Pilot Evaluation of Two Fasciola hepatica Biomarkers for Supporting Triclabendazole (TCBZ) Efficacy Diagnostics

Fasciola hepatica, the causative agent of fasciolosis, is a global threat to public health, animal welfare, agricultural productivity, and food security. In the ongoing absence of a commercial vaccine, independent emergences of anthelmintic-resistant parasite populations worldwide are threatening the sustainability of the few flukicides presently available, and particularly triclabendazole (TCBZ) as the drug of choice. Consequently, prognoses for future fasciolosis control and sustained TCBZ application necessitate improvements in diagnostic tools to identify anthelmintic efficacy. Previously, we have shown that proteomic fingerprinting of F. hepatica excretory/secretory (ES) products offered new biomarkers associated with in vitro TCBZ-sulfoxide (SO) recovery or death. In the current paper, two of these biomarkers (calreticulin (CRT) and triose phosphate isomerase (TPI)) were recombinantly expressed and evaluated to measure TCBZ efficacy via a novel approach to decipher fluke molecular phenotypes independently of molecular parasite resistance mechanism(s), which are still not fully characterised or understood. Our findings confirmed the immunoreactivity and diagnostic potential of the present target antigens by sera from TCBZ-susceptible (TCBZ-S) and TCBZ-resistant (TCBZ-R) F. hepatica experimentally infected sheep.

Drug resistance in liver flukes

Liver flukes include Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica, Clonorchis sinensis, Opisthorchis spp., Fascioloides magna, Gigantocotyle explanatum and Dicrocoelium spp. The two main species, F. hepatica and F. gigantica, are major parasites of livestock and infections result in huge economic losses. As with C. sinensis, Opisthorchis spp. and Dicrocoelium spp., they affect millions of people worldwide, causing severe health problems. Collectively, the group is referred to as the Food-Borne Trematodes and their true significance is now being more widely recognised. However, reports of resistance to triclabendazole (TCBZ), the most widely used anti-Fasciola drug, and to other current drugs are increasing. This is a worrying scenario. In this review, progress in understanding the mechanism(s) of resistance to TCBZ is discussed, focusing on tubulin mutations, altered drug uptake and changes in drug metabolism. There is much interest in the development of new drugs and drug combinations, the re-purposing of non-flukicidal drugs, and the development of new drug formulations and delivery systems; all this work will be reviewed. Sound farm management practices also need to be put in place, with effective treatment programmes, so that drugs can be used wisely and their efficacy conserved as much as is possible. This depends on reliable advice being given by veterinarians and other advisors. Accurate diagnosis and identification of drug-resistant fluke populations is central to effective control: to determine the actual extent of the problem and to determine how well or otherwise a treatment has worked; for research on establishing the mechanism of resistance (and identifying molecular markers of resistance); for informing treatment options; and for testing the efficacy of new drug candidates. Several diagnostic methods are available, but there are no recommended guidelines or standardised protocols in place and this is an issue that needs to be addressed.

Liver Fluke Vaccine Assessment in Cattle

Liver fluke Fasciola hepatica remains an important agent of foodborne trematode disease producing great economic losses due to its negative effect on productivity of grazing livestock in temperate areas. The prevailing control strategies based on antihelminthic drugs are not long term sustainable due to widespread resistance. Hence, vaccination appears as an attractive option to pursue for parasite eradication.

Determination of the prevalence and intensity of Fasciola hepatica infection in dairy cattle from six irrigation regions of Victoria, South-eastern Australia, further identifying significant triclabendazole resistance on three properties

Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke) is a widespread parasite infection of livestock in Victoria, South-eastern Australia, where high rainfall and a mild climate is suitable for the main intermediate host Austropeplea tomentosa. The aims of this study were to quantify the prevalence and intensity of F. hepatica in dairy cattle in the irrigated dairy regions of Victoria and determine if triclabendazole resistance was present in infected herds. Cattle in 83 herds from the following six irrigation regions were tested for F. hepatica: Macalister Irrigation District (MID), Upper Murray (UM), Murray Valley (MV), Central Goulburn (CG), Torrumbarry (TIA) and Loddon Valley (LV). Twenty cattle from each herd were tested using the F. hepatica faecal egg count (FEC) as well as the coproantigen ELISA (cELISA). The mean individual animal true prevalence of F. hepatica across all regions was 39 % (95 % credible interval [CrI] 27%-51%) by FEC and 39 % (95 % CrI 27%-50%) by cELISA with the highest true prevalence (75-80 %) found in the MID. Our results show that 46 % of the herds that took part in this study were likely to experience fluke-associated production losses, based on observations that herd productivity is impaired when the true within-herd prevalence is > 25 %. Using the FEC and cELISA reduction tests, triclabendazole resistance was assessed on 3 herds in total (2 from the 83 in the study; and 1 separate herd that did not take part in the prevalence study) and resistance was confirmed in all 3 herds. This study has confirmed that F. hepatica is endemic in several dairy regions in Victoria: triclabendazole resistance may be contributing to the high prevalence in some herds. From our analysis, we estimate that the state-wide economic loss associated with fasciolosis is in the order of AUD 129 million (range AUD 38-193 million) per year or about AUD 50,000 (range AUD 15,000-75,000) per herd per year.

Exogenous Iron Increases Fasciocidal Activity and Hepatocellular Toxicity of the Synthetic Endoperoxides OZ78 and MT04

The synthetic peroxides OZ78 and MT04 recently emerged as fasciocidal drug candidates. However, the effect of iron on fasciocidal activity and hepatocellular toxicity of these compounds is unknown. We investigated the in vitro fasciocidal activity and hepatocellular toxicity of OZ78 and MT04 in absence and presence of Fe(II)chloride and hemin, and conducted a toxicological study in mice. Studies were performed in comparison with the antimalarial artesunate (AS), a semisynthetic peroxide. Fasciocidal effects of OZ78 and MT04 were confirmed and enhanced by Fe²⁺ or hemin. In HepG2 cells, AS reduced cellular ATP and impaired membrane integrity concentration-dependently. In comparison, OZ78 or MT04 were not toxic at 100 µM and reduced the cellular ATP by 13% and 19%, respectively, but were not membrane-toxic at 500 µM. The addition of Fe²⁺ or hemin increased the toxicity of OZ78 and MT04 significantly. AS inhibited complex I, II, and IV of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and MT04 impaired complex I and II, whereas OZ78 was not toxic. All three compounds increased cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration-dependently, with a further increase by Fe²⁺ or hemin. Mice treated orally with up to 800 mg OZ78, or MT04 showed no relevant hepatotoxicity. In conclusion, we confirmed fasciocidal activity of OZ78 and MT04, which was increased by Fe²⁺ or hemin. OZ78 and MT04 were toxic to HepG2 cells, which was explained by mitochondrial damage associated with ROS generation in the presence of iron. No relevant hepatotoxicity was observed in mice in vivo, possibly due to limited exposure and/or high antioxidative hepatic capacity.

A new approach to design 3(3-sulfamoylbenzamido) benzoic acid containing transition metal complexes: Characterization and Biological activities

Zn, Cu, Co and Ni are biocompatible metals as they are active center of many enzymes in the human body. Incorporation of these biocompatible metals into 3-(o-Sulfamoylphenyl) carbamoylbenzoic acid (I) makes them able to prove an excellent antimicrobial agent. In the present study Ni (II), Co (II), Cu(II) and Zn (II) complexes (III-VI) were synthesized from ligand (I) derive from 3-(o-Sulfamoylphenyl) carbamoylbenzoic acid and zinc, nickel, cobalt acetate tetrahydrate/copper acetate monohydrate. Synthesized complexes (III-VI) were characterized by FT-IR, ¹H NMR and ¹³CNMR. III-VI have 81-93% yield while melting points recorded were in the range of 209-239oC. Purity of ligands and their respective complexes was confirmed by TLC. Results of antibacterial properties suggested that III, IV, V and VI were highly active against gram +ve (S. epidermidis, B. subtilis. S. aureus, S. mutans) and gram -ve bacteria (E. coli and P. aruginosa). Comparison was also performed to check whether metal complexes or ligand with its derivative exhibit best result against all tested strains. The anthelmintic activity of the complexes III-VI against tape worm, liver fluke, thread worm, and hook worm using three different concentrations (15, 30, 45mg/mL), significantly (p<0.01) paralyzed the worms followed by death, which was comparable with that of the standard. Overall results indicated that S. epidermidis, S. mutans, E. coli and B. subtilis are very sensitive to complex III & IV and can be used for treatment of bacterial infections whereas Complex-V, could a potent target for anti-parasite therapy.

