1
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Obloy LM, Jockusch S, Tarnovsky AN. Shortwave infrared polymethine dyes for bioimaging: ultrafast relaxation dynamics and excited-state decay pathways. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024. [PMID: 38895857 DOI: 10.1039/d4cp01411a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Excited-state relaxation in two prototypical shortwave infrared (SWIR) polymethine dyes developed for bioimaging, heptamethine chromenylium Chrom7 and flavylium Flav7, is studied by means of femtosecond transient absorption with broadband ultraviolet-to-SWIR probing complemented by steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence and phosphorescence measurements. The relaxation processes of the dyes in dichloromethane are resolved with sub-100 fs temporal resolution using SWIR, near-IR, and visible photoexcitation. Different population members of the ground-state inhomogeneous ensemble are found to equilibrate via skeletal deformation changes with time constants of 90 fs and either 230 fs (Chrom7) and 350 fs (Flav7) followed by slower evolution matching the 1-ps timescale of diffusive solvation dynamics. Molecules excited into high-lying singlet electronic states (Sn) by visible excitation repopulate with time constants of 400 fs (Chrom7) and 450 fs (Flav7) the corresponding first excited singlet S1 states, which decay within several hundreds of picoseconds in dichloromethane and chloroform solvents. Vibrational relaxation in S1 for both Chrom7 and Flav7 in dichloromethane occurs with time constants of 350 and 800 fs for excess of vibrational energy of ∼1000 and 10 000 cm-1 deposited by near-IR and visible excitation, respectively. Two competing non-radiative processes are present in S1: temperature-independent internal conversion, and thermally-activated twisting about a carbon-carbon bond of the conjugated chain, which is substantial at room temperature but essentially nonreactive, producing traces of isomer product. Intersystem crossing in S1, and thus the triplet quantum yield, is minor. The importance of absorption bands from the excited S1 state in applications requiring high-intensity excitation conditions is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Obloy
- Department of Chemistry and the Center for Photochemical Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA.
| | - Steffen Jockusch
- Department of Chemistry and the Center for Photochemical Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA.
| | - Alexander N Tarnovsky
- Department of Chemistry and the Center for Photochemical Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA.
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2
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Zhang Z, Nie X, Lei D, Mukamel S. Multidimensional Coherent Spectroscopy of Molecular Polaritons: Langevin Approach. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2023; 130:103001. [PMID: 36962020 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.130.103001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
We present a microscopic theory for nonlinear optical spectroscopy of N molecules in an optical cavity. Using the Heisenberg-Langevin equation, an analytical expression is derived for the time- and frequency-resolved signals accounting for arbitrary numbers of vibrational excitations. We identify clear signatures of the polariton-polaron interaction from multidimensional projections of the signal, e.g., pathways and timescales. Cooperative dynamics of cavity polaritons against intramolecular vibrations is revealed, along with a crosstalk between long-range coherence and vibronic coupling that may lead to localization effects. Our results further characterize the polaritonic coherence and the population transfer that is slower.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhedong Zhang
- Department of Physics, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR
- City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518057, China
| | - Xiaoyu Nie
- School of Physics, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710049, China
| | - Dangyuan Lei
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Shaul Mukamel
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
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3
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Dimitriev OP, Piryatinski YP, Slominskii YL, Ryabitskii AB. "Awakening" of the S 2 Emission of Tricarbocyanine Dyes Stimulated by Interaction with Carbon Quantum Dots. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:6619-6627. [PMID: 35834739 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c00805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Anti-Kasha emission (i.e., the emission from Sn (n > 1) excited levels) of infrared chromophores which possess intensive absorption and S1 emission in the near-infrared region, but which are spectrally silent in the visible, is a challenging task for relevant applications such as energy conversion, bioimaging, sensitization of solar cells, optical sensors, and so on. Here we demonstrate a dual emission of near-infrared tricarbocyanine dyes with a bright green S2 fluorescence, whose quantum yield increases by 2-4 times together with a strong enhancement of the spontaneous rate of S2 fluorescence, whereas the quantum yield of S1 emission decreases by 2-7 times, respectively, as a result of immobilization of the dye molecule via interaction with carbon quantum dots. The enhanced immobilization-induced S2 emission is shown to occur because of planarization of the molecule and freezing its rotational degrees of freedom as indicated by suppression of the dye hot-band absorption-assisted anti-Stokes S1 emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleg P Dimitriev
