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Kyrychenko A, Ladokhin AS. Fluorescent Probes and Quenchers in Studies of Protein Folding and Protein-Lipid Interactions. CHEM REC 2024; 24:e202300232. [PMID: 37695081 PMCID: PMC11113672 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202300232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescence spectroscopy provides numerous methodological tools for structural and functional studies of biological macromolecules and their complexes. All fluorescence-based approaches require either existence of an intrinsic probe or an introduction of an extrinsic one. Moreover, studies of complex systems often require an additional introduction of a specific quencher molecule acting in combination with a fluorophore to provide structural or thermodynamic information. Here, we review the fundamentals and summarize the latest progress in applications of different classes of fluorescent probes and their specific quenchers, aimed at studies of protein folding and protein-membrane interactions. Specifically, we discuss various environment-sensitive dyes, FRET probes, probes for short-distance measurements, and several probe-quencher pairs for studies of membrane penetration of proteins and peptides. The goals of this review are: (a) to familiarize the readership with the general concept that complex biological systems often require both a probe and a quencher to decipher mechanistic details of functioning and (b) to provide example of the immediate applications of the described methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kyrychenko
- Institute of Chemistry and School of Chemistry, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody sq., Kharkiv, 61022, Ukraine
| | - Alexey S Ladokhin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, Kansas City, KS, 66160, United States
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2
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Akhmadeev BS, Gerasimova TP, Gilfanova AR, Katsyuba SA, Islamova LN, Fazleeva GM, Kalinin AA, Daminova AG, Fedosimova SV, Amerhanova SK, Voloshina AD, Tanysheva EG, Sinyashin OG, Mustafina AR. Temperature-sensitive emission of dialkylaminostyrylhetarene dyes and their incorporation into phospholipid aggregates: Applicability for thermal sensing and cellular uptake behavior. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2022; 268:120647. [PMID: 34840053 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2021.120647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A series of dialkylaminostyrylhetarene dyes constructed from electron-rich and electron-deficient moieties of various structures connected via vinylene π-bridges are introduced as temperature-sensitive luminophores. The temperature dependent emission of the dyes in the acidified dichloromethane solutions derives from temperature-induced shift of the equilibrium between neutral and protonated forms of the dyes. The heating-induced blue shift and intensification of emission of neutral form of the dyes make them a promising basis for development of nanoparticles exhibiting temperature-sensitivity in aqueous solutions at pH typical of biological liquids. Hydrophobicity-driven incorporation of the water insoluble dyes into L-α-phosphatidylcholine(PC)-based bilayers allows to obtain water dispersible dye-PC aggregates, and to follow their emission in the aqueous solutions. Structure of the dyes has strong impact on the efficacy of the dyes incorporation into the PC-based bilayers, temperature sensitivity of emission of the dye-PC aggregates and its reversibility under the heating/cooling cycles. This enables structural optimization of the dyes in order to obtain the dye-PC species demonstrating maximal temperature dependence and reversibility of their luminescence in aqueous solutions. The selected leader exhibits low cytotoxicity exemplified for M-HeLa and Chang Liver cell lines, while the efficient cell internalization of the dye, manifested in the staining of the cell cytoplasm, opens further opportunities for biosensing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Akhmadeev
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation.