Chemotactic migration of newly excysted juvenile Clonorchis sinensis is suppressed by neuro-antagonists

The metacercariae of the Clonorchis sinensis liver fluke excyst in the duodenum of mammalian hosts, and the newly excysted juveniles (CsNEJs) migrate along the bile duct via bile chemotaxis. Cholic acid is a major component of bile that induces this migration. We investigated the neuronal control of chemotactic behavior of CsNEJs toward cholic acid. The migration of CsNEJs was strongly inhibited at sub-micromolar concentration by dopamine D1 (LE-300 and SKF-83566), D2 (spiramide, nemonapride, and sulpiride), and D3 (GR-103691 and NGB-2904) receptor antagonists, as well as a dopamine reuptake inhibitor (BTCP). Neuropeptides, FMRFamide, peptide YY, and neuropeptide Y were also potent inhibitors of chemotaxis. Meanwhile, serotonergic, glutamatergic, and cholinergic inhibitors did not affect chemotaxis, with the exception of fluoxetine and CNQX. Confocal immunofluorescence analysis indicated that dopaminergic and cholinergic neurons were colocalized in the somatic muscle tissues of adult C. sinensis. Our findings suggest that dopaminergic neurons and neuropeptides play a major role in the chemotactic migration of CsNEJs to bile, and their inhibitors or modulators could be utilized to prevent their migration from the bile duct.

Cathepsin L Inhibitors with Activity against the Liver Fluke Identified From a Focus Library of Quinoxaline 1,4-di-N-Oxide Derivatives

Infections caused by Fasciola species are widely distributed in cattle and sheep causing significant economic losses, and are emerging as human zoonosis with increasing reports of human cases, especially in children in endemic areas. The current treatment is chemotherapeutic, triclabendazole being the drug of preference since it is active against all parasite stages. Due to the emergence of resistance in several countries, the discovery of new chemical entities with fasciolicidal activity is urgently needed. In our continuous search for new fasciolicide compounds, we identified and characterized six quinoxaline 1,4-di-N-oxide derivatives from our in-house library. We selected them from a screening of novel inhibitors against FhCL1 and FhCL3 proteases, two essential enzymes secreted by juvenile and adult flukes. We report compounds C7, C17, C18, C19, C23, and C24 with an IC₅₀ of less than 10 µM in at least one cathepsin. We studied their binding kinetics in vitro and their enzyme-ligand interactions in silico by molecular docking and molecular dynamic (MD) simulations. These compounds readily kill newly excysted juveniles in vitro and have low cytotoxicity in a Hep-G2 cell line and bovine spermatozoa. Our findings are valuable for the development of new chemotherapeutic approaches against fascioliasis, and other pathologies involving cysteine proteases.

Different SNPs in Fasciola hepatica P-glycoprotein from diverse Latin American populations are not associated with Triclabendazole resistance

The use of Triclabendazole for controlling fasciolosis is compromised by increased drug resistance affecting livestock and humans. Although the mode of action of TCBZ is still unknown, putative candidates and markers of resistance have been advanced. A single nucleotide polymorphism (T687 G) in F. hepatica PGP was proposed as marker of resistance in a small scale study of European susceptible and resistant flukes, but the association was not found in Australian samples. The T687 G SNP was absent in more than 40 samples from 2 TCBZ-resistant and 3 susceptible isolates across Latin America here analyzed. While the American samples showed more variable SNPs than the previous ones, none of the SNPs detected showed a marked association with resistance. Analyzing the 42 kb of the FhPGP gene based on RNAseq data highlights that the variation has been underestimated, suggesting that more detailed efforts are needed in order to identify markers of resistance.

Understanding the main route of drug entry in adult Fasciola hepatica: Further insights into closantel pharmacological activity

Closantel (CLS) is highly effective against adult liver flukes after its oral or subcutaneous (sc) administration in ruminants. Trans-tegumental diffusion and oral ingestion are the two potential routes available for the entry of drugs into Fasciola hepatica. The work reported here contributes to improve the understanding of CLS pharmacology. The main goals of were: I) to determine the pattern of in vivo CLS accumulation into adult F. hepatica and relevant tissues in CLS-treated sheep; II) to investigate the influence of the physicochemical composition of the incubation medium on the CLS diffusion process into adult F. hepatica; III) to assess the ovicidal activity of CLS against F. hepatica eggs; and IV) to investigate the in vivo effect of CLS treatment on glutathione S-transferases activity in adult liver flukes exposed to CLS. Fourteen healthy sheep were each orally infected with 75 F. hepatica metacercariae. Sixteen (16) weeks after infection, animals were treated with CLS by oral (n = 6, 10 mg/kg) or sub-cutaneous (sc) (n = 6, 5 mg/kg) route. At 12, 24 and 36 h post-treatment, animals were sacrificed (n = 2) and samples of blood, bile and adult F. hepatica were collected. In addition, flukes recovered from non-treated sheep (n = 2) were ex vivo incubated (60 min) in the presence of CLS in either RPMI or bile as incubation medium. CLS concentration was measured by HPLC. The ovicidal activity of CLS was investigated using eggs obtained from the bile of untreated sheep. Finally, glutathione S-transferase activity in F. hepatica recovered from untreated and CLS-treated sheep was assessed. In the in vivo studies, the highest CLS concentrations were measured in plasma and adult liver flukes. A positive correlation was observed between CLS concentration in plasma and in F. hepatica. Results obtained in the current work indicate that the in vivo accumulation of CLS into adult liver flukes occurs mainly by the oral route. After ex vivo incubation, the uptake of CLS by the parasite was markedly diminished in the presence of bile compared with that observed in the presence of RPMI as incubation medium. CLS lacks ovicidal activity at therapeutically relevant concentrations. Lastly, CLS significantly increased glutathione S-transferase activity in flukes recovered at 12 h (oral treatment) and 24 h (sc treatment), compared to the control liver flukes.

Disruption of egg production by triclabendazole-resistant Fasciola hepatica following treatment with a commercial preparation of myrrh (Mirazid)

An in vitro study has been carried out to monitor changes to the female reproductive system in adult triclabendazole (TCBZ)-resistant Fasciola hepatica following treatment with a commercial preparation of myrrh ("Mirazid"). Flukes were immersed for 6 h and 24 h in myrrh extract at a concentration of 200 µg/ml, then processed for histological and transmission electron microscope (TEM) examination of the uterus, Mehlis' gland, ovary and vitellaria. Egg production had become abnormal at 6 h post-treatment (pt), with the uterine lumen being filled with free vitelline cells and masses of shell protein material; few eggs were present. At 24 h pt, no eggs were present. Distinct changes to the ovary and Mehlis' gland were only observed after 24 h incubation in Mirazid. The ovary contained numbers of apoptotic oogonia and oocytes. In the Mehlis' gland, the S1 cells were disorganised and the processes from them were vacuolated, although the disruption was not significant. More severe changes were observed in the vitelline cells and follicles. After 6 h incubation in Mirazid, although the gross organisation of the vitelline follicles appeared to be normal, nuclear changes indicative of the early stages of apoptosis were observed in the stem cells and shell protein production by the mature cells had decreased. At 24 h pt, a distinct shift in cell population was evident, with the follicles containing mainly mature cells and spaces were present between the cells. The shell globule clusters in the mature cells were disorganised. In more severely-affected follicles, cells were seen to be breaking down, with karyolytic nuclei and disintegrating cytoplasm. Overall, the results have shown that exposure to Mirazid treatment had a severe impact on egg production by TCBZ-resistant flukes, an effect that was mediated by disruption of the vitelline cells and of the mechanism co-ordinating egg formation in the ootype.

Fasciola hepatica demonstrates high levels of genetic diversity, a lack of population structure and high gene flow: possible implications for drug resistance

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Self-fertilisation does occur but is rare in field populations of Fasciola hepatica.

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Some hosts harboured genotypically identical parasites (clones).

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The presence of clones is consistent with clonal expansion and clumped transmission.

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84% of 1579 F. hepatica had unique genotypes, indicating high genetic diversity.

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We found high gene flow, no population structure and low self-fertilisation rate.