- V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics NAS of Ukraine, pr. Nauki 41, Kyiv 03028, Ukraine
| | | | - Yuri L Slominskii
- Institute of Organic Chemistry NAS of Ukraine, 5 Murmanska St., Kyiv 02660, Ukraine
| | - Aleksey B Ryabitskii
- Institute of Organic Chemistry NAS of Ukraine, 5 Murmanska St., Kyiv 02660, Ukraine
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4
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Durán-Hernández J, Muñoz-Rugeles L, Guzmán-Méndez Ó, M Reza M, Cadena-Caicedo A, García-Montalvo V, Peón J. Sensitization of Nd 3+ Luminescence by Simultaneous Two-Photon Excitation through a Coordinating Polymethinic Antenna. J Phys Chem A 2022; 126:2498-2510. [PMID: 35436116 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.2c01052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
We have designed and synthesized two new cyaninic Nd3+ complexes where the lanthanide emission can be induced from simultaneous two-photon absorption followed by energy migration. These complexes correspond to a molecular design that uses an antenna ligand formed by the functionalization of a heptamethine dye with 5-ol-phenanthroline or 4-phenyl-terpyridine derivatives. These complexes employ the important nonlinear optical properties of symmetric polymethines to sensitize the lanthanide ion. We verified that simultaneous biphotonic excitation indirectly induces the 4F3/2 → 4I11/2 Nd3+ emission using femtosecond laser pulses tuned below the first electronic transition of the antenna. The simultaneous two-photon excitation events initially form the nonlinear-active second excited singlet of the polymethine antenna, which rapidly evolves into its first excited singlet. This state in turn induces the formation of the emissive Nd3+ states through energy transfer. The role of the first excited singlet of the antenna as the donor state in this process was verified through time resolution of the antenna's fluorescence. These measurements also provided the rates for antenna-lanthanide energy transfer, which indicate that the phenanthroline-type ligand is approximately five times more efficient for energy transfer than the phenyl-terpyridine derivative due to their relative donor-acceptor distances. The simultaneous two-photon excitation of this polymethine antenna allows for high spatial localization of the Nd3+excitation events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Durán-Hernández
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, México
| | - Leonardo Muñoz-Rugeles
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, México
| | - Óscar Guzmán-Méndez
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, México
| | - Mariana M Reza
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, México
| | - Andrea Cadena-Caicedo
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, México
| | | | - Jorge Peón
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, México
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5
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Lahiri J, Sandhu S, Levine BG, Dantus M. Human Serum Albumin Dimerization Enhances the S 2 Emission of Bound Cyanine IR806. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:1825-1832. [PMID: 35171617 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c03735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cyanine molecules are important phototheranostic compounds given their high fluorescence yield in the near-infrared region of the spectrum. We report on the frequency and time-resolved spectroscopy of the S2 state of IR806, which demonstrates enhanced emission upon binding to the hydrophobic pocket of human serum albumin (HSA). From excitation-emission matrix spectra and electronic structure calculations, we identify the emission as one associated with a state having the polymethine chain twisted out of plane by 103°. In addition, we find that this configuration is significantly stabilized as the concentration of HSA increases. Spectroscopic changes associated with the S1 and S2 states of IR806 as a function of HSA concentration, as well as anisotropy measurements, confirm the formation of HSA dimers at concentrations greater than 10 μM. These findings imply that the longer-lived S2 state configuration can lead to more efficient phototherapy agents, and cyanine S2 spectroscopy may be a useful tool to determine the oligomerization state of HSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jurick Lahiri
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Shawn Sandhu
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Benjamin G Levine
- Institute for Advanced Computational Science and Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Marcos Dantus
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
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6
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Prompt and Long-Lived Anti-Kasha Emission from Organic Dyes. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26226999. [PMID: 34834093 PMCID: PMC8623836 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26226999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Anti-Kasha behavior has been the subject of intense debate in the last few years, as demonstrated by the high number of papers appearing in the literature on this topic, dealing with both mechanistic and applicative aspects of this phenomenon. Examples of anomalous emitters reported in the last 10 years are collected in the present review, which is focused on strictly anti-Kasha organic molecules displaying radiative deactivation from Sn and/or Tn, with n greater than 1.