| | - T P Gerasimova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - A R Gilfanova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - S A Katsyuba
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - L N Islamova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - G M Fazleeva
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - A A Kalinin
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - A G Daminova
- Kazan (Volga region) Federal University, 18 Kremlyovskaya st., 420008 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - S V Fedosimova
- Kazan (Volga region) Federal University, 18 Kremlyovskaya st., 420008 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - S K Amerhanova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - A D Voloshina
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - E G Tanysheva
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - O G Sinyashin
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - A R Mustafina
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 8 Arbuzov st., 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
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Filipe HAL, Moreno MJ, Loura LMS. The Secret Lives of Fluorescent Membrane Probes as Revealed by Molecular Dynamics Simulations. Molecules 2020; 25:E3424. [PMID: 32731549 PMCID: PMC7435664 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25153424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluorescent probes have been employed for more than half a century to study the structure and dynamics of model and biological membranes, using spectroscopic and/or microscopic experimental approaches. While their utilization has led to tremendous progress in our knowledge of membrane biophysics and physiology, in some respects the behavior of bilayer-inserted membrane probes has long remained inscrutable. The location, orientation and interaction of fluorophores with lipid and/or water molecules are often not well known, and they are crucial for understanding what the probe is actually reporting. Moreover, because the probe is an extraneous inclusion, it may perturb the properties of the host membrane system, altering the very properties it is supposed to measure. For these reasons, the need for independent methodologies to assess the behavior of bilayer-inserted fluorescence probes has been recognized for a long time. Because of recent improvements in computational tools, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have become a popular means of obtaining this important information. The present review addresses MD studies of all major classes of fluorescent membrane probes, focusing in the period between 2011 and 2020, during which such work has undergone a dramatic surge in both the number of studies and the variety of probes and properties accessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo A. L. Filipe
- Chemistry Department, Coimbra Chemistry Center, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal;
| | - Maria João Moreno
- Coimbra Chemistry Center and CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal;
| | - Luís M. S. Loura
- Coimbra Chemistry Center and CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
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Shinotsuka R, Oba T, Mitome T, Masuya T, Ito S, Murakami Y, Kagenishi T, Kodama Y, Matsuda M, Yoshida T, Wakamori M, Ohkura M, Nakai J. Synthesis of quinolyl-pyrrole derivatives as novel environment-sensitive fluorescent probes. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2019.111900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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5
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Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations of the LCST conformational transition in poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) in water. J Mol Graph Model 2019; 90:51-58. [PMID: 31009934 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2019.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2019] [Revised: 04/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Thermoresponsive poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) (PVCL) has received growing interest due to a temperature-induced phase transition, which switches its solubility in aqueous solutions. However, the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of PVCL is greatly influenced by the molecular weight, morphology and the environment. Therefore, despite of numerous experimental studies of the thermal response of PVCL, a driving force and a molecular origin of conformation transitions in solution remain far less studied. To get a better understanding of the coil-to-globule conformation transition of PVCL in aqueous solution, we examined the structure and conformation dynamics of a single-chain PVCL30 in a temperature range of 280-360 K by using atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The united-atom GROMOS G53a6 force field was re-parameterized and fine-tuned by DFT calculations to reproduce the experimental LCST transition of PVCL. Our MD model reproduces the LCST transition of PVCL30 to occur within a temperature range of 34.6-38.5°. MD simulation results suggest a significant difference between the hydration state of the carbonyl group of PVCL below and above the LCST threshold. The analysis of the number of hydrogen bonds of PVCL with water molecules demonstrates that dehydration of the polymer plays an important role and drives the temperature-induced polymer collapse. Finally, the developed MD model and FF parameters were successfully tested for large-scale systems, such as mixture PVCL30 oligomer and single-chain PVCL816 polymer, respectively.