Fasciola hepatica, the liver fluke, is a trematode parasite of considerable economic importance to the livestock industry and is a re-emerging zoonosis that poses a risk to human health in F. hepatica-endemic areas worldwide. Drug resistance is a substantial threat to the current and future control of F. hepatica, yet little is known about how the biology of the parasite influences the development and spread of resistance. Given that F. hepatica can self-fertilise and therefore inbreed, there is the potential for greater population differentiation and an increased likelihood of recessive alleles, such as drug resistance genes, coming together. This could be compounded by clonal expansion within the snail intermediate host and aggregation of parasites of the same genotype on pasture. Alternatively, widespread movement of animals that typically occurs in the UK could promote high levels of gene flow and prevent population differentiation. We identified clonal parasites with identical multilocus genotypes in 61% of hosts. Despite this, 84% of 1579 adult parasites had unique multilocus genotypes, which supports high levels of genotypic diversity within F. hepatica populations. Our analyses indicate a selfing rate no greater than 2%, suggesting that this diversity is in part due to the propensity for F. hepatica to cross-fertilise. Finally, although we identified high genetic diversity within a given host, there was little evidence for differentiation between populations from different hosts, indicating a single panmictic population. This implies that, once those emerge, anthelmintic resistance genes have the potential to spread rapidly through liver fluke populations.

Assessment of flukicide efficacy against Fasciola hepatica in sheep in Sweden in the absence of a standardised test

Anthelmintic resistance (AR) to Fasciola hepatica is emerging worldwide. Recently, AR to the adulticide compound albendazole (ABZ) was shown in Argentina and Spain. In Sweden, ABZ treatment failure against F. hepatica was first reported in sheep in 2012. The present study tested the efficacy of ABZ and triclabendazole (TCBZ) in sheep naturally infected with F. hepatica using a combination of three different diagnostic methods: faecal egg counts (FEC), coproantigen ELISA (cELISA) and Fasciola egg hatch test (FEHT). Two deworming trials, in November 2014 and January 2015, were performed on two sheep farms (farms A and B) in south-western Sweden. Except ABZ in November, treatment with ABZ or TCBZ achieved sufficient efficacy (97-100%) against adult F. hepatica on farm A. In contrast, ABZ treatment failed in the sheep flock on farm B, despite low initial faecal egg output. On farm B, ABZ efficacy based on FEC was 67% (95% CI: 35-84) and four of eight ewes tested were coproantigen-positive 21 days post-treatment. Ovicidal activity of ABZ against Fasciola eggs in isolates from both farms and one additional bovine isolate were tested by FEHT to exclude the presence of juvenile flukes and other factors such as dosing failure and poor quality of drug product. Irrespective of drug trial, data from FEHT showed significantly lower ovicidal activity of ABZ for the ovine farm B isolate than for the isolate from farm A. This confirms that the low efficacy of ABZ in sheep flock B was associated with ABZ resistance. Overall, the usefulness of three complementary methods for detection of ABZ resistance in the field was demonstrated.

Treatment Failure after Multiple Courses of Triclabendazole among Patients with Fascioliasis in Cusco, Peru: A Case Series

Triclabendazole is reported to be highly effective in treatment of human fascioliasis. We present 7 of 19 selected cases of human fascioliasis referred to our center in the Cusco region of Peru that failed to respond to triclabendazole. These were mostly symptomatic adults of both sexes that continued passing Fasciola eggs in the stool despite multiple treatments with 2 doses of triclabendazole at 10 mg/kg per dose. We documented the presence of eggs by rapid sedimentation and Kato Katz tests after each treatment course. We found that repeated triclabendazole courses were not effective against fascioliasis in this group of people. These findings suggest that resistance to triclabendazole may be an emerging problem in the Andes.

Fascioliasis is a zoonotic food borne trematode infection with a wide distribution. The complex epidemiology of this infection makes control efforts difficult. The paucity of drugs available for treatment may further hinder their success. Triclabendazole, the only first line drug for Fasciola, has been used for many years in the livestock industry. Resistant livestock Fasciola infections have emerged in developing and developed countries. However, most human trials report triclabendazole efficacies close to 100% after a few doses. Only a few cases of triclabendazole treatment failure have been published. We document 7 patients infected with Fasciola hepatica in Cusco–Peru that failed several treatment courses with triclabendazole. This raises concerns regarding preparedness to address resistant parasite infections and calls for more research to find new medications and tools to evaluate resistance.

Molluscicidal activity of Solanum elaeagnifolium seeds against Galba truncatula intermediate host of Fasciola hepatica: Identification of β-solamarine

CONTEXT

The persistence of fascioliasis in many developing countries urges the search for simple, cheap, and effective substances. In this view, plants provide interesting molluscicidal activities thanks to the secondary metabolites they produce. The genus Solanum is known for its potent effect on vector snails.

OBJECTIVE

The molluscicidal activity of Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. (Solanaceae) seeds against Galba truncatula Müll. (Lymnaeidae), intermediate host of Fasciola hepatica L. (Fasciolidae), was evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Solanum elaeagnifolium seeds were powdered and successively extracted using n-hexane, methylene chloride, acetone, and methanol, for 20 h each. After filtration, solvents were evaporated. An acid-base treatment was conducted on seed methanolic extract to isolate total alkaloids and β-solamarine. Total saponins fraction was obtained after successive macerations and evaporations. The molluscicidal activity was evaluated by subjecting snails, in groups of 10, for 48 h to 500 mL of extracts, fractions, and pure product aqueous solutions, each containing amounts, ranging from 1 to 50 mg of plant material in 5 mg increments.

RESULTS

The methanolic extract of seeds, β-solamarine isolated for the first time from this plant and total saponins fraction showed very potent activities on snails, giving respective median lethal concentrations (LC50) of 1.18, 0.49, and 0.94 mg/L. Total alkaloids fraction obtained from the methanolic extract was less active giving an LC50 value of 14.67 mg/L.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study emphasizes that glycoalkaloids and saponins of Solanum elaeagnifolium are potent molluscicidal agents. Seed methanolic extract, β-solamarine, and total saponins fraction may be used as molluscicides.

Insights into the Interactions of Fasciola hepatica Cathepsin L3 with a Substrate and Potential Novel Inhibitors through In Silico Approaches

Background

Fasciola hepatica is the causative agent of fascioliasis, a disease affecting grazing animals, causing economic losses in global agriculture and currently being an important human zoonosis. Overuse of chemotherapeutics against fascioliasis has increased the populations of drug resistant parasites. F. hepatica cathepsin L3 is a protease that plays important roles during the life cycle of fluke. Due to its particular collagenolytic activity it is considered an attractive target against the infective phase of F. hepatica.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Starting with a three dimensional model of FhCL3 we performed a structure-based design of novel inhibitors through a computational study that combined virtual screening, molecular dynamics simulations, and binding free energy (ΔG_bind) calculations. Virtual screening was carried out by docking inhibitors obtained from the MYBRIDGE-HitFinder database inside FhCL3 and human cathepsin L substrate-binding sites. On the basis of dock-scores, five compounds were predicted as selective inhibitors of FhCL3. Molecular dynamic simulations were performed and, subsequently, an end-point method was employed to predict ΔG_bind values. Two compounds with the best ΔG_bind values (-10.68 kcal/mol and -7.16 kcal/mol), comparable to that of the positive control (-10.55 kcal/mol), were identified. A similar approach was followed to structurally and energetically characterize the interface of FhCL3 in complex with a peptidic substrate. Finally, through pair-wise and per-residue free energy decomposition we identified residues that are critical for the substrate/ligand binding and for the enzyme specificity.

Conclusions/Significance

The present study is the first computer-aided drug design approach against F. hepatica cathepsins. Here we predict the principal determinants of binding of FhCL3 in complex with a natural substrate by detailed energetic characterization of protease interaction surface. We also propose novel compounds as FhCL3 inhibitors. Overall, these results will foster the future rational design of new inhibitors against FhCL3, as well as other F. hepatica cathepsins.

Fascioliosis is considered an emerging disease in humans, causing important losses in global agriculture through the infection of livestock animals. The outcome of resistant parasites has increased the search for new drugs which may contribute to disease control. In recent decades, Fasciola cathepsins (FhCs) have been defined as the principal virulence factors of this parasite. Despite being in the same protein family, they have different specificities and, thus, distinct roles throughout the fluke life cycle. Differences in specificity have been attributed to a few variations in the sequence of key FhCs subsites. Currently, the structure-based drug design of inhibitors against Fasciola cathepsin Ls (FhCLs) with unknown structures is possible due to the availability of the three-dimensional structure of FhCL1. Our detailed structural analysis of the major infective juvenile enzyme (FhCL3) identifies the molecular determinants for protein binding. Also, novel potential inhibitors against FhCL3 are proposed, which might reduce host invasion and penetration processes. These compounds are predicted to interact with the binding site of the enzyme, therefore they could prevent substrate processing by competitive inhibition. The structure-based drug design strategy described here will be useful for the development of new potent and selective inhibitors against other FhCs.