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7
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Laboe M, Lahiri J, Mohan T M N, Liang F, Levine BG, Beck WF, Dantus M. Linear and Nonlinear Optical Processes Controlling S 2 and S 1 Dual Fluorescence in Cyanine Dyes. J Phys Chem A 2021; 125:9770-9784. [PMID: 34747598 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.1c05772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We report on the changes in the dual fluorescence of two cyanine dyes IR144 and IR140 as a function of viscosity and probe their internal conversion dynamics from S2 to S1 via their dependence on a femtosecond laser pulse chirp. Steady-state and time-resolved measurements performed in methanol, ethanol, propanol, ethylene glycol, and glycerol solutions are presented. Quantum calculations reveal the presence of three excited states responsible for the experimental observations. Above the first excited state, we find an excited state, which we designate as S1', that relaxes to the S1 minimum, and we find that the S2 state has two stable configurations. Chirp-dependence measurements, aided by numerical simulations, reveal how internal conversion from S2 to S1 depends on solvent viscosity and pulse duration. By combining solvent viscosity, transform-limited pulses, and chirped pulses, we obtain an overall change in the S2/S1 population ratio of a factor of 86 and 55 for IR144 and IR140, respectively. The increase in the S2/S1 ratio is explained by a two-photon transition to a higher excited state. The ability to maximize the population of higher excited states by delaying or bypassing nonradiative relaxation may lead to the increased efficiency of photochemical processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryann Laboe
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Jurick Lahiri
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Nila Mohan T M
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Fangchun Liang
- Institute for Advanced Computational Science and Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Benjamin G Levine
- Institute for Advanced Computational Science and Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Warren F Beck
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Marcos Dantus
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
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8
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Fish GC, Moreno-Naranjo JM, Billion A, Kratzert D, Hack E, Krossing I, Nüesch F, Moser JE. Critical role of H-aggregation for high-efficiency photoinduced charge generation in pristine pentamethine cyanine salts. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2021; 23:23886-23895. [PMID: 34651630 PMCID: PMC8549113 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp03251h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of photoinduced symmetry-breaking charge separation in solid cyanine salts at the base of organic photovoltaic and optoelectronic devices is still debated. Here, we employ femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy (TAS) to monitor the charge transfer processes occurring in thin films of pristine pentamethine cyanine (Cy5). Oxidized dye species are observed in Cy5-hexafluorophosphate salts upon photoexcitation, resulting from electron transfer from monomer excited states to H-aggregates. The charge separation proceeds with a quantum yield of 86%, providing the first direct proof of high efficiency intrinsic charge generation in organic salt semiconductors. The impact of the size of weakly coordinating anions on charge separation and transport is studied using TAS alongside electroabsorption spectroscopy and time-of-flight techniques. The degree of H-aggregation decreases with increasing anion size, resulting in reduced charge transfer. However, there is little change in carrier mobility, as despite the interchromophore distance increasing, the decrease in energetic disorder helps to alleviate the trapping of charges by H-aggregates.
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Affiliation(s)
- George C Fish
- Photochemical Dynamics Group, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Juan Manuel Moreno-Naranjo
- Photochemical Dynamics Group, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Andreas Billion
- Institut für Anorganische und Analytische Chemie, and Freiburger Materialforschungszentrum, Universität Freiburg, Albertstrasse 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Kratzert
- Institut für Anorganische und Analytische Chemie, and Freiburger Materialforschungszentrum, Universität Freiburg, Albertstrasse 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Erwin Hack
- Laboratory for Transport at Nanoscale Interfaces, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Ingo Krossing
- Institut für Anorganische und Analytische Chemie, and Freiburger Materialforschungszentrum, Universität Freiburg, Albertstrasse 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Frank Nüesch
- Laboratory for Functional Polymers, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Institute of Materials, School of Engineering, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Station 12, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jacques-E Moser
- Photochemical Dynamics Group, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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9
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Villatoro E, Muñoz-Rugeles L, Durán-Hernández J, Salcido-Santacruz B, Esturau-Escofet N, López-Cortés JG, Ortega-Alfaro MC, Peón J. Two-photon induced isomerization through a cyaninic molecular antenna in azo compounds. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 57:3123-3126. [PMID: 33630983 DOI: 10.1039/d0cc08346a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
We present a new design for non-linear optically responsive molecules based on a modular scheme where a polymethinic antenna section with important two-photon absorption properties is bonded to an isomerizable actuator section composed of a stilbenyl-azopyrrole unit. Upon two photon excitation, energy migration from the antenna-localized second singlet excited state to the stilbenyl-azopyrrole section allows for efficient indirect excitation and phototransformation of this actuator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Villatoro
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico.
