Ester-Directed Regioselective Borylation of Heteroarenes Catalyzed by a Silica-Supported Iridium Complex

A Hydrazone Ligand for Iridium-Catalyzed C-H Borylation: Enhanced Reactivity and Selectivity for Fluorinated Arenes

Ir-catalyzed C-H borylations of fluorinated and cyanated arenes with high meta-to-F/CN are described. Use of a dipyridyl hydrazone framework as the ancillary ligand and pinacolborane (HBpin) as the functionalizing reagent generates catalysts that are significantly more active and selective than 4,4'-di-tert-butyl-2,2'-bipyridine (dtbpy) for both electron-deficient and electron-rich substrates. Investigation of the ligand framework resulted in the observation of formal N-borylation of the hydrazone by HBpin, as evidenced by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. Subsequent stoichiometric reactions of this adduct with an iridium precatalyst revealed the formation of an unusual IrI hydrazido. Isolation and use of this hydrazido reproduce the selectivity of in situ generated catalysts, suggesting that it leads to formation of the active species.

Derivatization of 2,1,3-Benzothiadiazole via Regioselective C-H Functionalization and Aryne Reactivity

Despite growing interest in 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (BTD) as an integral component of many functional molecules, methods for the functionalization of its benzenoid ring have remained limited, and many even simply decorated BTDs have required de novo synthesis. We show that regioselective Ir-catalyzed C-H borylation allows access to versatile 5-boryl or 4,6-diboryl BTD building blocks, which undergo functionalization at the C4, C5, C6, and C7 positions. The optimization and regioselectivity of C-H borylation are discussed. A broad reaction scope is presented, encompassing ipso substitution at the C-B bond, the first examples of ortho-directed C-H functionalization of BTD, ring closing reactions to generate fused ring systems, as well as the generation and capture reactions of novel BTD-based heteroarynes. The regioselectivity of the latter is discussed with reference to the Aryne Distortion Model.

Regioselective Iridium-Catalyzed C8-H Borylation of 4-Quinolones via Transient O-Borylated Quinolines

The quinolone-quinoline tautomerization is harnessed to effect the regioselective C8-borylation of biologically important 4-quinolones by using [Ir(OMe)(cod)]2 as the catalyst precursor, the silica-supported monodentate phosphine Si-SMAP as the ligand, and B2 pin2 as the boron source. Initially, O-borylation of the quinoline tautomer takes place. Critically, the newly formed 4-(pinBO)-quinolines then undergo N-directed selective Ir-catalyzed borylation at C8. Hydrolysis of the OBpin moiety on workup returns the system to the quinolone tautomer. The C8-borylated quinolines were converted to their corresponding potassium trifluoroborate (BF3 K) salts and to their C8-chlorinated quinolone derivatives. The two-step C-H borylation-chlorination reaction sequence resulted in various C8-Cl quinolones in good yields. Conversion to C8-OH-, C8-NH2 -, and C8-Ar-substituted quinolones was also feasible by using this methodology.

Metal-catalysed C-H bond activation and borylation

Transition metal-catalysed direct borylation of hydrocarbons via C-H bond activation has received a remarkable level of attention as a popular reaction in the synthesis of organoboron compounds owing to their synthetic versatility. While controlling the site-selectivity was one of the most challenging issues in these C-H borylation reactions, enormous efforts of several research groups proved instrumental in dealing with selectivity issues that presently reached an impressive level for both proximal and distal C-H bond borylation reactions. For example, in the case of ortho C-H bond borylation reactions, innovative methodologies have been developed either by the modification of the directing groups attached with the substrates or by creating new catalytic systems via the design of new ligand frameworks. Whereas meta and para selective C-H borylations remained a formidable challenge, numerous innovative concepts have been developed within a very short period of time by the development of new catalytic systems with the employment of various noncovalent interactions. Moreover, significant advancements have occurred for aliphatic C(sp³)-H borylations as well as enantioselective borylations. In this review article, we aim to discuss and summarize the different approaches and findings related to the development of directed proximal ortho, distal meta/para, aliphatic (racemic and enantioselective) borylation reactions since 2014. Additionally, considering the C-H borylation reaction as one of the most important mainstream reactions, various applications of this C-H borylation reaction toward the synthesis of natural products, therapeutics, and applications in materials chemistry will be summarized in the last part of this review article.