The diterpenoid 7-keto-sempervirol, derived from Lycium chinense, displays anthelmintic activity against both Schistosoma mansoni and Fasciola hepatica

Background

Two platyhelminths of biomedical and commercial significance are Schistosoma mansoni (blood fluke) and Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke). These related trematodes are responsible for the chronic neglected tropical diseases schistosomiasis and fascioliasis, respectively. As no vaccine is currently available for anti-flukicidal immunoprophylaxis, current treatment is mediated by mono-chemical chemotherapy in the form of mass drug administration (MDA) (praziquantel for schistosomiasis) or drenching (triclabendazole for fascioliasis) programmes. This overreliance on single chemotherapeutic classes has dramatically limited the number of novel chemical entities entering anthelmintic drug discovery pipelines, raising significant concerns for the future of sustainable blood and liver fluke control.

Methodology/ Principle Findings

Here we demonstrate that 7-keto-sempervirol, a diterpenoid isolated from Lycium chinense, has dual anthelmintic activity against related S. mansoni and F. hepatica trematodes. Using a microtiter plate-based helminth fluorescent bioassay (HFB), this activity is specific (Therapeutic index = 4.2, when compared to HepG2 cell lines) and moderately potent (LD₅₀ = 19.1 μM) against S. mansoni schistosomula cultured in vitro. This anti-schistosomula effect translates into activity against both adult male and female schistosomes cultured in vitro where 7-keto-sempervirol negatively affects motility/behaviour, surface architecture (inducing tegumental holes, tubercle swelling and spine loss/shortening), oviposition rates and egg morphology. As assessed by the HFB and microscopic phenotypic scoring matrices, 7-keto-sempervirol also effectively kills in vitro cultured F. hepatica newly excysted juveniles (NEJs, LD₅₀ = 17.7 μM). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) evaluation of adult F. hepatica liver flukes co-cultured in vitro with 7-keto-sempervirol additionally demonstrates phenotypic abnormalities including breaches in tegumental integrity and spine loss.

Conclusions/ Significance

7-keto-sempervirol negatively affects the viability and phenotype of two related pathogenic trematodes responsible for significant human and animal infectious diseases. This plant-derived, natural product is also active against both larval and adult developmental forms. As such, the data collectively indicate that 7-keto-sempervirol is an important starting point for anthelmintic drug development. Medicinal chemistry optimisation of more potent 7-keto-sempervirol analogues could lead to the identification of novel chemical entities useful for future combinatorial or replacement anthelmintic control.

Schistosomiasis and fascioliasis are caused by two related trematodes found within the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms), and are classified as neglected diseases of poverty due to their effects on people living in the most underprivileged areas of the world. With no vaccine currently near development, and the existing strategy for global control based on the over-reliance on single-class chemotherapies, there is an urgent requirement for the identification of next generation anthelmintics. Here we demonstrate that 7-keto-sempervirol, a natural product derived from Lycium chinense, displays dual anthelmintic activity towards both Schistosoma mansoni (causative agent of schistosomiasis) and Fasciola hepatica (causative agent of fascioliasis). Utilising objective and phenotypic matrices, we show this activity to be selective (compared to a human cell line) and moderately potent against S. mansoni and F. hepatica larvae. This anti-larval effect translates into additional activity against both S. mansoni and F. hepatica adults where 7-keto-sempervirol induces phenotypic abnormalities including tegumental damage, motility disruption and oviposition inhibition. Due to 7-keto-sempervirol’s anthelmintic activity against multiple life stages of two parasitic trematodes, we contend that this starting chemical scaffold could be used to develop more effective compounds useful in controlling important parasites of biomedical and commercial relevance.

An Outbreak of Human Fascioliasis gigantica in Southwest China

Fascioliasis is a common parasitic disease in livestock in China. However, human fascioliasis is rarely reported in the country. Here we describe an outbreak of human fascioliasis in Yunnan province. We reviewed the complete clinical records of 29 patients and performed an epidemiological investigation on the general human population and animals in the outbreak locality. Our findings support an outbreak due to Fasciola gigantica with a peak in late November, 2011. The most common symptoms were remittent fever, epigastric tenderness, and hepatalgia. Eosinophilia and tunnel-like lesions in ultrasound imaging in the liver were also commonly seen. Significant improvement of patients' condition was achieved by administration of triclabendazole®. Fasciola spp. were discovered in local cattle (28.6%) and goats (26.0%). Molecular evidence showed a coexistence of F. gigantica and F. hepatica. However, all eggs seen in humans were confirmed to be F. gigantica. Herb (Houttuynia cordata) was most likely the source of infections. Our findings indicate that human fascioliasis is a neglected disease in China. The distribution of triclabendazole®, the only efficacious drug against human fascioliasis, should be promoted.

Integrating fasciolosis control in the dry cow management: the effect of closantel treatment on milk production

The liver fluke Fasciola hepatica is a parasite of ruminants with a worldwide distribution and an apparent increasing incidence in EU member states. Effective control in dairy cattle is hampered by the lack of flukicides with a zero-withdrawal time for milk, leaving the dry period as the only time that preventive treatment can be applied. Here, we present the results of a blinded, randomized and placebo-controlled trial on 11 dairy herds (402 animals) exposed to F. hepatica to 1) assess the effect of closantel treatment at dry-off (or 80-42 days before calving in first-calving heifers) on milk production parameters and 2) evaluate if a number of easy-to-use animal parameters is related to the milk production response after treatment. Closantel treatment resulted in a noticeable decrease of anti-F. hepatica antibody levels from 3-6 months after treatment onwards, a higher peak production (1.06 kg) and a slightly higher persistence (9%) of the lactation, resulting in a 305-day milk production increase of 303 kg. No effects of anthelmintic treatment were found on the average protein and fat content of the milk. Milk production responses after treatment were poor in meagre animals and clinically relevant higher milk production responses were observed in first-lactation animals and in cows with a high (0.3-0.5 optical density ratio (ODR)), but not a very high (≥ 0.5 ODR) F. hepatica ELISA result on a milk sample from the previous lactation. We conclude that in dairy herds exposed to F. hepatica, flukicide treatment at dry-off is a useful strategy to reduce levels of exposure and increase milk production in the subsequent lactation. Moreover, the results suggest that treatment approaches that only target selected animals within a herd can be developed based on easy-to-use parameters.

Identification of thioredoxin glutathione reductase inhibitors that kill cestode and trematode parasites

Parasitic flatworms are responsible for serious infectious diseases that affect humans as well as livestock animals in vast regions of the world. Yet, the drug armamentarium available for treatment of these infections is limited: praziquantel is the single drug currently available for 200 million people infected with Schistosoma spp. and there is justified concern about emergence of drug resistance. Thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR) is an essential core enzyme for redox homeostasis in flatworm parasites. In this work, we searched for flatworm TGR inhibitors testing compounds belonging to various families known to inhibit thioredoxin reductase or TGR and also additional electrophilic compounds. Several furoxans and one thiadiazole potently inhibited TGRs from both classes of parasitic flatworms: cestoda (tapeworms) and trematoda (flukes), while several benzofuroxans and a quinoxaline moderately inhibited TGRs. Remarkably, five active compounds from diverse families possessed a phenylsulfonyl group, strongly suggesting that this moiety is a new pharmacophore. The most active inhibitors were further characterized and displayed slow and nearly irreversible binding to TGR. These compounds efficiently killed Echinococcus granulosus larval worms and Fasciola hepatica newly excysted juveniles in vitro at a 20 µM concentration. Our results support the concept that the redox metabolism of flatworm parasites is precarious and particularly susceptible to destabilization, show that furoxans can be used to target both flukes and tapeworms, and identified phenylsulfonyl as a new drug-hit moiety for both classes of flatworm parasites.