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Kyrychenko A, Blazhynska MM, Slavgorodska MV, Kalugin ON. Stimuli-responsive adsorption of poly(acrylic acid) onto silver nanoparticles: Role of polymer chain length and degree of ionization. J Mol Liq 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2018.11.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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7
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Paul BK, Ghosh N, Mukherjee S. Association and sequestered dissociation of an anticancer drug from liposome membrane: Role of hydrophobic hydration. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2018; 170:36-44. [PMID: 29864652 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2018.05.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Revised: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Herein, the interaction of a potent anticancer drug (Sanguinarine, SG) with dimyristoyl-l-α-phosphatidylglycerol (DMPG) liposome membrane has been investigated at physiological pH. The spectroscopic fluorescence decay results demonstrate a modification of the photophysics of SG within DMPG-encapsulated state leading to preferential stabilization of the iminium ion over the alkanolamine form. This suggests a key role of electrostatic force underlying the interaction. The complex dependence of the thermodynamic parameters on temperature yields a unique finding of a positive heat capacity change (ΔCp) indicating the signature of hydrophobic hydration. The study also demonstrates the application of β-cyclodextrin (βCD) as a prospective host system resulting in release of the DMPG-bound drug. A calorimetric exploration of the DMPG-βCD interaction reveals an intrinsically complex thermodynamics of the process leading to ΔCp > 0 and thus marking the instrumental role of hydrophobic hydration which follows that the DMPG-βCD interaction is accompanied with burial of polar molecular surfaces. A systematic investigation of the diffusion of the drug within various microheterogeneous environments by Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) categorically reinforces our arguments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bijan K Paul
- Department of Chemistry, Mahadevananda Mahavidyalaya, Barrackpore, Kolkata 700120, West Bengal, India
| | - Narayani Ghosh
- Department of General Science and Humanities, Modern Institute of Engineering and Technology, Bandel, Kolkata 712123, West Bengal, India
| | - Saptarshi Mukherjee
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhopal Bypass Road, Bhauri, Bhopal 462066, Madhya Pradesh, India.
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8
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Location of fluorescent probes (2′-hydroxy derivatives of 2,5-diaryl-1,3-oxazole) in lipid membrane studied by fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulation. Biophys Chem 2018; 235:9-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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9
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Kyrychenko A, Pasko DA, Kalugin ON. Poly(vinyl alcohol) as a water protecting agent for silver nanoparticles: the role of polymer size and structure. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 19:8742-8756. [PMID: 28217797 DOI: 10.1039/c6cp05562a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Chemical modification of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with a stabilizing agent, such as poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), plays an important role in shape-controlled seeded-growth and colloidal stability. However, theoretical aspects of the stabilizing mechanism of PVA are still poorly understood. To gain a better understanding of the role of PVA in water protecting effects for silver nanoparticles, we developed an atomistic model of a AgNP grafted with single-chain PVA of various lengths. Our model, designed for classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, approximates the AgNP as a quasi-spherical silver nanocrystal with 3.9 nm diameter and uses a united-atom representation for PVA with its polymer chain length varying from 220 up to 1540 repeating units. We found that PVA adsorbs onto the AgNP surface through multiple non-covalent interactions, among which non-covalent bonding of the hydroxyl groups plays a key role. The analysis of adsorption isotherms by using the Hill, Scatchard, and McGhee & von Hippel models exhibits evidence for positive binding cooperativity with the cooperativity parameter varying from 1.55 to 2.12. Our results indicate that the size of the PVA polymer rather than its structure plays a crucial role in providing water protecting effects for the AgNP core, varying from 40% up to 91%. The water-protecting efficiency was well approximated by the Langmuir-Freundlich equation, allowing us to predict that the saturated coverage of the nanoparticle of a given diameter of 3.9 nm should occur when the PVA molecular weight approaches 115 kDa, which corresponds to the number of vinyl alcohol monomers being equal to 3100 units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kyrychenko
- Institute of Chemistry, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody Sq., Kharkiv 61022, Ukraine. and School of Chemistry, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody Sq., Kharkiv 61022, Ukraine
| | - Dmitry A Pasko
- School of Chemistry, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody Sq., Kharkiv 61022, Ukraine
| | - Oleg N Kalugin
- School of Chemistry, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody Sq., Kharkiv 61022, Ukraine
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10
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Derivatives of 2,5-Diaryl-1,3-Oxazole and 2,5-Diaryl-1,3,4-Oxadiazole as Environment-Sensitive Fluorescent Probes for Studies of Biological Membranes. REVIEWS IN FLUORESCENCE 2017 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-01569-5_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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11
