:1373-7. [PMID: 26032859 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.12599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Revised: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The antimalarial activity of peroxides most likely originates from their interaction with iron(II) species located inside the malaria parasite, which forms destructive radical species through a Fenton-like mechanism. This article reports the first evaluation of the in vitro antimalarial activity of three peroxides of the class 1,2-dioxetanes against Plasmodium falciparum; the results reveal that the studied 3-methoxy-1,2-dioxetanes display significant antimalarial activity, at a similar level as artemisinin and also that their reactivity toward iron(II) correlate linearly with their antimalarial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas S Lopes
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Avenida dos Estados 5001, Santo André, SP, 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Ariane M Yoshitake
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Avenida dos Estados 5001, Santo André, SP, 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Adriana F Silva
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Avenida dos Estados 5001, Santo André, SP, 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Vani X Oliveira
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Avenida dos Estados 5001, Santo André, SP, 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Leandro S Silva
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-970, Brazil
| | - Ana A S Pinheiro
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-970, Brazil
| | - Luiz Francisco M L Ciscato
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Avenida dos Estados 5001, Santo André, SP, 09210-580, Brazil
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24
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From hybrid compounds to targeted drug delivery in antimalarial therapy. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:5120-30. [PMID: 25913864 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of new drugs to treat malaria is a continuous effort for medicinal chemists due to the emergence and spread of resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum to nearly all used antimalarials. The rapid adaptation of the malaria parasite remains a major limitation to disease control. Development of hybrid antimalarial agents has been actively pursued as a promising strategy to overcome the emergence of resistant parasite strains. This review presents the journey that started with simple combinations of two active moieties into one chemical entity and progressed into a delivery/targeted system based on major antimalarial classes of drugs. The rationale for providing different mechanisms of action against a single or additional targets involved in the multiple stages of the parasite's life-cycle is highlighted. Finally, a perspective for this polypharmacologic approach is presented.
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25
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Rodrigues CAB, Frade RFM, Albuquerque IS, Perry MJ, Gut J, Machado M, Rosenthal PJ, Prudêncio M, Afonso CAM, Moreira R. Targeting the Erythrocytic and Liver Stages of Malaria Parasites withs-Triazine-Based Hybrids. ChemMedChem 2015; 10:883-90. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201500011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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27
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Brindisi M, Gemma S, Kunjir S, Di Cerbo L, Brogi S, Parapini S, D'Alessandro S, Taramelli D, Habluetzel A, Tapanelli S, Lamponi S, Novellino E, Campiani G, Butini S. Synthetic spirocyclic endoperoxides: new antimalarial scaffolds. MEDCHEMCOMM 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4md00454j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Design, synthesis and molecular docking calculation studies led to the identification of novel spirocyclic peroxides with in vitro and in vivo antimalarial activity.
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28
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Fontaine SD, DiPasquale AG, Renslo AR. Efficient and stereocontrolled synthesis of 1,2,4-trioxolanes useful for ferrous iron-dependent drug delivery. Org Lett 2014; 16:5776-9. [PMID: 25331549 PMCID: PMC4227544 DOI: 10.1021/ol5028392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Ferrous iron-promoted reduction of a hindered peroxide bond underlies the antimalarial action of the 1,2,4-trioxane artemisinin and the 1,2,4-trioxolane arterolane. In appropriately designed systems, a 1,2,4-trioxolane ring can serve as a trigger to realize ferrous iron-dependent and parasite-selective drug delivery, both in vitro and in vivo. A stereocontrolled, expeditious (three steps), and efficient (67-71% overall yield) synthesis of 1,2,4-trioxolanes possessing the requisite 3″ substitution pattern that enables ferrous iron-dependent drug delivery is reported. The key synthetic step involves a diastereoselective Griesbaum co-ozonolysis reaction to afford primarily products with a trans relationship between the 3″ substituent and the peroxide bridge, as confirmed by X-ray structural analysis of a 3″-substituted 4-nitrobenzoate analogue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun D Fontaine
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Small Molecule Discovery Center, University of California, San Francisco , 1700 Fourth Street, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
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29