In vitro effects of triclabendazole (TCBZ) on the excretory-secretory products (ESP) of Fasciola spp parasites

Fascioliasis is an endemic disease in Iran and triclabendazole (TCBZ) is using for treatment of domestic animals and infected people. Excretory-secretory products (ESP) play an important role in the host biochemical defense by means of activities of detoxifying and antioxidant glutathione S-transferase (GST) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymes respectively. Therefore, the aim of this comparative study was to evaluate fasciola protection against TCBZ drug by detection of enzymatic activities, GST and SOD, in TCBZ treated Fasciola hepatica / Fasciola gigantica and control ESP samples. F. gigantic and F. hepatica helminthes were collected and cultured within buffer media (TCBZ treated and untreated or control) for 4 h at 37 °C. Three TCBZ treated and 1 control ESP samples for each species were collected, centrifuged and supernatants were stored at -20°C. ESP samples protein concentrations were measured by Bradford method. SOD and GST enzymes activities of ESP samples were estimated photometrically. To determine the statistically significant difference between ESP of treated and control samples, t-test was conducted. ESP protein bands were detected by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Protein concentrations in treated F. hepatica and F. gigantica ESP samples were estimated 204.88, 428, 130.4 and 288.2, 488.2, 308.2 µg/ml respectively. Protein concentrations in control samples were estimated 488.18 and 124.8 ug/ml respectively. SOD enzyme specific activities level in treated F.hepatica and F. gigantica ESP samples were determined 0.14, 0.31, 3.96 and 11.11, 13.54, 19.95 U/mg/protein respectively. SOD activities level in control samples were detected 70.69 and 10.92 U/mg/protein. GST specific activities level in treated F.hepatica and F. gigantica ESP samples were calculated 25.3, 85.5, 37.3 and 1823, 1314.3, 1320.8 U/mg respectively. GST activities levels in control samples were detected 98.6 and 1083.9 U/mg/protein respectively. Statistical analysis reveal the significant different between proteins concentrations, GST and SOD enzyme specific activities of TCBZ treated ESP samples of F. gigantic in comparison to the control samples (P<0.05), however, is not significant for treated F. hepatica and control ESP samples (P>0.05). There is no difference between SDS-PAGE results of treated and control samples. Based on the results of the present work, significant increase of enzymatic activities of GST and SOD in TCBZ treated F. gigantica ESP, it seems, the protection of this species against drug is higher than F. hepatica.

The activity of dispiro peroxides against Fasciola hepatica

Dispiro 1,2,4-trioxanes and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes had superior efficacy against Fasciola hepatica than the corresponding ozonides (1,2,4-trioxolanes). For highest efficacy, spiroadamantane and carboxymethyl substructures were required. Three compounds completely cured F. hepatica-infected mice at single oral doses of 50mg/kg and two were partially curative at single doses of 25mg/kg.

A major cathepsin B protease from the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica has atypical active site features and a potential role in the digestive tract of newly excysted juvenile parasites

The newly excysted juvenile (NEJ) stage of the Fasciola hepatica lifecycle occurs just prior to invasion into the wall of the gut of the host, rendering it an important target for drug development. The cathepsin B enzymes from NEJ flukes have recently been demonstrated to be crucial to invasion and migration by the parasite. Here we characterize one of the cathepsin B enzymes (recombinant FhcatB1) from NEJ flukes. FhcatB1 has biochemical properties distinct from mammalian cathepsin B enzymes, with an atypical preference for Ile over Leu or Arg residues at the P(2) substrate position and an inability to act as an exopeptidase. FhcatB1 was active across a broad pH range (optimal activity at pH 5.5-7.0) and resistant to inhibition by cystatin family inhibitors from sheep and humans, suggesting that this enzyme would be able to function in extracellular environments in its mammalian hosts. It appears, however, that the FhcatB1 protease functions largely as a digestive enzyme in the gut of the parasite, due to the localization of a specific, fluorescently labeled inhibitor with an Ile at the P(2) position. Molecular modelling and dynamics were used to predict the basis for the unusual substrate specificity: a P(2) Ile residue positions the substrate optimally for interaction with catalytic residues of the enzyme, and the enzyme lacks an occluding loop His residue crucial for exopeptidase activity. The unique features of the enzyme, particularly with regard to its specificity and likely importance to a vital stage of the parasite's life cycle, make it an excellent target for therapeutic inhibitors or vaccination.

Morphological response of triclabendazole-susceptible and triclabendazole-resistant isolates of Fasciola hepatica to treatment in vitro with nitroxynil (Trodax)

Adult liver flukes belonging to three isolates of differing sensitivity to triclabendazole were incubated for 24 h in vitro in nitroxynil at a concentration of 100 microg/ml. Fine structural changes to the tegument, sub-tegumental region and gut were assessed by transmission electron microscopy. Similar changes were observed in all three isolates. In the tegumental syncytium, the basal infoldings and mitochondria were swollen, and there was an accumulation and accelerated release of secretory bodies at the apex. The crystalline core of the spines was disrupted, and the tegumental covering sloughed off. Mitochondria in the tegumental cells were also swollen, the Golgi complexes were affected and reduced numbers of T1 secretory bodies were evident in the T1-type of tegumental cell. In the sub-tegumental region, large spaces were present between cells and tissues, indicative of severe internal flooding. Swelling of mitochondria and cisternae of the granular endoplasmic reticulum was seen in the gastrodermal cells, which contained few secretory bodies. The extent of disruption varied between the isolates: the triclabendazole-resistant Sligo isolate was the most severely affected, while the Fairhurst triclabendazole-susceptible isolate was the least affected. In all three isolates, the tegument was more severely affected than the gut.

Triclabendazole resistance involving Fasciola hepatica in sheep and goats during an outbreak in Almirante Tamandare, Paraná, Brazil

Fasciolosis is a disease of extreme importance, occurring throughout Brazil, with great economic losses to the animal industry. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of treatment against Fasciola hepatica on a sheep and goat farm during an outbreak of fasciolosis, in which a high proportion of deaths occurred. The farm harbored 33 sheep and 60 goats of mixed breeds with varying weights and ages. Parasite control was based on suppressive, monthly treatments with moxidectin. Over the course of the study, assessments with Famacha method, body condition score, faecal exam (EPG), coproculture and the egg sedimentation technique were made on seven occasions. At the time of the first visit 81% of the goats and 100% of the sheep were positive for F. hepatica. Salvage treatment with triclabendazole failed to relieve the heavy infection due to resistance, with an efficacy of only 66.3% being obtained against the F. hepatica population consensual in sheep and 57.3% in goats. There was no record of triclabendazole having been administered previously on the farm. A low level of correlation was found between the Famacha values and the incidence of anemia due to clinical fasciolosis (C<0.5). There is an urgent need to investigate the correct use of available drugs against F. hepatica and the implementation of alternative control strategies in endemic areas in order to ensure optimum sustainability of the efficacy of available fasciolicides.

Human fascioliasis: a case of hyperinfection and an update for clinicians

Fascioliasis is a foodborne trematode infection that affects patients worldwide causing both liver inflammation and biliary obstruction. In developed countries, the disease is rare but a number of focal outbreaks have been reported. Here, we report a case of human fascioliasis in which acute and chronic manifestations coexisted and discuss the newest evidence regarding pathogenesis, diagnostic approach, and treatment, with emphasis on strategies to control the incidence of this emergent disease.

Activity of artemether and OZ78 against triclabendazole-resistant Fasciola hepatica

Triclabendazole is the drug of choice against Fasciola hepatica infections in humans and animals. However, parasite resistance against triclabendazole is spreading in the veterinary field, and there are no drugs of comparable activity currently available for the treatment and control of fascioliasis. We investigated the efficacy of single oral doses of artemether and OZ78 against adult triclabendazole-resistant F. hepatica harboured in rats, and compared the results with triclabendazole administered at two different doses. Single oral doses of 100 mg/kg OZ78 and 200 mg/kg artemether resulted in worm burden reductions of 100%. Whereas a single 10 mg/kg dose of triclabendazole achieved a worm burden reduction of only 4.0%, a five-fold higher dose yielded a significant worm burden reduction of 60.9%. However, the lower dose of triclabendazole administered to rats harbouring a triclabendazole-sensitive F. hepatica isolate resulted in a worm burden reduction of 95.3%. Our findings confirm that artemether and OZ78 possess good fasciocidal properties, even against a triclabendazole-resistant F. hepatica isolate, and hence these drugs might become useful in areas where triclabendazole resistance is common.

Fasciola hepatica: tegumental alterations in adult flukes following in vitro and in vivo administration of artesunate and artemether

The tegumental changes in adult Fasciola hepatica induced by artemether and artesunate were assessed utilizing scanning electron microscopy (SEM). F. hepatica were incubated with artemether and artesunate for 48h at a concentration of 10microg/ml in the absence or presence of haemin. For the latter experiment both, a triclabendazole-resistant and sensitive F. hepatica isolate were used. For the in vivo studies rats were treated with single 200mg/kg oral doses of artemether and artesunate and flukes recovered from the bile ducts after 24-96h. SEM analysis of the flukes incubated in the presence of the drugs without haemin showed only minor and localized damage of the tegument. In the presence of haemin extensive tegumental damage, including sloughing, blebbing and eruptions, particularly in the ventral and dorsal mid-body and tail region, was evident. No difference in the extent of damage could be observed between artemether and artesunate and between the triclabendazole-resistant and non-resistant flukes. After 24h in vivo disruption of the tegument was evident in the artemether-treated flukes, and the damage increased in severity 48-72h post-treatment. Sloughing, swelling and extensive furrowing of the tegument was observed in several flukes, in particular in the tail region and the ventral apical cone region. In the artesunate treatment, tegumental damage was evident after 72h, but seemed slightly less pronounced when compared to the artemether-treated specimens examined at the same time point. Concluding our experiments confirm that artemether and artesunate are potent fasciocidal drugs and the tegument of adult F. hepatica appears to be a target for the action of these drugs.