Remarkably Efficient Iridium Catalysts for Directed C(sp2)-H and C(sp3)-H Borylation of Diverse Classes of Substrates

Here we describe the discovery of a new class of C-H borylation catalysts and their use for regioselective C-H borylation of aromatic, heteroaromatic, and aliphatic systems. The new catalysts have Ir-C(thienyl) or Ir-C(furyl) anionic ligands instead of the diamine-type neutral chelating ligands used in the standard C-H borylation conditions. It is reported that the employment of these newly discovered catalysts show excellent reactivity and ortho-selectivity for diverse classes of aromatic substrates with high isolated yields. Moreover, the catalysts proved to be efficient for a wide number of aliphatic substrates for selective C(sp³)-H bond borylations. Heterocyclic molecules are selectively borylated using the inherently elevated reactivity of the C-H bonds. A number of late-stage C-H functionalization have been described using the same catalysts. Furthermore, we show that one of the catalysts could be used even in open air for the C(sp²)-H and C(sp³)-H borylations enabling the method more general. Preliminary mechanistic studies suggest that the active catalytic intermediate is the Ir(bis)boryl complex, and the attached ligand acts as bidentate ligand. Collectively, this study underlines the discovery of new class of C-H borylation catalysts that should find wide application in the context of C-H functionalization chemistry.

Iridium-Catalysed C-H Borylation of Heteroarenes: Balancing Steric and Electronic Regiocontrol

The iridium-catalysed borylation of aromatic C-H bonds has become the preferred method for the synthesis of aromatic organoboron compounds. The reaction is highly efficient, tolerant of a broad range of substituents and can be applied to both carbocyclic and heterocyclic substrates. The regioselectivity of C-H activation is dominated by steric considerations and there have been considerable efforts to develop more selective processes for less constrained substrates. However, most of these have focused on benzenoid-type substrates and in contrast, heteroarenes remain much desired but more challenging substrates with the position and/or nature of the heteroatom(s) significantly affecting reactivity and regioselectivity. This review will survey the borylation of heteroarenes, focusing on the influence of steric and electronic effects on regiochemical outcome and, by linking to current mechanistic understandings, will provide insights to what is currently possible and where further developments are required.

Ligand-free iridium-catalyzed regioselective C-H borylation of indoles

We herein report a ligand-free Ir-catalyzed C-H borylation of N-acyl protected indoles. This simple protocol could tolerate a variety of functional groups, affording C3 borylated indoles in good yields with excellent regioselectivities. We also demonstrated that the current method is amenable to gram-scale borylation and the C-B bonds could be easily converted to C-C and C-heteroatom bonds.

Green strategies for transition metal-catalyzed C–H activation in molecular syntheses

Sustainable strategies for the activation of inert C–H bonds towards improved resource-economy.

Phosphine-Directed sp3 C-H, C-O, and C-N Borylation

Benzylic C-H borylation reactions are limited, requiring new approaches to exploit their reactivity for efficient selective functionalization. The recent development of phosphine-directed C-H borylation of arenes has now been extended to benzylic substrates, providing high yield of the mono- and geminal bis-borylation products. Attempts to borylate the C-H bond α to a benzylic ether or amine resulted in C-O and C-N borylation, followed by C-H borylation to provide geminal bis-borylated products.

Photoinduced Heterogeneous C-H Arylation by a Reusable Hybrid Copper Catalyst

Heterogeneous copper catalysis enabled photoinduced C-H arylations under exceedingly mild conditions at room temperature. The versatile hybrid copper catalyst provided step-economical access to arylated heteroarenes, terpenes and alkaloid natural products with various aryl halides. The hybrid copper catalyst could be reused without significant loss of catalytic efficacy. Detailed studies in terms of TEM, HRTEM and XPS analysis of the hybrid copper catalyst, among others, supported its outstanding stability and reusability.

A Suzuki Approach to Quinone-Based Diarylethene Photochromes

Diarylethene photochromes show promise for use in advanced organic electronic and photonic materials with burgeoning considerations for biological applications; however, these compounds typically require UV light for photoswitching in at least one direction, thus limiting their appeal. We here introduce a naphthoquinone-based diarylethene that switches between open and closed forms with visible light. The synthesis of this quinone diarylethene relies on Suzuki methodology, allowing for the inclusion of functional groups not otherwise accessible with current synthetic routes.