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Yamansarov EY, Kazakova OB, Medvedeva NI, Kazakov DV, Kukovinets OS, Tolstikov GA. First synthesis of steroidal 1,2,4-trioxolanes. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2014. [DOI: 10.1134/s1070428014070197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Oliveira R, Guedes RC, Meireles P, Albuquerque IS, Gonçalves LM, Pires E, Bronze MR, Gut J, Rosenthal PJ, Prudêncio M, Moreira R, O’Neill PM, Lopes F. Tetraoxane–Pyrimidine Nitrile Hybrids as Dual Stage Antimalarials. J Med Chem 2014; 57:4916-23. [DOI: 10.1021/jm5004528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rudi Oliveira
- Instituto
de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita C. Guedes
- Instituto
de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Meireles
- Instituto
de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Inês S. Albuquerque
- Instituto
de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lídia M. Gonçalves
- Instituto
de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Elisabete Pires
- ITQB-UNL, Av. da República, Estação
Agronómica Nacional, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Maria Rosário Bronze
- Instituto
de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
- ITQB-UNL, Av. da República, Estação
Agronómica Nacional, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Jiri Gut
- Department
of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Philip J. Rosenthal
- Department
of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Miguel Prudêncio
- Instituto
de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rui Moreira
- Instituto
de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Paul M. O’Neill
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Francisca Lopes
- Instituto
de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
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Terent'ev AO, Borisov DA, Vil’ VA, Dembitsky VM. Synthesis of five- and six-membered cyclic organic peroxides: Key transformations into peroxide ring-retaining products. Beilstein J Org Chem 2014; 10:34-114. [PMID: 24454562 PMCID: PMC3896255 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.10.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2013] [Accepted: 11/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present review describes the current status of synthetic five and six-membered cyclic peroxides such as 1,2-dioxolanes, 1,2,4-trioxolanes (ozonides), 1,2-dioxanes, 1,2-dioxenes, 1,2,4-trioxanes, and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes. The literature from 2000 onwards is surveyed to provide an update on synthesis of cyclic peroxides. The indicated period of time is, on the whole, characterized by the development of new efficient and scale-up methods for the preparation of these cyclic compounds. It was shown that cyclic peroxides remain unchanged throughout the course of a wide range of fundamental organic reactions. Due to these properties, the molecular structures can be greatly modified to give peroxide ring-retaining products. The chemistry of cyclic peroxides has attracted considerable attention, because these compounds are used in medicine for the design of antimalarial, antihelminthic, and antitumor agents.
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Key Words
- 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes
- 1,2,4-trioxanes
- 1,2,4-trioxolanes
- 1,2-dioxanes
- 1,2-dioxenes
- 1,2-dioxolanes
- cyclic peroxides
- ozonides
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander O Terent'ev
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Dmitry A Borisov
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Vera A Vil’
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Valery M Dembitsky
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, Moscow, 119991, Russia
- Institute for Drug Research, P.O. Box 12065, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
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Holotransferrin enhances selective anticancer activity of artemisinin against human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 33:862-865. [PMID: 24337849 DOI: 10.1007/s11596-013-1212-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2013] [Revised: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinin, also termed qinghaosu, is extracted from the traditional Chinese medicine artemesia annua L. (the blue-green herb) in the early 1970s, which has been confirmed for effectively treating malaria. Additionally, emerging data prove that artemisinin exhibits anti-cancer effects against many types of cancers such as leukemia, melanoma, etc. Artemisinin becomes cytotoxic in the presence of ferrous iron. Since iron influx is high in cancer cells, artemisinin and its analogs selectively kill cancer cells with increased intracellular iron concentrations. This study is aimed to investigate the selective inhibitory effects of artemisinin on SMMC-7721 cells in vitro and determine the effect of holotransferrin, which increases the concentration of ferrous iron in cancer cells, combined with artemisinin on the anticancer activity. MTT assay was used for assessing the proliferation of SMMC-7721 cells treated with artemisinin. The induction of apoptosis and inhibition of colony formation in SMMC-7721 cells treated with artemisinin were determined by TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) and colony formation assay, respectively. The results showed that artemisinin at various concentrations significantly inhibited growth, colony formation and cell viability of SMMC-7721 cells (P<0.05), likely due to induction of apoptosis of SMMC-7721 cells. Of interest, it was found that incubation of artemisinin combined with holotransferrin sensitized the growth inhibitory effect of artemisinin on SMMC-7721 cells (P<0.01). Our data suggest that treatment with artemisinin leads to inhibition of viability and proliferation, and apoptosis of SMMC-7721 cells. Furthermore, we observed that holotransferrin significantly enhanced the anti-cancer activity of artemisinin. This study may provide a potential therapeutic choice for liver cancer.