Ultrastructural changes induced in the tegument and gut of Fasciola hepatica following in vivo and in vitro drug treatment with nitroxynil (Trodax)

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were dosed orally with nitroxynil at a concentration of 40 mg/kg, and adult Fasciola hepatica were recovered after 24, 48 and 72 h. Fine structural changes to the tegument and gut were monitored by transmission electron microscopy. Flukes were also incubated for 24 h in vitro in nitroxynil at a concentration of 100 microg/ml. Following treatment in vivo, there was an accumulation and accelerated release of secretory bodies at the apex of the tegumental syncytium. Some swelling of the mucopolysaccharide masses surrounding the basal infolds was evident after 48 and 72 h. There was an initial accumulation of T1 secretory bodies at the base of the syncytium, but this decreased at 72 h, coinciding with a decline in their production in the tegumental cells. The mitochondria were consistently swollen in the tegumental cells. At 72 h, large vacuolations were observed between the muscle layers and there was flooding around the underlying tissues. Some tegumental cells were seen to be degenerating and beginning to disintegrate. After 24 h treatment in vitro, the basal infolds were swollen and the crystalline structure of the spines was disrupted. Flooding of the internal tissues was evident and, in the tegumental cells, Golgi complexes and secretory bodies were absent. The mitochondria in the tegumental cells were swollen. In the gastrodermal cells, changes were evident at the earliest time period in vivo. The lamellae were disrupted, few secretory bodies were present, the mitochondria and cisternae of granular endoplasmic reticulum (ger) were swollen and there was an increased number of secretory bodies. These changes became progressively more severe with time. Similar changes were evident following treatment in vitro; vesiculation of the ger was also seen. The results indicate that oral uptake is the predominant route of entry of nitroxynil into the fluke.

Genetic heterogeneity of Fasciola hepatica isolates in the northwest of Spain

The liver fluke Fasciola hepatica is a worldwide distributed trematode parasite of great veterinary importance. In Spain, the prevalence of the infection is up to 56% in sheep. Its control is mainly based on the use of anthelmitics, although some resistant populations have been described. Genetic studies of the genus Fasciola have been focused on the 28S ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) gene, with no intraspecific variations and a few interspecific nucleotide differences. We have designed a specific polymerase chain reaction to amplify and sequence a 510-bp-long fragment of the gene to characterize several F. hepatica ovine isolates from the northwest of Spain. All the isolates rendered the expected results on the agarose gel, while sequencing revealed some differences in the 34 site. The anthelmintic-resistant specimens showed the same nucleotide differing of the sensitive ones. Comparing to other studies, our results conclude that there are some genetic variations in F. hepatica (at the level of the 28S rDNA), including heterozygous specimens. In conclusion, a genetic heterogeneity has been found in the F. hepatica populations of ovine origin in the northwest of Spain, using an assay that could be useful for further epidemiology and characterization studies.

A dual anthelmintic treatment strategic scheme for the control of fasciolosis in dairy sheep farms

A clinical longitudinal field trial was conducted on a dairy sheep farm in southern Italy to assess the effectiveness of a novel anthelmintic treatment strategic scheme against Fasciola hepatica. The scheme utilizes a dual anthelmintic treatment (DAT), i.e., the use of either one of two different anthelmintics on the flock, albendazole sulphoxide (SO) at 1-month intervals and rafoxanide at 2-month intervals, administered to the lactating and non-lactating animals, respectively. The DAT strategic scheme lasted 3 years. In Year 1 and Year 2, shotgun monthly DATs for 5 consecutive months (July, August, September, October, and November) were performed on the flock. In Year 3 there was only one monthly DAT, in July. Overall, the DAT scheme reduced the prevalence of F. hepatica infection by 94.4% (from an average prevalence of 71.1% during the pre-DAT period to an average prevalence of 4.0% during Year 3), and the eggs/gram of faeces (EPG) from 29.3 to 1.3. In conclusion, the DAT strategic scheme reported in the present study successfully reduced both the prevalence and EPGs of F. hepatica to a level at which there were no longer any clinical symptoms of the disease. This scheme did not influence the albendazole SO efficacy against GI nematodes and might be used for the treatment of fasciolosis in dairy sheep farms.

Immunomodulation of the Response to Excretory/Secretory Antigens of Fasciola hepatica by Anapsos® in Balb/C Mice and Rat Alveolar Macrophages

It is known that excretory/secretory antigens of Fasciola hepatica (ESFh) trigger a Th2-like immune response. Anapsos (A) is an aqueous hydrosoluble extract obtained from the rhizomes of the fern Polypodium leucotomos that has shown immunomodulator effects in some parasitic infections and immunological disorders. In this work we assess the effect of Anapsos and ESFh and Quillaja saponaria extract (Qs) on BALB/c mice and rat alveolar macrophages. Anapsos modulates the response of mice immunized with ESFh, decreasing IgG antibodies in A+ESFh- and A+Qs+ESFh-treated mice and triggering high levels of gammaIFN in spleen cell culture in comparison with ESFh- and Qs + ESFh--treated groups. Moreover, Anapsos showed statistically significant inhibitory effects on the nitrite production by rat alveolar macrophages prestimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as well as ESFh antigen in comparison with macrophages stimulated only with LPS. The application of ESFh and Anapsos combined avoids this inhibitory effect. Thus, Anapsos modulates the immune response against ESFh in naive mice and on the nitrite production in prestimulated rat aveolar macrophages.

Resistance-induced changes in triclabendazole transport in Fasciola hepatica: ivermectin reversal effect

Triclabendazole (TCBZ) and albendazole (ABZ) are flukicidal benzimidazole compounds extensively used in veterinary medicine. Although TCBZ has excellent activity against mature and immature stages of the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, ABZ action is restricted to flukes older than 12 wk. The intensive use of TCBZ has resulted in the development of resistance. To gain insight into the mechanisms of resistance to TCBZ, the ex vivo diffusion of TCBZ, TCBZ sulfoxide (TCBZSO, the active metabolite of TCBZ), and ABZ into TCBZ-susceptible and -resistant adult flukes was compared. TCBZ-susceptible (Cullompton) and -resistant (Sligo) flukes were incubated in Krebs-Ringer Tris buffer with either TCBZ, TCBZSO, or ABZ (5 nmol/ ml) for 90 min. Drug/metabolite concentrations were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography. All the assayed molecules penetrated through the tegument of both susceptible and resistant flukes. However, significantly lower concentrations of TCBZ and TCBZSO were recovered within the TCBZ-resistant flukes. In contrast, ABZ entrance into the susceptible and resistant flukes was equivalent. The influx/efflux balance for TCBZ, TCBZSO, and ABZ in susceptible and resistant flukes in the presence or absence of a substrate (ivermectin) of the drug transporter P-glycoprotein was assessed. The ivermectin-induced modulation of P-glycoprotein activity decreased TCBZ efflux from the resistant flukes. Higher concentrations of TCBZ and TCBZSO were recovered from the resistant liver flukes in the presence of ivermectin. Thus, an altered influx/efflux mechanism may account for the development of resistance to TCBZ in F. hepatica.

Understanding triclabendazole resistance

Triclabendazole (TCBZ) has been the drug of choice to treat liver fluke infections in livestock for >20 years, due to its high activity against both adult and juvenile flukes. More recently, it has been used successfully to treat human cases of fascioliasis. Resistance to TCBZ first appeared in the field in Australia in the mid-1990s. Since then, resistance has been reported from a number of countries throughout Europe: Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Spain and The Netherlands. The heavy reliance on a single drug puts treatment strategies for fascioliasis at risk. Should resistance develop further, the prospect is an alarming one. This review will present an overview of progress in understanding the mechanism of resistance to TCBZ, examining possible changes in the target molecule, in drug influx/efflux mechanisms and in the metabolism of TCBZ by the fluke. The review will also consider ways to deal with resistance, covering drug-oriented options such as: the use of alternative drugs, drug combinations and the search for new compounds.

Evaluation of the in vivo activity of tribendimidine against Schistosoma mansoni, Fasciola hepatica, Clonorchis sinensis, and Opisthorchis viverrini

We examined the in vivo activity of tribendimidine against selected trematodes. A single 150-mg/kg dose of tribendimidine achieved a 99.1% reduction of Clonorchis sinensis in rats. A 400-mg/kg dose of tribendimidine reduced Opisthorchis viverrini in hamsters by 95.7%. High doses of tribendimidine showed no activity against Schistosoma mansoni and Fasciola hepatica.