Indolylboronic Acids: Preparation and Applications

Indole derivatives are associated with a variety of both biological activities and applications in the field of material chemistry. A number of different strategies for synthesizing substituted indoles by means of the reactions of indolylboronic acids with electrophilic compounds are considered the methods of choice for modifying indoles because indolylboronic acids are easily available, stable, non-toxic and new reactions using indolylboronic acids have been described in the literature. Thus, the aim of this review is to summarize the methods available for the preparation of indolylboronic acids as well as their chemical transformations. The review covers the period 2010-2019.

Total Synthesis of Tambromycin Enabled by Indole C-H Functionalization

The total synthesis of tambromycin (1), a recently isolated tetrapeptide, is reported. This unusual natural product possesses a highly modified tryptophan-derived indole fragment fused to an α-methylserine-derived oxazoline ring, and a unique noncanonical amino acid residue named tambroline (11). A convergent synthesis of tambromycin was achieved by a 13-step route that leveraged recent developments in the field of C-H functionalization to prepare the complex indole fragment, as well as an efficient synthesis of tambroline that featured a diastereoselective amination of homoproline.

Boron-Heteroatom Addition Reactions via Borylative Heterocyclization: Oxyboration, Aminoboration, and Thioboration

Organoboron compounds and heterocycles are powerful building blocks and precursors for organic synthesis, including for drug discovery and agrochemical and material synthesis. The common strategy for the synthesis of borylated heterocycles involves two separate synthetic steps: first, synthesis of the heterocyclic core, and second, borylation of the core through established methods such as transition-metal-catalyzed C-H or C-X activation/borylation or lithiation/borylation. In this Account, we describe our laboratory's development of borylative heterocyclization reactions that access the heterocyclic core and install boron in one synthetic step. These methods provide complementary bond disconnections, regiochemistry, and functional-group compatibility to current methods. We describe our methods with two categories: a direct borylation method that refers to addition reactions starting from a preformed B-element σ bond, which is essential in the mechanistic route to product formation, and a formal borylation method that refers to addition reactions that do not require formation of a B-element bond but instead proceed through carbon-carbon π-bond activation by an electrophilic boron source followed by dealkylation or deacylation. Through electrophilic activation of the alkyne rather than activation of the B-element bond, formal borylation provides a complementary strategy toward neutral organoboron reagents. We first studied direct oxyboration toward the formation of borylated benzofurans, where a preformed boron-oxygen σ bond is added across an alkyne activated by a carbophilic gold catalyst. We describe detailed mechanistic and kinetic studies of this class of reactions. Application of the knowledge gained from these studies aided in the future development of additional direct borylation reactions involving boron-nitrogen and boron-oxygen σ bonds to form borylared indoles and isoxazoles, respectively. Formal addition of boron/oxygen equivalents to effect oxyboration to form borylated lactones from o-alkynyl esters is then described. This class of reactions takes advantage of bifunctional ClBcat as a carbophilic carbon-carbon π-bond activator and eventual dealkylating agent. We describe our motivation in developing this new class of catalyst-free borylation reactions and subsequently applying the formal borylation strategy to the thioboration of o-alkynylthioanisole substrates to form borylated benzothiophenes. We then proceed to describe our investigations into the details of the mechanism of the formal thioboration reaction. These collaborative mechanistic studies included experimental and computational findings that elucidated the rate-determining step and intermediates of the reaction. These studies further compared different boron sources as electrophiles, including those used in other known reactions, providing fundamental knowledge about the capabilities of commercially available boron reagents toward borylative heterocyclization. Our findings provide guiding principles for reaction design and information leading toward the design of a diverse set of boron-heteroatom addition reactions and their formal equivalents that proceed through borylative heterocyclization.

Noncovalent Interactions in Ir-Catalyzed C-H Activation: L-Shaped Ligand for Para-Selective Borylation of Aromatic Esters

An efficient strategy for the para-selective borylation of aromatic esters is described. For achieving high para-selectivity, a new catalytic system has been developed modifying the core structure of the bipyridine. It has been proposed that the L-shaped ligand is essential to recognize the functionality of the oxygen atom of the ester carbonyl group via noncovalent interaction, which provides an unprecedented controlling factor for para-selective C-H activation/borylation.