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Klonis N, Creek DJ, Tilley L. Iron and heme metabolism in Plasmodium falciparum and the mechanism of action of artemisinins. Curr Opin Microbiol 2013; 16:722-7. [PMID: 23932203 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2013.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
During the asexual blood stage of its lifecycle, the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum grows and multiplies in the hemoglobin-rich environment of the human erythrocyte. Although the parasite has evolved unique strategies to survive in this environment, its interaction with iron represents an Achilles' heel that is exploited by many antimalarial drugs. Recent work has shed new light on how the parasite deals with hemoglobin breakdown products and on the role of iron as a mediator of the action of the antimalarial drug, artemisinin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nectarios Klonis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, and ARC Centre of Excellence for Coherent X-ray Science, 30 Flemington Road, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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34
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Oliveira R, Newton AS, Guedes RC, Miranda D, Amewu RK, Srivastava A, Gut J, Rosenthal PJ, O'Neill PM, Ward SA, Lopes F, Moreira R. An Endoperoxide‐Based Hybrid Approach to Deliver Falcipain Inhibitors Inside Malaria Parasites. ChemMedChem 2013; 8:1528-36. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201300202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Revised: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rudi Oliveira
- iMed.UL and Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, Lisbon, 1649‐003 (Portugal)
| | - Ana S. Newton
- iMed.UL and Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, Lisbon, 1649‐003 (Portugal)
| | - Rita C. Guedes
- iMed.UL and Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, Lisbon, 1649‐003 (Portugal)
| | - Daniela Miranda
- iMed.UL and Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, Lisbon, 1649‐003 (Portugal)
| | - Richard K. Amewu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX (UK)
| | - Abhishek Srivastava
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA (UK)
| | - Jiri Gut
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143 (USA)
| | - Philip J. Rosenthal
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143 (USA)
| | - Paul M. O'Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX (UK)
| | - Stephen A. Ward
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA (UK)
| | - Francisca Lopes
- iMed.UL and Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, Lisbon, 1649‐003 (Portugal)
| | - Rui Moreira
- iMed.UL and Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, Lisbon, 1649‐003 (Portugal)
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Kazakova OB, Smirnova IE, Tkhu HDT, Nguen TT, Apryshko GN, Zhukova OS, Medvedeva NI, Nazyrov TI, Tret’yakova EV, Chudov IV, Ismagilova AF, Suponitsky KY, Kazakov DV, Safarov FE, Tolstikov GA. Synthesis, structure, and pharmacological activity of (7R,8S)-epoxy-(13R,17R)-trioxolane abietic acid. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2013; 39:230-9. [DOI: 10.1134/s1068162013020088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Wang X, Dong Y, Wittlin S, Charman SA, Chiu FCK, Chollet J, Katneni K, Mannila J, Morizzi J, Ryan E, Scheurer C, Steuten J, Santo Tomas J, Snyder C, Vennerstrom JL. Comparative antimalarial activities and ADME profiles of ozonides (1,2,4-trioxolanes) OZ277, OZ439, and their 1,2-dioxolane, 1,2,4-trioxane, and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxane isosteres. J Med Chem 2013; 56:2547-55. [PMID: 23489135 DOI: 10.1021/jm400004u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
To ascertain the structure-activity relationship of the core 1,2,4-trioxolane substructure of dispiro ozonides OZ277 and OZ439, we compared the antimalarial activities and ADME profiles of the 1,2-dioxolane, 1,2,4-trioxane, and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxane isosteres. Consistent with previous data, both dioxolanes had very weak antimalarial properties. For the OZ277 series, the trioxane isostere had the best ADME profile, but its overall antimalarial efficacy was not superior to that of the trioxolane or tetraoxane isosteres. For the OZ439 series, there was a good correlation between the antimalarial efficacy and ADME profiles in the rank order trioxolane > trioxane > tetraoxane. As we have previously observed for OZ439 versus OZ277, the OZ439 series peroxides had superior exposure and efficacy in mice compared to the corresponding OZ277 series peroxides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofang Wang