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Huang H, Cao F, Wu L, Sun H. All-atom and coarse-grained force fields for polydimethylsiloxane. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2017.1328597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Huang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Scientific and Engineering Computing of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fenglei Cao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Scientific and Engineering Computing of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Liang Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Scientific and Engineering Computing of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Huai Sun
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Scientific and Engineering Computing of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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12
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Chung KY, Chen YH, Chen YT, Hsu YH, Shen JY, Chen CL, Chen YA, Chou PT. The Excited-State Triple Proton Transfer Reaction of 2,6-Diazaindoles and 2,6-Diazatryptophan in Aqueous Solution. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:6396-6402. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b01672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kun-You Chung
- Department of Chemistry and
Center for Emerging Material and Advanced Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Yi-Han Chen
- Department of Chemistry and
Center for Emerging Material and Advanced Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Yi-Ting Chen
- Department of Chemistry and
Center for Emerging Material and Advanced Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Yen-Hao Hsu
- Department of Chemistry and
Center for Emerging Material and Advanced Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Jiun-Yi Shen
- Department of Chemistry and
Center for Emerging Material and Advanced Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Chi-Lin Chen
- Department of Chemistry and
Center for Emerging Material and Advanced Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Yi-An Chen
- Department of Chemistry and
Center for Emerging Material and Advanced Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Pi-Tai Chou
- Department of Chemistry and
Center for Emerging Material and Advanced Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C
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Kyrychenko A, Rodnin MV, Ghatak C, Ladokhin AS. Computational refinement of spectroscopic FRET measurements. Data Brief 2017; 12:213-221. [PMID: 28459092 PMCID: PMC5397103 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2017.03.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
This article supplies raw data related to a research article entitled “Joint refinement of FRET measurements using spectroscopic and computational tools” (Kyrychenko et al., 2017) [1], in which we demonstrate the use of molecular dynamics simulations to estimate FRET orientational factors in a benchmark donor-linker-acceptor system of enhanced cyan (ECFP) and enhanced yellow (EYFP) fluorescent proteins. This can improve the recalculation of donor-acceptor distance information from single-molecule FRET measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kyrychenko
- Institute of Chemistry and School of Chemistry, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody Square, Kharkiv 61022, Ukraine.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center Kansas City, KS66160-7421, USA
| | - Mykola V Rodnin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center Kansas City, KS66160-7421, USA
| | - Chiranjib Ghatak
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center Kansas City, KS66160-7421, USA
| | - Alexey S Ladokhin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center Kansas City, KS66160-7421, USA
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Gil M, Kijak M, Piwoński H, Herbich J, Waluk J. Non-typical fluorescence studies of excited and ground state proton and hydrogen transfer. Methods Appl Fluoresc 2017; 5:014007. [PMID: 28248649 DOI: 10.1088/2050-6120/aa5e29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescence studies of tautomerization have been carried out for various systems that exhibit single and double proton or hydrogen translocation in various environments, such as liquid and solid condensed phases, ultracold supersonic jets, and finally, polymer matrices with single emitters. We focus on less explored areas of application of fluorescence for tautomerization studies, using porphycene, a porphyrin isomer, as an example. Fluorescence anisotropy techniques allow investigations of self-exchange reactions, where the reactant and product are formally identical. Excitation with polarized light makes it possible to monitor tautomerization in single molecules and to detect their three-dimensional orientation. Analysis of fluorescence from single vibronic levels of jet-isolated porphycene not only demonstrates coherent tunneling of two internal protons, but also indicates that the process is vibrational mode-specific. Next, we present bifunctional proton donor-acceptor systems, molecules that are able, depending on the environment, to undergo excited state single intramolecular or double intermolecular proton transfer. For molecules that have donor and acceptor groups located in separate moieties linked by a single bond, excited state tautomerization can be coupled to mutual twisting of the two subunits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Gil
- Institute of Physical Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
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Faller R. Molecular modeling of lipid probes and their influence on the membrane. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2016; 1858:2353-2361. [PMID: 26891817 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2016.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