Fasciola hepatica: ultrastructural effects of a combination of triclabendazole and clorsulon against mature fluke

A study has been carried out to investigate the ultrastructural effects of triclabendazole (TCBZ) at half-normal concentration, clorsulon at half-normal concentration, and a combination of these two drugs against mature Fasciola hepatica. The Cullompton TCBZ-susceptible isolate was used for these experiments. Flukes were incubated for 24 h in vitro in TCBZ sulphoxide (7.5 microg/ml), clorsulon (5 microg/ml), or a combination of the two drugs. For the in vivo experiment, rats were dosed with TCBZ (5 mg/kg body weight), clorsulon (5 mg/kg body weight), or a combination of the two drugs, and flukes recovered after 48 h. Fine structural changes within the tegumental syncytium and tegumental cells were assessed by transmission electron microscopy. Treatment with the combination of drugs produced greater disruption to the flukes than the individual drugs at half-normal concentrations, both in vivo and in vitro; also than TCBZ.SO at normal concentration in vitro. The changes observed aid in the understanding of the gross changes to the tegumental surface described previously (Meaney M, Allister J, McKinstry B, McLaughlin K, Brennan GP, Forbes AB, Fairweather I. Parasitol Res 99:609-621, 2006). The results indicate that there are additive effects between TCBZ and clorsulon and suggest that the use of drug combinations would be of value in the treatment of TCBZ-resistant fluke.

The effect of a parenteral ivermectin/closantel injection on the growth and reproductive development of early immature Fasciola hepatica in cattle

Sixteen calves approximately 6 months old were each infected with 500 metacercariae of Fasciola hepatica. Thirty-two days later they were weighed and divided into two groups, and on day 35 all calves in one of the groups were injected subcutaneously with an ivermectin/closantel combination. Both groups were sacrificed between days 70 and 72 to enable counting and examination of the flukes recovered from the bile ducts. Eggs released by the flukes were collected for incubation, hatching and estimation of egg viability. Flukes were counted, flat-fixed in 70% ethanol, stained with catechol and carmine and measured. The reproductive organs, namely testis, vitelline glands, ovary and uterus, were examined and scored on a 0-3 scale according to their state of development. This was visually assessed on the basis of size, distribution and staining density of their constituent tissues and the abundance of eggs in the uterus. A representative sample of flukes from each animal was fixed in formalin for histological sectioning to enable more detailed examination of the reproductive structures. Treatment of the immature flukes reduced the population in cattle by 42.6% as compared with the controls and as a result of the stunting effect due to the presence of closantel during early development the size of treated flukes was reduced by 43.9%. A bimodal pattern of size and reproductive score was also observed in flukes from treated cattle, suggesting that the stunting effect on individual flukes differed depending on whether or not they had gained access to the bile ducts or were still migrating in the hepatic parenchymal tissue at the time of drug exposure with the effect being greater once the fluke had gained access to the bile ducts. The mean reproductive score for untreated flukes was 8.76 and for treated flukes 5.64, a 35.6% reduction. This difference was highly significant (p<0.001). Egg shedding from treated flukes was significantly less than that from controls (p<0.05), but there were no differences in hatchability, suggesting that whilst drug treatment reduced the energy supply available for gametogenesis/oogenesis, it did not induce functional defects in the gonads or accessory reproductive organs. Histological examination confirmed that there was a reduction in development of testes, ovaries and vitellaria in treated flukes, with a consequent reduction in egg production. In the treated flukes, early spermatogonia and oogonia were the predominant cell types in the testes and ovary, whilst undifferentiated stem cells were abundant in the vitelline follicles. In untreated flukes, cells representing more advanced stages in gametogenesis and vitellogenesis predominated in the respective organs. It is likely that this inhibition of gametogenesis and vitellogenesis was caused by the effects of closantel treatment on intermediary metabolism in the flukes. Clearly these effects were evident even at a relatively early stage of fluke growth, and because of the impact on egg output may have epidemiological importance in addition to the reduction in fluke numbers.

Effect of a cysteine protease inhibitor on Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke) fecundity, egg viability, parasite burden, and size in experimentally infected sheep

Fasciola hepatica secretes proteolytic enzymes during liver invasion. The present study examined the effects of the cysteine protease inhibitor Ep-475 on sheep considering the following variables: serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase, L-lactate dehydrogenase, and gamma-glutamyltransferase, liver fluke fecundity, egg viability, parasite burden, and size. Twenty-four male sheep were randomly allocated in four groups of six animals each as follows: group A was infected with F. hepatica metacercariae and treated with 50 mg/kg of Ep-475, group B was infected and untreated, group C was uninfected and treated, and group D was uninfected and untreated. All animals were euthanized 10 weeks after the experimental infection. Serum activities of enzymes in infected animals were significantly lower in Ep-475-treated sheep than in untreated controls, although liver damage was produced. No significant reduction in total worm burden was observed between treated and untreated sheep. However, there was a significant difference on the average size, structure development, ova counts, and egg viability of liver flukes from these two groups. Results showed that Ep-475 reduces liver damage due to fasciolosis and induces an impairment of liver fluke growth and fecundity. These effects pinpoint liver fluke proteases as potential targets for pharmacological intervention.

The synthetic peroxide OZ78 is effective against Echinostoma caproni and Fasciola hepatica

OBJECTIVES

The trematocidal properties of a synthetic peroxide, 1,2,4-trioxolane (OZ78) were determined both in vivo and in vitro.

METHODS

Two weeks post-infection Echinostoma caproni-infected mice were administered single oral doses of 400-1000 mg/kg OZ78. Fasciola hepatica-infected rats were treated orally with 50-400 mg/kg OZ78 3 and 8-9 weeks post-infection. Worm burden reductions were assessed against untreated control animals. Adult F. hepatica were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) after recovery from the bile duct of a rat 3 days after administration of a single oral dose of 100 mg/kg OZ78 and after in vitro exposure to concentrations of 1, 10 and 100 microg/mL OZ78.

RESULTS

In the E. caproni-mouse model 100% worm burden reductions were achieved with a single oral dose of 1000 mg/kg OZ78. A single dose of 100 mg/kg OZ78 resulted in worm burden reductions of 100% against juvenile and adult F. hepatica. F. hepatica recovered from rats 3 days post-treatment displayed feeble activity and some flukes had died. Typical features revealed by SEM included extensive blebbing and sloughing. Exposure of F. hepatica to 10-100 microg/mL OZ78 in vitro resulted in the death of all trematodes. F. hepatica showed focal blebbing and sloughing of the tegument at all concentrations investigated.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that OZ78 is highly efficacious against F. hepatica and E. caproni and provide a sound platform for identification of a synthetic peroxide drug development candidate against major trematode infections.

Immature triclabendazole-resistant Fasciola hepatica: tegumental responses to in vitro treatment with the sulphoxide metabolite of the experimental fasciolicide compound alpha

Juvenile triclabendazole-resistant liver flukes, Fasciola hepatica, were incubated in vitro with 10 microg/ml of the sulphoxide metabolite of the experimental fasciolicide, compound alpha [5-chloro-2-methylthio-6-(1-naphthyloxy)-1H-benzimidazole], for 6 and 18 h. Following treatment, the specimens were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and tubulin immunocytochemistry. The SEM results revealed a posterior-directed disruption comprised predominantly of swelling and blebbing of the tegument; these changes were more severe and extensive after the longer 18-h incubation. Along with swelling of the tegument and blebbing, the TEM results also revealed swelling of the mitochondria and basal infolds. A decrease in the number of both T1 and T2 secretory bodies was observed in the syncytium and cytoplasmic connections after the 18-h treatment. The circular muscle bundles were also disrupted, in that the organisation of the muscle fibres was irregular and the total number of muscle fibres was reduced. The immunocytochemical studies revealed no significant disruption to the distribution of tubulin immunoreactivity within the tegumental syncytium, the cytoplasmic connections or the associated tegumental cells. The results indicate that alpha.SO is capable of disrupting the tegument of 4-week-old triclabendazole-resistant liver flukes, though the morphological changes were not associated with any significant differences in tubulin immunostaining.

Fasciola hepatica: morphological effects of a combination of triclabendazole and clorsulon against mature fluke

A study has been carried out to investigate the morphological effects of half-strength triclabendazole (TCBZ), half-strength clorsulon, and a combination of these two drugs against mature Fasciola hepatica. The Cullompton TCBZ-susceptible isolate was used for these experiments. Flukes were incubated for 24 h in vitro in TCBZ sulphoxide (7.5 microg/ml), clorsulon (5 microg/ml), or a combination of the two drugs. For the in vivo experiment, rats were dosed with TCBZ (6.25 mg/kg body weight), clorsulon (5 mg/kg body weight), or a combination of the two drugs and flukes recovered after 48 h. Surface changes to the flukes were assessed by scanning electron microscopy. Treatment with the combination of drugs produced greater disruption to the flukes than the individual drugs at half-strength, both in vivo and in vitro. Disruption to the tegument of the flukes induced by the individual drugs at half-strength was relatively minor and less than that caused by the drugs at full-strength. The results suggest that there are additive effects between TCBZ and clorsulon, which may be indicative of synergy: the use of drug combinations would be of value in the treatment of triclabendazole-resistant fluke.