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10
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Guarin CA, Mendoza-Luna LG, Haro-Poniatowski E, Hernández-Pozos JL. Two-photon absorption spectrum and characterization of the upper electronic states of the dye IR780. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2021; 249:119291. [PMID: 33360055 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2020.119291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In this work, the full two-photon absorption (2PA) spectrum of cyanine dye IR780 in methanol was measured and some important properties of the upper excited electronic states were investigated. Specifically, two IR780 2PA bands of intensities nearing 140 and 2800 Goeppert-Mayer (GM) were found. In order to determine the optical properties of the upper electronic singlet states, a deconvolution of the absorption peaks in the UV region of the spectrum was made. Based on this, properties such as transition dipole moments, oscillator strengths, absorption maxima in the UV-vis spectra, S2-S1 vibrational couplings and predictions of the lifetime of the second excited state were calculated. Moreover, by combining experimental and computational results, the 2PA transitions were assigned to the upper excited states S2 and S4. Cross-section magnitudes, positions and shapes of the 2PA bands have been satisfactorily explained with a four-state model that comprises the singlet states S1, S2 and S4. From these results, the cyanine investigated in the present work could be used as a novel and interesting moiety for more complex systems that respond to two-photon excitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cesar A Guarin
- Departamento de Física, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186 Col. Vicentina, C.P. 09340 México D.F., México; Cátedras CONACYT - Departamento de Física, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186 Col. Vicentina, C.P. 09340 México D.F., México.
| | - Luis Guillermo Mendoza-Luna
- Departamento de Física, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186 Col. Vicentina, C.P. 09340 México D.F., México; Cátedras CONACYT - Departamento de Física, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186 Col. Vicentina, C.P. 09340 México D.F., México.
| | - Emmanuel Haro-Poniatowski
- Departamento de Física, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186 Col. Vicentina, C.P. 09340 México D.F., México
| | - José Luis Hernández-Pozos
- Departamento de Física, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186 Col. Vicentina, C.P. 09340 México D.F., México
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11
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Ilina K, Henary M. Cyanine Dyes Containing Quinoline Moieties: History, Synthesis, Optical Properties, and Applications. Chemistry 2021; 27:4230-4248. [PMID: 33137212 PMCID: PMC9832344 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202003697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Cyanine dyes carrying quinoline moieties are an important class of organic molecules that are of great interest for applications in many fields like medicine, pharmacology, and engineering. Despite their exceptional properties, such as stability, high molar extinction coefficients, and high pH-sensitivity, this class of dyes has been less analyzed and reviewed in the last few decades. Therefore, this review article focuses on discussing the history of quinoline compounds, various synthetic routes to prepare quinolinium salts and symmetrical and asymmetrical mono-, di-, tri-, penta- and heptamethine cyanine dyes, containing quinoline moieties, together with their optical properties and applications as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy, probes in biomolecules for labeling of nucleic acids, as well as imaging agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Ilina
- Department of Chemistry, Petit Science Center, Georgia State University, 100 Piedmont Avenue SE Atlanta, GA 30303 (USA)
| | - Maged Henary
- Department of Chemistry, Petit Science Center, Georgia State University, 100 Piedmont Avenue SE Atlanta, GA 30303 (USA),Center for Diagnostics and Therapeutics. Petit Science Center, Georgia State University, 100 Piedmont Avenue SE, Atlanta, GA 30303 (USA)
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12
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Alia JD, Flack JA. Unspecified verticality of Franck–Condon transitions, absorption and emission spectra of cyanine dyes, and a classically inspired approximation. RSC Adv 2020; 10:43153-43167. [PMID: 35514896 PMCID: PMC9058138 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra06774a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The computed vertical energy, Ev,a/f, from the equilibrium geometry of the initial electronic state is frequently considered as representative of the experimental excitation/emission energy, Eabs/fl = hc/λmax. Application of the quantum mechanical version of the Franck–Condon principle does not involve precise specification of nuclear positions before, after, or during an electronic transition. Moreover, the duration of an electronic transition is not experimentally accessible in spectra with