In this review a number of Molecular Dynamics simulation studies are discussed which focus on the understanding of the behavior of lipid probes in biomembranes. Experiments often use specialized probe moieties or molecules to report on the behavior of a membrane and try to gain information on the membrane as a whole from the probe lipids as these probes are the only things an experiment sees. Probes can be used to make NMR, EPR and fluorescence accessible to the membrane and use fluorescent or spin-active moieties for this purpose. Clearly membranes with and without probes are not identical which makes it worthwhile to elucidate the differences between them with detailed atomistic simulations. In almost all cases these differences are confined to the local neighborhood of the probe molecules which are sparsely used and generally present as single molecules. In general, the behavior of the bulk membrane lipids can be qualitatively understood from the probes but in most cases their properties cannot be directly quantitatively deduced from the probe behavior. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Biosimulations edited by Ilpo Vattulainen and Tomasz Róg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Faller
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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16
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Feruloyl glycerol and 1,3-diferuloyl glycerol antioxidant behavior in phospholipid vesicles. Chem Phys Lipids 2016; 195:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2014] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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17
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Evans KO, Compton DL, Whitman NA, Laszlo JA, Appell M, Vermillion KE, Kim S. Octadecyl ferulate behavior in 1,2-Dioleoylphosphocholine liposomes. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2016; 153:333-343. [PMID: 26332862 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2015.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Octadecyl ferulate was prepared using solid acid catalyst, monitored using Supercritical Fluid Chromatography and purified to a 42% yield. Differential scanning calorimetry measurements determined octadecyl ferulate to have melting/solidification phase transitions at 67 and 39°C, respectively. AFM imaging shows that 5-mol% present in a lipid bilayer induced domains to form. Phase behavior measurements confirmed that octadecyl ferulate increased transition temperature of phospholipids. Fluorescence measurements demonstrated that octadecyl ferulate stabilized liposomes against leakage, maintained antioxidant capacity within liposomes, and oriented such that the feruloyl moiety remained in the hydrophilic region of the bilayer. Molecular modeling calculation indicated that antioxidant activity was mostly influenced by interactions within the bilayer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kervin O Evans
- Renewable Products Technology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA.
| | - David L Compton
- Renewable Products Technology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - Nathan A Whitman
- Renewable Products Technology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - Joseph A Laszlo
- Renewable Products Technology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - Michael Appell
- Bacterial Foodborne Pathogens and Mycology, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - Karl E Vermillion
- Functional Foods Research, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - Sanghoon Kim
- Plant Polymer Research, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
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18
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Kyrychenko A. Using fluorescence for studies of biological membranes: a review. Methods Appl Fluoresc 2015; 3:042003. [DOI: 10.1088/2050-6120/3/4/042003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Basarić N, Thomas SS, Bregović VB, Cindro N, Bohne C. Phototautomerization in Pyrrolylphenylpyridine Terphenyl Systems. J Org Chem 2015; 80:4430-42. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.5b00275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Basarić
- Department
of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Suma S. Thomas
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Box 3065 STN CSC, Victoria, BC V8W 3 V6, Canada
| | - Vesna Blažek Bregović
- Department
of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Nikola Cindro
- Department
of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Cornelia Bohne
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Box 3065 STN CSC, Victoria, BC V8W 3 V6, Canada
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20
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Evans KO, Laszlo JA, Compton DL. Hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol esters partitioning into, location within, and effect on DOPC liposome bilayer behavior. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1848:1175-82. [PMID: 25687972 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The phenols hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol made abundantly available through olive oil processing were enzymatically transesterified into effective lipophilic antioxidants with cuphea oil. The hydroxytyrosyl and tyrosyl esters made from cuphea oil were assessed for their ability to partition into, locate within and effect the bilayer behavior of 1,2-dioloeoylphosphatidylcholine liposomes and compared to their counterparts made from decanoic acid. Partitioning into liposomes was on the same scale for both hydroxytyrosyl derivatives and both tyrosyl derivatives. All were found to locate nearly at the same depth within the bilayer. Each was found to affect bilayer behavior in a distinct manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kervin O Evans
- Renewable Products Technology Research Unit, National Center of Agricultural Utilization Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA.