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986025 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
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Haynes RK, Cheu KW, Chan HW, Wong HN, Li KY, Tang MMK, Chen MJ, Guo ZF, Guo ZH, Sinniah K, Witte AB, Coghi P, Monti D. Interactions between artemisinins and other antimalarial drugs in relation to the cofactor model--a unifying proposal for drug action. ChemMedChem 2012; 7:2204-26. [PMID: 23112085 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201200383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2012] [Revised: 09/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Artemisinins are proposed to act in the malaria parasite cytosol by oxidizing dihydroflavin cofactors of redox-active flavoenzymes, and under aerobic conditions by inducing their autoxidation. Perturbation of redox homeostasis coupled with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) ensues. Ascorbic acid-methylene blue (MB), N-benzyl-1,4-dihydronicotinamide (BNAH)-MB, BNAH-lumiflavine, BNAH-riboflavin (RF), and NADPH-FAD-E. coli flavin reductase (Fre) systems at pH 7.4 generate leucomethylene blue (LMB) and reduced flavins that are rapidly oxidized in situ by artemisinins. These oxidations are inhibited by the 4-aminoquinolines piperaquine (PPQ), chloroquine (CQ), and others. In contrast, the arylmethanols lumefantrine, mefloquine (MFQ), and quinine (QN) have little or no effect. Inhibition correlates with the antagonism exerted by 4-aminoquinolines on the antimalarial activities of MB, RF, and artemisinins. Lack of inhibition correlates with the additivity/synergism between the arylmethanols and artemisinins. We propose association via π complex formation between the 4-aminoquinolines and LMB or the dihydroflavins; this hinders hydride transfer from the reduced conjugates to the artemisinins. The arylmethanols have a decreased tendency to form π complexes, and so exert no effect. The parallel between chemical reactivity and antagonism or additivity/synergism draws attention to the mechanism of action of all drugs described herein. CQ and QN inhibit the formation of hemozoin in the parasite digestive vacuole (DV). The buildup of heme-Fe(III) results in an enhanced efflux from the DV into the cytosol. In addition, the lipophilic heme-Fe(III) complexes of CQ and QN that form in the DV are proposed to diffuse across the DV membrane. At the higher pH of the cytosol, the complexes decompose to liberate heme-Fe(III) . The quinoline or arylmethanol reenters the DV, and so transfers more heme-Fe(III) out of the DV. In this way, the 4-aminoquinolines and arylmethanols exert antimalarial activities by enhancing heme-Fe(III) and thence free Fe(III) concentrations in the cytosol. The iron species enter into redox cycles through reduction of Fe(III) to Fe(II) largely mediated by reduced flavin cofactors and likely also by NAD(P)H-Fre. Generation of ROS through oxidation of Fe(II) by oxygen will also result. The cytotoxicities of artemisinins are thereby reinforced by the iron. Other aspects of drug action are emphasized. In the cytosol or DV, association by π complex formation between pairs of lipophilic drugs must adversely influence the pharmacokinetics of each drug. This explains the antagonism between PPQ and MFQ, for example. The basis for the antimalarial activity of RF mirrors that of MB, wherein it participates in redox cycling that involves flavoenzymes or Fre, resulting in attrition of NAD(P)H. The generation of ROS by artemisinins and ensuing Fenton chemistry accommodate the ability of artemisinins to induce membrane damage and to affect the parasite SERCA PfATP6 Ca(2+) transporter. Thus, the effect exerted by artemisinins is more likely a downstream event involving ROS that will also be modulated by mutations in PfATP6. Such mutations attenuate, but cannot abrogate, antimalarial activities of artemisinins. Overall, parasite resistance to artemisinins arises through enhancement of antioxidant defense mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Haynes
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Molecular Technology for Drug Discovery and Synthesis, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, PR China.