Adult triclabendazole-resistant Fasciola hepatica: surface and subsurface tegumental responses to in vitro treatment with the sulphoxide metabolite of the experimental fasciolicide compound alpha

Mature Fasciola hepatica of the triclabendazole-resistant Sligo isolate were incubated in vitro with 10 microg/ml of the sulphoxide metabolite of compound alpha [5-chloro-2-methylthio-6-(1-naphthyloxy)-H-benzimidazole]; the metabolite will be referred to as alpha.SO. Changes resulting from drug treatment were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and tubulin immunocytochemistry (ICC). SEM revealed that disruption to the tegumental surface mainly took the form of swelling and blebbing. Extensive spine loss occurred on the ventral surface of the oral cone, and sloughing of the tegument was observed along the lateral margins of the fluke. Examination of sections from the anterior mid-body region at the TEM level revealed that treatment with alpha.SO led to swelling of the basal infolds and mitochondria within the tegumental syncytium; also, accumulations of secretory bodies beneath the apical plasma membrane. The tegumental cell bodies contained swollen mitochondria and cisternae of granular endoplasmic reticulum, but few Golgi complexes were observed. An increase in T2 secretory bodies was observed, whilst in the T1 tegumental cells, the T1 secretory bodies had decreased in number. Immunocytochemical (ICC) studies showed that incubation with alpha.SO, ABZ.SO and TCBZ.SO did not cause significant changes to the distribution of tubulin within the tegumental syncytium of the Sligo isolate. In contrast, alpha.SO, ABZ.SO and TCBZ.SO caused severe disruption to tubulin organization within the syncytial layer of the TCBZ-susceptible Cullompton isolate. The EM results confirm that compound alpha is a fasciolicide capable of disrupting the tegument of mature TCBZ-resistant F. hepatica; however, this was not accompanied by any change in tubulin immunoreactivity.

Artesunate and artemether are effective fasciolicides in the rat model and in vitro

OBJECTIVES

To study the fasciocidal properties of artesunate and artemether in the rat model and in vitro.

METHODS

Adult Fasciola hepatica were exposed in vitro to 1, 10 and 100 microg/mL of artesunate, artemether and dihydroartemisinin for 72 h. Female Wistar rats were administered a single oral dose of artesunate and artemether (100-400 mg/kg) commencing 3 or 10-14 weeks post-infection and worm burden reductions were assessed against infected but untreated control rats. F. hepatica were also observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) after recovery from bile ducts of rats given a single oral dose of 200 mg/kg artesunate 24 and 72 h post-treatment.

RESULTS

F. hepatica exposed for 72 h to 10 microg/mL of artesunate, artemether and dihydroartemisinin in vitro showed poor mobility, swelling of the worm body, roughness, damage of the tegument and blebbing. Exposure to drug concentrations of 100 microg/mL resulted in the death of all F. hepatica by 72 h. One hundred per cent worm burden reductions were achieved in rats infected with adult F. hepatica after treatment with artesunate and artemether at 400 and 200 mg/kg, respectively. Administration of artesunate and artemether at a dose of 200 mg/kg to rats harbouring juvenile F. hepatica resulted in worm burden reductions of 46% and 82%, respectively. F. hepatica recovered from rats' bile ducts 24 h after administration of 200 mg/kg artesunate showed normal activity and SEM observations revealed that there was no visible damage. Seventy-two hours post-treatment F. hepatica displayed very poor mobility and there was focal swelling of the tegument and spines.

CONCLUSIONS

Artesunate and artemether exhibit promising fasciocidal activities, with the latter showing better tolerability by the hosts.

Altered drug influx/efflux and enhanced metabolic activity in triclabendazole-resistant liver flukes

Triclabendazole (TCBZ) is a halogenated benzimidazole compound that possesses high activity against immature and adult stages of the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica. The intensive use of TCBZ in endemic areas of fascioliasis has resulted in the development of liver flukes resistant to this compound. TCBZ sulphoxide (TCBZSO) and TCBZ sulphone (TCBZSO2) are the main molecules recovered in the bloodstream of TCBZ-treated animals. In order to gain some insight into the possible mechanisms of resistance to TCBZ, the goals of the work described here were: to compare the ex vivo transtegumental diffusion of TCBZ parent drug and its sulpho-metabolites (TCBZSO and TCBZSO2) into TCBZ-susceptible and -resistant liver flukes; and to assess the comparative pattern of TCBZ biotransformation by TCBZ-susceptible and -resistant F. hepatica. For the tegumental diffusion studies, TCBZ-susceptible (Cullompton) and -resistant (Sligo) adult flukes collected from untreated infected sheep were incubated (15-180 min) in KRT buffer containing either TCBZ, TCBZSO or TCBZSO2 (5 nmol.ml-1). For the metabolism studies, microsomal fractions obtained from TCBZ-susceptible and -resistant flukes were incubated for 60 min with TCBZ (40 microM), and the amount of the formed metabolic product (TCBZSO) was measured. Drug/metabolite concentrations were quantified by HPLC. All the assayed TCBZ-related molecules penetrated through the tegument of both TCBZ-susceptible and -resistant flukes. However, significantly lower (approximately 50%) concentrations of TCBZ and TCBZSO were recovered within the TCBZ-resistant flukes compared to the TCBZ-susceptible ones over the 180 min incubation period. The rate of TCBZ sulphoxidative metabolism into TCBZSO was significantly higher (39%) in TCBZ-resistant flukes. The flavin-monooxigenase (FMO) enzyme system appears to be the main metabolic pathway involved in the formation of TCBZSO in both TCBZ-susceptible and -resistant flukes. The altered drug influx/efflux and enhanced metabolic capacity identified in TCBZ-resistant liver flukes may account for the development of resistance to TCBZ.

Triclabendazole: new skills to unravel an old(ish) enigma

Triclabendazole was introduced in the early 1980s for the treatment of Fasciola hepatica infections in livestock. Due to its high activity against immature flukes, it has become established as the principal anti-fluke drug on the market. More recently, triclabendazole has been used to treat human cases of fascioliasis and is now the drug of choice for this infection, too. Resistance to triclabendazole was first reported in 1995 in a field population in Australia and, since that time, resistant populations have been identified in several countries in Europe. Parallel to the spread of resistance has been a sharp increase in the prevalence of fascioliasis, which has been attributed largely to climate changes. Consequently, farmers are faced with an alarming scenario, as none of the other fasciolicides on the market possess such high activity against the damaging immature stages of fluke. The main aim of this review is to assess current understanding of the mechanism of action of triclabendazole against the fluke and the mechanism by which the fluke has become resistant to it. The use of triclabendazole against animal and human infections is summarized and suggestions are given on ways to deal with resistance. Gaps in the knowledge of various aspects of its use are highlighted and this may serve to open up future research areas.

Field trial on comparative efficacy of four fasciolicides against natural liver fluke infection in cattle

A controlled trial was conducted to evaluate the current efficacy of albendazole (ABZ), rafoxanide (RFX), triclabendazole (TRC) or clorsulon (CLS) against Fasciola hepatica in naturally infected cattle. This trial was conducted in Turkey during the spring, the time of year when liver fluke infection is endemic. Fifty crossbred cattle were selected for inclusion in the trial based on finding eggs of F. hepatica in the feces. The cattle were weighed and randomly allotted into five groups of 10 cattle and treatments were as follows: Group 1 served as non-treated control (CONT), Group 2 was treated orally with ABZ at 12 mg/kg, Group 3 was treated orally with RFX at 10 mg/kg, Group 4 received TRC orally at 12 mg/kg and Group 5 received CLS administered subcutaneously (s.c.) at 2 mg/kg. On day 0 (inclusion day), individual fecal samples were collected on days 0 (inclusion day), 7, 14, 28 and 56, after treatment. The drug efficacy was assessed as a percentage of the egg or fluke reduction and body weight gain relative to the untreated control. The results in the study showed a mean reduction of egg counts by 66.7%, 68.2%, 78% and 84.2% in Groups 2-5, respectively. In conclusion, our results indicate that CLS is a highly effective compound for the treatment of F. hepatica in cattle under these field conditions.