| | - Joseph A Laszlo
- Renewable Products Technology Research Unit, National Center of Agricultural Utilization Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - David L Compton
- Renewable Products Technology Research Unit, National Center of Agricultural Utilization Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
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21
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Calibration of Distribution Analysis of the Depth of Membrane Penetration Using Simulations and Depth-Dependent Fluorescence Quenching. J Membr Biol 2014; 248:583-94. [PMID: 25107303 DOI: 10.1007/s00232-014-9709-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Determination of the depth of membrane penetration provides important information for studies of membrane protein folding and protein-lipid interactions. Here, we use a combination of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and depth-dependent fluorescence quenching to calibrate the methodology for extracting quantitative information on membrane penetration. In order to investigate the immersion depth of the fluorescent label in lipid bilayer, we studied 7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole (NBD) attached to the lipid headgroup in NBD-PE incorporated into POPC bilayer. The immersion depth of NBD was estimated by measuring steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence quenching with spin-labeled lipids co-incorporated into lipid vesicles. Six different spin-labeled lipids were utilized: one with headgroup-attached Tempo probe (Tempo-PC) and five with acyl chain-labeled n-Doxyl moieties (n-Doxyl-PC where n is a chain labeling position equal to 5, 7, 10, 12, and 14, respectively). The Stern-Volmer analysis revealed that NBD quenching in membranes occurs by both static and dynamic collisional quenching processes. Using the methodology of Distribution Analysis, the immersion depth and the apparent half-width of the transversal distributions of the NBD moiety were estimated to be 14.7 and 6.7 Å, respectively, from the bilayer center. This position is independently validated by atomistic MD simulations of NBD-PE lipids in a POPC bilayer (14.4 Å). In addition, we demonstrate that MD simulations of the transverse overlap integrals between dye and quencher distributions can be used for proper analysis of the depth-dependent quenching profile. Finally, we illustrate the application of this methodology by determining membrane penetration of site selectively labeled mutants of diphtheria toxin T-domain.
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22
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Effect of acetone accumulation on structure and dynamics of lipid membranes studied by molecular dynamics simulations. Comput Biol Chem 2013; 46:23-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2013.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Revised: 04/27/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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23
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Neale C, Madill C, Rauscher S, Pomès R. Accelerating Convergence in Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Solutes in Lipid Membranes by Conducting a Random Walk along the Bilayer Normal. J Chem Theory Comput 2013; 9:3686-703. [DOI: 10.1021/ct301005b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chris Neale
- Molecular Structure
and Function,
The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario,
M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department
of Biochemistry,
University of Toronto, 101 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1L7,
Canada
| | - Chris Madill
- Molecular Structure
and Function,
The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario,
M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department
of Biochemistry,
University of Toronto, 101 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1L7,
Canada
| | - Sarah Rauscher
- Molecular Structure
and Function,
The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario,
M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department
of Biochemistry,
University of Toronto, 101 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1L7,
Canada
| | - Régis Pomès
- Molecular Structure
and Function,
The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario,
M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department
of Biochemistry,
University of Toronto, 101 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1L7,
Canada
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24
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Kyrychenko A, Ladokhin AS. Molecular dynamics simulations of depth distribution of spin-labeled phospholipids within lipid bilayer. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:5875-85. [PMID: 23614631 DOI: 10.1021/jp4026706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Spin-labeled lipids are commonly used as fluorescence quenchers in studies of membrane penetration of dye-labeled proteins and peptides using depth-dependent quenching. Accurate calculations of depth of the fluorophore rely on the use of several spin labels placed in the membrane at various positions. The depth of the quenchers (spin probes) has to be determined independently; however, experimental determination of transverse distributions of spin probe depths is difficult. In this Article, we use molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to study the membrane behavior and depth distributions of spin-labeled phospholipids in a 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) bilayer. To probe different depths within the bilayer, a series containing five Doxyl-labeled lipids (n-Doxyl PC) has been studied, in which a spin moiety was covalently attached to nth carbon atoms (where n = 5, 7, 10, 12, and 14) of the sn-2 stearoyl chain of the host phospholipid. Our results demonstrate that the chain-attached spin labels are broadly distributed across the model membrane and their environment is characterized by a high degree of mobility and structural heterogeneity. Despite the high thermal disorder, the depth distributions of the Doxyl labels were found to correlate well with their attachment positions, indicating that the distribution of the spin label within the model membrane is dictated by the depth of the nth lipid carbon atom and not by intrinsic properties of the label. In contrast, a much broader and heterogeneous distribution was observed for a headgroup-attached Tempo spin label of Tempo-PC lipids. MD simulations reveal that, due to the hydrophobic nature, a Tempo moiety favors partitioning from the headgroup region deeper into the membrane. Depending on the concentration of Tempo-PC lipids, the probable depth of the Tempo moiety could span a range from 14.4 to 18.2 Å from the membrane center. Comparison of the MD-estimated immersion depths of Tempo and n-Doxyl labels with their suggested experimental depth positions allows us to review critically the possible sources of error in depth-dependent fluorescence quenching studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kyrychenko
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kansas University Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160-7421, USA.