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Copple IM, Mercer AE, Firman J, Donegan G, Herpers B, Wong MH, Chadwick J, Bringela AD, Cristiano MLS, van de Water B, Ward SA, O'Neill PM, Park BK. Examination of the cytotoxic and embryotoxic potential and underlying mechanisms of next-generation synthetic trioxolane and tetraoxane antimalarials. Mol Med 2012; 18:1045-55. [PMID: 22669474 DOI: 10.2119/molmed.2012.00154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Semisynthetic artemisinin-based therapies are the first-line treatment for P. falciparum malaria, but next-generation synthetic drug candidates are urgently required to improve availability and respond to the emergence of artemisinin-resistant parasites. Artemisinins are embryotoxic in animal models and induce apoptosis in sensitive mammalian cells. Understanding the cytotoxic propensities of antimalarial drug candidates is crucial to their successful development and utilization. Here, we demonstrate that, similarly to the model artemisinin artesunate (ARS), a synthetic tetraoxane drug candidate (RKA182) and a trioxolane equivalent (FBEG100) induce embryotoxicity and depletion of primitive erythroblasts in a rodent model. We also show that RKA182, FBEG100 and ARS are cytotoxic toward a panel of established and primary human cell lines, with caspase-dependent apoptosis and caspase-independent necrosis underlying the induction of cell death. Although the toxic effects of RKA182 and FBEG100 proceed more rapidly and are relatively less cell-selective than that of ARS, all three compounds are shown to be dependent upon heme, iron and oxidative stress for their ability to induce cell death. However, in contrast to previously studied artemisinins, the toxicity of RKA182 and FBEG100 is shown to be independent of general chemical decomposition. Although tetraoxanes and trioxolanes have shown promise as next-generation antimalarials, the data described here indicate that adverse effects associated with artemisinins, including embryotoxicity, cannot be ruled out with these novel compounds, and a full understanding of their toxicological actions will be central to the continuing design and development of safe and effective drug candidates which could prove important in the fight against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Copple
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Translational Medicine, The University of Liverpool, Sherrington Buildings, Ashton Street, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
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van Dooren GG, Kennedy AT, McFadden GI. The use and abuse of heme in apicomplexan parasites. Antioxid Redox Signal 2012; 17:634-56. [PMID: 22320355 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Heme is an essential prosthetic group for most life on Earth. It functions in numerous cellular redox reactions, including in antioxidant defenses and at several stages of the electron transport chain in prokaryotes and eukaryotic mitochondria. Heme also functions as a sensor and transport molecule for gases such as oxygen. Heme is a complex organic molecule and can only be synthesized through a multienzyme pathway from simpler precursors. Most free-living organisms synthesize their own heme by a broadly conserved metabolic pathway. Parasites are adept at scavenging molecules from their hosts, and heme is no exception. RECENT ADVANCES In this review we examine recent advances in understanding heme usage and acquisition in Apicomplexa, a group of parasites that include the causative agents of malaria, toxoplasmosis, and several major parasites of livestock. CRITICAL ISSUES Heme is critical to the survival of Apicomplexa, although the functions of heme in these organisms remain poorly understood. Some Apicomplexa likely scavenge heme from their host organisms, while others retain the ability to synthesize heme. Surprisingly, some Apicomplexa may be able to both synthesize and scavenge heme. Several Apicomplexa live in intracellular environments that contain high levels of heme. Since heme is toxic at high concentrations, parasites must carefully regulate intracellular heme levels and develop mechanisms to detoxify excess heme. Indeed, drugs interfering with heme detoxification serve as major antimalarials. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Understanding heme requirements and regulation in apicomplexan parasites promises to reveal multiple targets for much-needed therapeutic intervention against these parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giel G van Dooren