resolved vibrational structure. It is shown that computed vibronic spectra based on TDDFT methods and application of quantum mechanical FC analysis predict Eabs = hc/λmax with a 10-fold improvement in accuracy compared to Ev,a for nine cyanine dyes. It is argued that part of the reason for accuracy when this FC analysis is compared to experiment as opposed to Ev,a/f is the unspecified verticality of transitions in the context of the quantum version of the FC principle. Classical FC transitions that preserve nuclear kinetic energy before and after an electronic transition were previously found to occur at a weighted average of final and initial electronic state molecular geometries known as the r-centroid. Inspired by this approach a qualitative method using computed vertical and adiabatic energies and the harmonic approximation is developed and applied yielding a 5-fold improvement in accuracy compared to Ev,a. This improvement results from the dominance of low frequency vibronic transitions in the cyanine dye major band. The model gives insight into the nature of the redshift when qPCR dye EvaGreen is complexed to λDNA and is applicable to the low frequency band of similar non cyanine dyes such as curcumin. It is found that the computed vibronic cyanine dye spectra from time-dependent FC analysis at 0 K and 298 K show decreased intensity at higher temperature suggestive of increased intensity with restricted motion shown when cyanine dyes are used in biomedical imaging. A 2-layer ONIOM model of the DNA minor groove indicates restricted motion of the TC-1 dye excited state in this setting indicative of enhanced fluorescence. Insight into cyanine dye λmax from quantum and classical FC principle; high accuracy with classically inspired approach.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D. Alia
- Division of Science and Mathematics
- University of Minnesota Morris
- USA
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13
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Muñoz‐Rugeles L, Gallardo‐Rosas D, Durán‐Hernández J, López‐Arteaga R, Toscano RA, Esturau‐Escofet N, López‐Cortés JG, Peón J, Ortega‐Alfaro MC. Synthesis and Photodynamics of Stilbenyl‐Azopyrroles: Two‐Photon Controllable Photoswitching Systems. CHEMPHOTOCHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/cptc.201900185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Muñoz‐Rugeles
- Instituto de QuímicaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México México
| | - David Gallardo‐Rosas
- Instituto de Ciencias NuclearesUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México México
| | - Jesús Durán‐Hernández
- Instituto de QuímicaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México México
| | - Rafael López‐Arteaga
- Instituto de QuímicaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México México
| | - R. Alfredo Toscano
- Instituto de QuímicaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México México
| | - Nuria Esturau‐Escofet
- Instituto de QuímicaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México México
| | - José G. López‐Cortés
- Instituto de QuímicaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México México
| | - Jorge Peón
- Instituto de QuímicaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México México
| | - M. Carmen Ortega‐Alfaro
- Instituto de Ciencias NuclearesUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México México
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14
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15
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Nagasaka T, Kunishi T, Sotome H, Koga M, Morimoto M, Irie M, Miyasaka H. Multiphoton-gated cycloreversion reaction of a fluorescent diarylethene derivative as revealed by transient absorption spectroscopy. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:19776-19783. [PMID: 29876548 DOI: 10.1039/c8cp01467a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The one- and two-photon cycloreversion reactions of a fluorescent diarylethene derivative with oxidized benzothiophene moieties were investigated by means of ultrafast laser spectroscopy. Femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy under the one-photon excitation condition revealed that the excited closed-ring isomer is simply deactivated into the initial ground state with a time constant of 2.6 ns without remarkable cycloreversion, the results of which are consistent with the very low cycloreversion reaction yield (<10-5) under steady-state light irradiation. On the other hand, an efficient cycloreversion reaction was observed under irradiation with a picosecond laser pulse at 532 nm. The excitation intensity dependence of the cycloreversion reaction indicates that a highly excited state attained by the stepwise two-photon absorption is responsible for the marked increase of the cycloreversion reaction, and the quantum yield at the highly excited state was estimated to be 0.018 from quantitative analysis, indicating that the reaction is enhanced by a factor of >1800.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuhiro Nagasaka
- Division of Frontier Materials Science and Center for Advanced Interdisciplinary Research, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan.