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25
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Kyrychenko A, Tobias DJ, Ladokhin AS. Validation of depth-dependent fluorescence quenching in membranes by molecular dynamics simulation of tryptophan octyl ester in POPC bilayer. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:4770-8. [PMID: 23528135 PMCID: PMC3652981 DOI: 10.1021/jp310638f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Depth-dependent fluorescence quenching is an important tool for studying the penetration of proteins and peptides into lipid bilayers. Extracting quantitative information from quenching data is, however, complicated by (1) a limited number of experimentally available quenchers and (2) thermal disorder resulting in broad distributions of the transverse positions of both quenchers and fluorophores. Here we validate and refine a general approach to determining the location of a fluorescent probe along the bilayer normal from quenching data, based on a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation of a model compound, tryptophan octyl ester (TOE), in a 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) bilayer. The TOE ring was found to lie deeply within the bilayer (most probable position of 13.3 Å and center-of-weight of the distribution of 14.8 Å from the bilayer center), and it was very broadly distributed (with 9 Å depth distribution width), which is consistent with previous experimental observations. The depth-dependent quenching profiles were simulated by treating carbon atoms of the lipid acyl chain of POPC as "pseudo-quenchers" and calculating appropriate transverse overlaps and collision rates with indole atoms of TOE. These simulated quenching profiles were well fitted by a Gaussian function of depth, as is routinely done with experimental data subjected to the distribution analysis procedure [Methods Enzymol. 1997, 278, 462-473]. Comparison of the collisional pseudoquenching profiles with the actual profiles of the indole moiety of TOE allows for testing of the validity of the data analysis and identification of the possible sources of error in calculating depths of membrane penetration from quenching data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kyrychenko
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kansas University Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160-7421, U.S.A
| | - Douglas J. Tobias
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-2025, U.S.A
| | - Alexey S. Ladokhin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kansas University Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160-7421, U.S.A
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26
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Gözen I, Jesorka A. Instrumental Methods to Characterize Molecular Phospholipid Films on Solid Supports. Anal Chem 2012; 84:822-38. [DOI: 10.1021/ac203126f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Irep Gözen
- Department of Chemical and Biological
Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemivägen 10, 41296 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Aldo Jesorka
- Department of Chemical and Biological
Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemivägen 10, 41296 Göteborg, Sweden
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27
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Loura LMS, Ramalho JPP. Recent developments in molecular dynamics simulations of fluorescent membrane probes. Molecules 2011; 16:5437-52. [PMID: 21709624 PMCID: PMC6264736 DOI: 10.3390/molecules16075437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Revised: 06/21/2011] [Accepted: 06/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to their sensitivity and versatility, the use of fluorescence techniques in membrane biophysics is widespread. Because membrane lipids are non-fluorescent, extrinsic membrane probes are widely used. However, the behaviour of these probes when inserted in the bilayer is often poorly understood, and it can be hard to distinguish between legitimate membrane properties and perturbation resulting from probe incorporation. Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations present a convenient way to address these issues and have been increasingly used in recent years in this context. This article reviews the application of molecular dynamics to the study of fluorescent membrane probes, focusing on recent work with complex design fluorophores and ordered bilayer systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís M. S. Loura
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Coimbra, Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal;