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
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Preuss J, Maloney P, Peddibhotla S, Hedrick MP, Hershberger P, Gosalia P, Milewski M, Li YL, Sugarman E, Hood B, Suyama E, Nguyen K, Vasile S, Sergienko E, Mangravita-Novo A, Vicchiarelli M, McAnally D, Smith LH, Roth GP, Diwan J, Chung TDY, Jortzik E, Rahlfs S, Becker K, Pinkerton AB, Bode L. Discovery of a Plasmodium falciparum glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 6-phosphogluconolactonase inhibitor (R,Z)-N-((1-ethylpyrrolidin-2-yl)methyl)-2-(2-fluorobenzylidene)-3-oxo-3,4-dihydro-2H-benzo[b][1,4]thiazine-6-carboxamide (ML276) that reduces parasite growth in vitro. J Med Chem 2012; 55:7262-72. [PMID: 22813531 DOI: 10.1021/jm300833h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
A high-throughput screen of the NIH's MLSMR collection of ∼340000 compounds was undertaken to identify compounds that inhibit Plasmodium falciparum glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (PfG6PD). PfG6PD is important for proliferating and propagating P. falciparum and differs structurally and mechanistically from the human orthologue. The reaction catalyzed by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is the first, rate-limiting step in the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), a key metabolic pathway sustaining anabolic needs in reductive equivalents and synthetic materials in fast-growing cells. In P. falciparum , the bifunctional enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase-6-phosphogluconolactonase (PfGluPho) catalyzes the first two steps of the PPP. Because P. falciparum and infected host red blood cells rely on accelerated glucose flux, they depend on the G6PD activity of PfGluPho. The lead compound identified from this effort, (R,Z)-N-((1-ethylpyrrolidin-2-yl)methyl)-2-(2-fluorobenzylidene)-3-oxo-3,4-dihydro-2H-benzo[b][1,4]thiazine-6-carboxamide, 11 (ML276), is a submicromolar inhibitor of PfG6PD (IC(50) = 889 nM). It is completely selective for the enzyme's human isoform, displays micromolar potency (IC(50) = 2.6 μM) against P. falciparum in culture, and has good drug-like properties, including high solubility and moderate microsomal stability. Studies testing the potential advantage of inhibiting PfG6PD in vivo are in progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Preuss
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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41
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Slack RD, Jacobine AM, Posner GH. Antimalarial peroxides: advances in drug discovery and design. MEDCHEMCOMM 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2md00277a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Hartwig CL, Lauterwasser EMW, Mahajan SS, Hoke JM, Cooper RA, Renslo AR. Investigating the antimalarial action of 1,2,4-trioxolanes with fluorescent chemical probes. J Med Chem 2011; 54:8207-13. [PMID: 22023506 DOI: 10.1021/jm2012003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The 1,2,4-trioxolanes are a new class of synthetic peroxidic antimalarials currently in human clinical trials. The well-known reactivity of the 1,2,4-trioxolane ring toward inorganic ferrous iron and ferrous iron heme is proposed to play a role in the antimalarial action of this class of compounds. We have designed structurally relevant fluorescent chemical probes to study the subcellular localization of 1,2,4-trioxolanes in cultured Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Microscopy experiments revealed that a probe fluorescently labeled on the adamantane ring accumulated specifically in digestive vacuole-associated neutral lipid bodies within the parasite while an isosteric, but nonperoxidic, congener did not. Probes fluorescently labeled on the cyclohexane ring showed no distinct localization pattern. In their subcellular localization and peroxidative effects, 1,2,4-trioxolane probes behave much like artemisinin-based probes studied previously. Our results are consistent with a role for adamantane-derived carbon-centered radicals in the antimalarial action of 1,2,4-trioxolanes, as hypothesized previously on the basis of chemical reactivity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmony L Hartwig
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, United States
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