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16
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Wang Y, Wang R, Imai Y, Hara N, Wan X, Nakano T. π-Stacked and unstacked aggregate formation of 3,3′-diethylthiatricarbocyanine iodide, a near-infrared dye. NEW J CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8nj02851f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
3,3′-Diethylthiatricarbocyanine iodide (DTCI) emits distinctive monomer and dimer emissions whose intensity ratio varied depending on concentration in methanol and water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- Institute for Catalysis (ICAT) and Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Hokkaido University
- Sapporo 001-0021
- Japan
| | - Rong Wang
- Institute for Catalysis (ICAT) and Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Hokkaido University
- Sapporo 001-0021
- Japan
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
| | - Yoshitane Imai
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering
- Kindai University
- Higashiosaka City
- Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Hara
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering
- Kindai University
- Higashiosaka City
- Japan
| | - Xinhua Wan
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- Peking University
- Beijing 100871
- China
| | - Tamaki Nakano
- Institute for Catalysis (ICAT) and Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Hokkaido University
- Sapporo 001-0021
- Japan
- Integrated Research Consortium on Chemical Sciences (IRCCS)
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17
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Demchenko AP, Tomin VI, Chou PT. Breaking the Kasha Rule for More Efficient Photochemistry. Chem Rev 2017; 117:13353-13381. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander P. Demchenko
- Palladin
Institute of Biochemistry, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 9 Leontovicha Street, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
| | - Vladimir I. Tomin
- Institute
of Physics, Pomeranian University in Słupsk, ul. Arciszewskiego, 22b, Słupsk 76-200, Poland
| | - Pi-Tai Chou
- Department
of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, 1 Roosevelt Road Section 4, Taipei 106, Taiwan
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18
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Rodríguez-Romero J, Guarin CA, Arroyo-Pieck A, Gutiérrez-Arzaluz L, López-Arteaga R, Cortés-Guzmán F, Navarro P, Peon J. Fluorophore Release from a Polymethinic Photoremovable Protecting Group Through a Nonlinear Optical Process. CHEMPHOTOCHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/cptc.201700076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Rodríguez-Romero
- Instituto de Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria; Ciudad de México 04510 México
| | - Cesar A. Guarin
- Instituto de Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria; Ciudad de México 04510 México
| | - Andres Arroyo-Pieck
- Instituto de Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria; Ciudad de México 04510 México
| | - Luis Gutiérrez-Arzaluz
- Instituto de Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria; Ciudad de México 04510 México
| | - Rafael López-Arteaga
- Instituto de Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria; Ciudad de México 04510 México
| | - Fernando Cortés-Guzmán
- Instituto de Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria; Ciudad de México 04510 México
| | - Pedro Navarro
- Instituto de Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria; Ciudad de México 04510 México
| | - Jorge Peon
- Instituto de Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria; Ciudad de México 04510 México
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19
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Nairat M, Webb M, Esch MP, Lozovoy VV, Levine BG, Dantus M. Time-resolved signatures across the intramolecular response in substituted cyanine dyes. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2017; 19:14085-14095. [PMID: 28518192 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp00119c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The optically populated excited state wave packet propagates along multidimensional intramolecular coordinates soon after photoexcitation. This action occurs alongside an intermolecular response from the surrounding solvent. Disentangling the multidimensional convoluted signal enables the possibility to separate and understand the initial intramolecular relaxation pathways over the excited state potential energy surface. Here we track the initial excited state dynamics by measuring the fluorescence yield from the first excited state as a function of time delay between two color femtosecond pulses for several cyanine dyes having different substituents. We find that when the high frequency pulse precedes the low frequency one and for timescales up to 200 fs, the excited state population can be depleted through stimulated emission with efficiency that is dependent on the molecular electronic structure. A similar observation at even shorter times was made by scanning the chirp (frequencies ordering) of a femtosecond pulse. The changes in depletion reflect the rate at which the nuclear coordinates of the excited state leave the Franck-Condon (FC) region and progress towards achieving equilibrium. Through functional group substitution, we explore these dynamic changes as a function of dipolar change following photoexcitation. Density functional theory calculations were performed to provide greater insight into the experimental spectroscopic observations. Complete active space (CAS) self-consistent field and CAS second order perturbation theory calculated potential energy surfaces tracking twisting and pyramidalization confirm that the steeper potential at the FC region leads to the observation of faster wave packet dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muath Nairat
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA.