Catalyst-Free Formal Thioboration to Synthesize Borylated Benzothiophenes and Dihydrothiophenes

The first ring-forming thioboration reaction of C-C π bonds is reported. This catalyst-free method proceeds in the presence of a commercially available external electrophilic boron source (B-chlorocatecholborane) in good to high yields. The method is scalable and tolerates a variety of functional groups that are intolerant of other major borylation methods. The resulting borylated benzothiophenes participate in a variety of in situ derivatization reactions, showcasing that these borylated intermediates do not need to be isolated prior to downstream functionalization. This methodology has been extended to the synthesis of borylated dihydrothiophenes. Mechanistic experiments suggest that the operative mechanistic pathway is through boron-induced activation of the alkyne followed by electrophilic cyclization, as opposed to S-B σ bond formation, providing a mechanistically distinct pathway to the thioboration of C-C π bonds.

Evolution of C-H Bond Functionalization from Methane to Methodology

This Perspective presents the fundamental principles, the elementary reactions, the initial catalytic systems, and the contemporary catalysts that have converted C-H bond functionalization from a curiosity to a reality for synthetic chemists. Many classes of elementary reactions involving transition-metal complexes cleave C-H bonds at typically unreactive positions. These reactions, coupled with a separate or simultaneous functionalization process lead to products containing new C-C, C-N, and C-O bonds. Such reactions were initially studied for the conversion of light alkanes to liquid products, but they have been used (and commercialized in some cases) most often for the synthesis of the more complex structures of natural products, medicinally active compounds, and aromatic materials. Such a change in direction of research in C-H bond functionalization is remarkable because the reactions must occur at an unactivated C-H bond over functional groups that are more reactive than the C-H bond toward classical reagents. The scope of reactions that form C-C bonds or install functionality at an unactivated C-H bond will be presented, and the potential future utility of these reactions will be discussed.

Total Synthesis of Verruculogen and Fumitremorgin A Enabled by Ligand-Controlled C-H Borylation

Verruculogen and fumitremorgin A are bioactive alkaloids that contain a unique eight-membered endoperoxide. Although related natural products such as fumitremorgins B and C have been previously synthesized, we report the first synthesis of the more complex, endoperoxide-containing members of this family. A concise route to verruculogen and fumitremorgin A relied not only on a hydroperoxide/indole hemiaminal cyclization, but also on the ability to access the seemingly simple starting material, 6-methoxytryptophan. An iridium-catalyzed C-H borylation/Chan-Lam procedure guided by an N-TIPS group enabled the conversion of a tryptophan derivative into a 6-methoxytryptophan derivative, proving to be a general way to functionalize the C6 position of an N,C3-disubstituted indole for the synthesis of indole-containing natural products and pharmaceuticals.

Selective Formation of ortho-Aminobenzylamines by the Copper-Catalyzed Amination of Benzylamine Boronate Esters

The copper-catalyzed coupling between benzylamino boronate esters and aryl amines has been investigated. Formation of ortho-aminobenzylamines was achieved under oxidative conditions in the presence of copper(II) acetate. The major side product of the transformation is the homocoupling of the aryl boronate ester. The formation of the desired diamines was found to be improved in the absence of base, increasing selectivity over the homocoupled product. Both electron-donating and electron-withdrawing substituents are tolerated on both the boronate ester substrate and the aniline coupling partner under the reaction conditions. The presence of the adjacent benzylamine moiety appears to enhance the reactivity of the boronate ester and influence the resulting product distribution, likely by affecting the competing rates of transmetalation in the catalytic cycles.

Catalyst-controlled regiodivergent C-H borylation of multifunctionalized heteroarenes by using iridium complexes

The regiodivergent C-H borylation of 2,5-disubstituted heteroarenes with bis(pinacolato)diboron was achieved by using iridium catalysts formed in situ from [Ir(OMe)(cod)]2 /dtbpy (cod=1,5-cyclooctadiene, dtbpy: 4,4'-di-tert-butyl-2,2'-bipyridine) or [Ir(OMe)(cod)]2 /2 AsPh3 . When [Ir(OMe)(cod)]2 /dtbpy was used as the catalyst, borylation at the 4-position proceeded selectively to afford 4-borylated products in high yields (dtbpy system A). The regioselectivity changed when the [Ir(OMe)(cod)]2 /2 AsPh3 catalyst was used; 3-borylated products were obtained in high yields with high regioselectivity (AsPh3 system B). The regioselectivity of borylation was easily controlled by changing the ligands. This reaction was used in the syntheses of two different bioactive compound analogues by using the same starting material.