- Centro de Química de Coimbra, Universidade de Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - J. P. Prates Ramalho
- Centro de Química de Évora e Departamento de Química, Escola de Ciências e Tecnologia, Colégio Luís Verney, Rua Romão Ramalho 59, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal
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28
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Kyrychenko A, Sevriukov IY, Syzova ZA, Ladokhin AS, Doroshenko AO. Partitioning of 2,6-Bis(1H-Benzimidazol-2-yl)pyridine fluorophore into a phospholipid bilayer: complementary use of fluorescence quenching studies and molecular dynamics simulations. Biophys Chem 2011; 154:8-17. [PMID: 21211898 PMCID: PMC4167733 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2010.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Revised: 12/04/2010] [Accepted: 12/05/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Successful use of fluorescence sensing in elucidating the biophysical properties of lipid membranes requires knowledge of the distribution and location of an emitting molecule in the bilayer. We report here that 2,6-bis(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)pyridine (BBP), which is almost non-fluorescent in aqueous solutions, reveals a strong emission enhancement in a hydrophobic environment of a phospholipid bilayer, making it interesting for fluorescence probing of water content in a lipid membrane. Comparing the fluorescence behavior of BBP in a wide variety of solvents with those in phospholipid vesicles, we suggest that the hydrogen bonding interactions between a BBP fluorophore and water molecules play a crucial role in the observed "light switch effect". Therefore, the loss of water-induced fluorescence quenching inside a membrane are thought to be due to deep penetration of BBP into the hydrophobic, water-free region of a bilayer. Characterized by strong quenching by transition metal ions in solution, BBP also demonstrated significant shielding from the action of the quencher in the presence of phospholipid vesicles. We used the increase in fluorescence intensity, measured upon titration of probe molecules with lipid vesicles, to estimate the partition constant and the Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of transfer of BBP from aqueous buffer into a membrane. Partitioning BBP revealed strongly favorable ΔG, which depends only slightly on the lipid composition of a bilayer, varying in a range from -6.5 to -7.0kcal/mol. To elucidate the binding interactions of the probe with a membrane on the molecular level, a distribution and favorable location of BBP in a POPC bilayer were modeled via atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations using two different approaches: (i) free, diffusion-driven partitioning of the probe molecules into a bilayer and (ii) constrained umbrella sampling of a penetration profile of the dye molecule across a bilayer. Both of these MD approaches agreed with regard to the preferred location of a BBP fluorophore within the interfacial region of a bilayer, located between the hydrocarbon acyl tails and the initial portion of the lipid headgroups. MD simulations also revealed restricted permeability of water molecules into this region of a POPC bilayer, determining the strong fluorescence enhancement observed experimentally for the membrane-partitioned form of BBP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kyrychenko
- Institute for Chemistry, V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody Square, Kharkiv 61077, Ukraine
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160-7421, United States
- Ukrainian-American Laboratory of Computational Chemistry, Kharkiv, Ukraine and Jackson, Mississippi, United States
| | - Igor Yu. Sevriukov
- Institute for Chemistry, V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody Square, Kharkiv 61077, Ukraine
| | - Zoya A. Syzova
- Institute for Chemistry, V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody Square, Kharkiv 61077, Ukraine
| | - Alexey S. Ladokhin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160-7421, United States
| | - Andrey O. Doroshenko
- Institute for Chemistry, V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, 4 Svobody Square, Kharkiv 61077, Ukraine
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29
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Moszynski JM, Fyles TM. Synthesis and ion transport activity of oligoesters containing an environment-sensitive fluorophore. Org Biomol Chem 2011; 9:7468-75. [DOI: 10.1039/c1ob06047c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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