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20
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Nairat M, Konar A, Lozovoy VV, Beck WF, Blanchard GJ, Dantus M. Controlling S2 Population in Cyanine Dyes Using Shaped Femtosecond Pulses. J Phys Chem A 2016; 120:1876-85. [PMID: 26935762 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.6b01835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Fast population transfer from higher to lower excited states occurs via internal conversion (IC) and is the basis of Kasha's rule, which states that spontaneous emission takes place from the lowest excited state of the same multiplicity. Photonic control over IC is of interest because it would allow direct influence over intramolecular nonradiative decay processes occurring in condensed phase. Here we tracked the S2 and S1 fluorescence yield for different cyanine dyes in solution as a function of linear chirp. For the cyanine dyes with polar solvation response IR144 and meso-piperidine substituted IR806, increased S2 emission was observed when using transform limited pulses, whereas chirped pulses led to increased S1 emission. The nonpolar solvated cyanine IR806, on the other hand, did not show S2 emission. A theoretical model, based on a nonperturbative solution of the equation of motion for the density matrix, is offered to explain and simulate the anomalous chirp dependence. Our findings, which depend on pulse properties beyond peak intensity, offer a photonic method to control S2 population thereby opening the door for the exploration of photochemical processes initiated from higher excited states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muath Nairat
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University , East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Arkaprabha Konar
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University , East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Vadim V Lozovoy
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University , East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Warren F Beck
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University , East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - G J Blanchard
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University , East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Marcos Dantus
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University , East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University , East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
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21
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Hövelmann F, Gaspar I, Chamiolo J, Kasper M, Steffen J, Ephrussi A, Seitz O. LNA-enhanced DNA FIT-probes for multicolour RNA imaging. Chem Sci 2016; 7:128-135. [PMID: 29861973 PMCID: PMC5950760 DOI: 10.1039/c5sc03053f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The simultaneous imaging of different RNA molecules in homogeneous solution is a challenge and requires optimisation to enable unambiguous staining of intracellular RNA targets. Our approach relies on single dye forced intercalation (FIT) probes, in which a visco-sensitive reporter of the thiazole orange (TO) family serves as a surrogate nucleobase and provides enhancements of fluorescence upon hybridisation. Previous FIT probes spanned the cyan and green emission range. Herein, we report for the first time chromophores for FIT probes that emit in the red range (above 600 nm). Such probes are valuable to overcome cellular auto-fluorescent background and enable multiplexed detection. In order to find suitable chromophores, we developed a submonomer approach that facilitated the rapid analysis of different TO family dyes in varied sequence positions. A carboxymethylated 4,4'-methine linked cyanine, which we named quinoline blue (QB), provided exceptional response characteristics at the 605 nm emission maximum. Exceeding previously reported base surrogates, the emission of the QB nucleotide intensified by up to 195-fold upon binding of complementary RNA. Owing to large extinction coefficients and quantum yields (up to ε = 129.000 L mol-1 cm-1 and Φ = 0.47, respectively) QB-FIT probes enable imaging of intracellular mRNA. A mixture of BO-, TO- and QB-containing FIT probes allowed the simultaneous detection of three different RNA targets in homogenous solution. TO- and QB-FIT probes were used to localize oskar mRNA and other polyadenylated mRNA molecules in developing oocytes from Drosphila melanogaster by means of wash-free fluorescent in situ hybridisation and super resolution microscopy (STED).
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Affiliation(s)
- F Hövelmann
- Department of Chemistry , Humboldt University Berlin , Brook-Taylor-Str. 2 , D-12489 Berlin , Germany .
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Heidelberg , Meyerhofstr. 1 , 69117 Heidelberg , Germany
| | - I Gaspar
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Heidelberg , Meyerhofstr. 1 , 69117 Heidelberg , Germany
| | - J Chamiolo
- Department of Chemistry , Humboldt University Berlin , Brook-Taylor-Str. 2 , D-12489 Berlin , Germany .
| | - M Kasper
- Department of Chemistry , Humboldt University Berlin , Brook-Taylor-Str. 2 , D-12489 Berlin , Germany .
| | - J Steffen
- Department of Chemistry , Humboldt University Berlin , Brook-Taylor-Str. 2 , D-12489 Berlin , Germany .
| | - A Ephrussi
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Heidelberg , Meyerhofstr. 1 , 69117 Heidelberg , Germany
| | - O Seitz
- Department of Chemistry , Humboldt University Berlin , Brook-Taylor-Str. 2 , D-12489 Berlin , Germany .
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22
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Siraj N, El-Zahab B, Hamdan S, Karam TE, Haber LH, Li M, Fakayode SO, Das S, Valle B, Strongin RM, Patonay G, Sintim HO, Baker GA, Powe A, Lowry M, Karolin JO, Geddes CD, Warner IM. Fluorescence, Phosphorescence, and Chemiluminescence. Anal Chem 2015; 88:170-202. [PMID: 26575092 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Noureen Siraj
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Bilal El-Zahab
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Florida International University , Miami, Florida 33174, United States
| | - Suzana Hamdan
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Tony E Karam
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Louis H Haber
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Min Li
- Process Development Center, Albemarle Corporation , Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70805, United States
| | - Sayo O Fakayode
- Department of Chemistry, Winston-Salem State University , Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27110, United States
| | - Susmita Das
- Department of Civil Engineering, Adamas Institute of Technology , Barasat, Kolkata 700126, West Bengal India
| | - Bertha Valle
- Department of Chemistry, Texas Southern University , Houston, Texas 77004, United States
| | - Robert M Strongin
- Department of Chemistry, Portland State University , Portland, Oregon 97207, United States
| | - Gabor Patonay
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University , Atlanta, Georgia 30302-4098, United States
| | - Herman O Sintim
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Gary A Baker
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri Columbia , Columbia, Missouri 65211-7600, United States
| | - Aleeta Powe
- Department of Chemistry, University of Louisville , Louisville, Kentucky 40208, United States
| | - Mark Lowry
- Department of Chemistry, Portland State University , Portland, Oregon 97207, United States
| | - Jan O Karolin
- Institute of Fluorescence, University of Maryland Baltimore County , Baltimore, Maryland 21202, United States
| | - Chris D Geddes
- Institute of Fluorescence, University of Maryland Baltimore County , Baltimore, Maryland 21202, United States
| | - Isiah M Warner
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
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23
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Lewis NHC, Dong H, Oliver TAA, Fleming GR. Measuring correlated electronic and vibrational spectral dynamics using line shapes in two-dimensional electronic-vibrational spectroscopy. J Chem Phys 2015; 142:174202. [PMID: 25956093 DOI: 10.1063/1.4919686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Two-dimensional electronic-vibrational (2DEV) spectroscopy is an experimental technique that shows great promise in its ability to provide detailed information concerning the interactions between the electronic and vibrational degrees of freedom in molecular systems. The physical quantities 2DEV is particularly suited for measuring have not yet been fully determined, nor how these effects manifest in the spectra. In this work, we investigate the use of the center line slope of a peak in a 2DEV spectrum as a measure of both the dynamic and static correlations between the electronic and vibrational states of a dye molecule in solution. We show how this center line slope is directly related to the solvation correlation function for the vibrational degrees of freedom. We also demonstrate how the strength with which the vibration on the electronic excited state couples to its bath can be extracted from a set of 2DEV spectra. These analytical techniques are then applied to experimental data from the laser dye 3,3'-diethylthiatricarbocyanine iodide in deuterated chloroform, where we determine the lifetime of the correlation between the electronic transition frequency and the transition frequency for the backbone C = C stretch mode to be ∼1.7 ps. Furthermore, we find that on the electronic excited state, this mode couples to the bath ∼1.5 times more strongly than on the electronic ground state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas H C Lewis
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; Physical Biosciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; and Kavli Energy NanoSciences Institute at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Hui Dong
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; Physical Biosciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; and Kavli Energy NanoSciences Institute at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Thomas A A Oliver
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; Physical Biosciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; and Kavli Energy NanoSciences Institute at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Graham R Fleming
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; Physical Biosciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; and Kavli Energy NanoSciences Institute at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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24
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Coherent multidimensional optical spectra measured using incoherent light. Nat Commun 2014; 4:2298. [PMID: 23985989 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Four-wave mixing measurements can reveal spectral and dynamics information that is hidden in linear spectra by the interactions among light-absorbing molecules and with their environment. Coherent multidimensional optical spectroscopy is an important variant of four-wave mixing because it resolves a map of interactions and correlations between absorption bands. Previous coherent multidimensional optical spectroscopy measurements have used femtosecond pulses with great success, and it may seem that femtosecond pulses are necessary for such measurements. Here we present coherent two-dimensional electronic spectra measured using incoherent light. The spectra of model molecular systems using broadband spectrally incoherent light are similar but not identical to those expected from measurements using femtosecond pulses. Specifically, the spectra show particular sensitivity to long-lived intermediates such as photoisomers. The results will motivate the design of similar experiments in spectral ranges where femtosecond pulses are difficult to produce.
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