1
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Abu-Sbeih KA, Al-Mazaideh GM, Al-Zereini WA. Production of medium-sized chitosan oligomers using molecular sieves and their antibacterial activity. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 295:119889. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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2
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Production and Characterization of a Novel Exopolysaccharide from Ramlibacter tataouinensis. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27217172. [PMID: 36364003 PMCID: PMC9658432 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27217172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study examines the desiccation-resistant Ramlibacter tataouinensis TTB310T as a model organism for the production of novel exopolysaccharides and their structural features. This bacterium is able to produce dividing forms of cysts which synthesize cell-bound exopolysaccharide. Initial experiments were conducted on the enrichment of cyst biomass for exopolysaccharide production under batch-fed conditions in a pilot-scale bioreactor, with lactate as the source of carbon and energy. The optimized medium produced significant quantities of exopolysaccharide in a single growth phase, since the production of exopolysaccharide took place during the division of the cysts. The exopolysaccharide layer was extracted from the cysts using a modified trichloroacetic acid method. The biochemical characterization of purified exopolysaccharide was performed by gas chromatography, ultrahigh-resolution mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, and Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry. The repeating unit of exopolysaccharide was a decasaccharide consisting of ribose, glucose, rhamnose, galactose, mannose, and glucuronic acid with the ratio 3:2:2:1:1:1, and additional substituents such as acetyl, succinyl, and methyl moieties were also observed as a part of the exopolysaccharide structure. This study contributes to a fundamental understanding of the novel structural features of exopolysaccharide from a dividing form of cysts, and, further, results can be used to study its rheological properties for various industrial applications.
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3
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Theofanous A, Sarli I, Fragou F, Bletsa E, Deligiannakis Y, Louloudi M. Antioxidant Hydrogen-Atom-Transfer to DPPH Radicals by Hybrids of {Hyaluronic-Acid Components}@SiO 2. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2022; 38:12333-12345. [PMID: 36165696 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.2c02021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen-atom-transfer (HAT) is among the key mechanisms of antioxidant and antiradical activity in natural systems. Hyaluronic acid (HyA) is currently used extensively in health and cosmetics applications. Herein it is shown that {HyA@SiO2} hybrids based on hyaluronic acid (HyA) components grafted on SiO2 nanoparticles enable significant HAT activity versus DPPH radicals, while the homogeneous HyA counterparts are practically inactive. The {HyA@SiO2} hybrids consist of the two building blocks of HyA [d-glucuronic acid (GLA) and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (GLAM)] covalently grafted on SiO2 nanoparticles. Based on the kinetic-thermodynamic Arrhenius study, we show that the {SiO2@GLA} hybrids operate spontaneously via hydrogen-atom-transfer (HAT) with a low activation energy barrier, i.e., by ΔΕα ∼ 20 kJ/mol vs the nongrafted counterparts. Moreover, a doubly grafted {GLA@SiO2@GLAM} nanohybrid, i.e. that contains both components of HyA, shows the most significant antioxidant activity. FTIR and Raman analysis reveal that local H-bonding between the SiO2 matrix, GLA, and GLAM in {GLA@SiO2@GLAM} decreases the activation barrier of the HAT mechanism. Thus, {GLA@SiO2@GLAM} nanohybrids exemplify a novel family of materials that are not the mere sum of their components. The present case is the first example of non-phenolic molecules being able to perform antiradical HAT, opening new perspectives not foreseen until today.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annita Theofanous
- Laboratory of Biomimetic Catalysis & Hybrid Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, GR-45110 Panepistimioupoli Ioannina, Greece
| | - Irene Sarli
- Laboratory of Biomimetic Catalysis & Hybrid Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, GR-45110 Panepistimioupoli Ioannina, Greece
| | - Fotini Fragou
- Laboratory of Biomimetic Catalysis & Hybrid Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, GR-45110 Panepistimioupoli Ioannina, Greece
| | - Eleni Bletsa
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Materials & Environment, Department of Physics, University of Ioannina, GR-45110 Panepistimioupoli Ioannina, Greece
| | - Yiannis Deligiannakis
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Materials & Environment, Department of Physics, University of Ioannina, GR-45110 Panepistimioupoli Ioannina, Greece
| | - Maria Louloudi
- Laboratory of Biomimetic Catalysis & Hybrid Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, GR-45110 Panepistimioupoli Ioannina, Greece
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4
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Le Goué E, Gardrat C, Romain M, Rollini M, Moresoli C, Coma V. Effect of oleic acid on the release of tetrahydrocurcumin in chitosan-based films. Food Hydrocoll 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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5
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Vörös-Horváth B, Živković P, Bánfai K, Bóvári-Biri J, Pongrácz J, Bálint G, Pál S, Széchenyi A. Preparation and Characterization of ACE2 Receptor Inhibitor-Loaded Chitosan Hydrogels for Nasal Formulation to Reduce the Risk of COVID-19 Viral Infection. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:3240-3253. [PMID: 35097308 PMCID: PMC8790824 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c05149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 virus is spread by pulmonary droplets. Its high infectivity is caused by the high-affinity binding of the viral spike protein to the ACE2 receptors on the surface of respiratory epithelial cell membranes. The proper hydration of nasal mucosa plays an essential role in defense of bacterial and viral infections. Therefore, a nasal formulation, which can moisture the nasal mucosa and contains the ACE2 receptor inhibitor, can reduce the risk of COVID-19 infection. This article presents a systematic study of the preparation of chitosan hydrogels with dicarboxylic acids (malic and glutaric acid) and their detailed characterization (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, determination of cross-linking efficiency, rheological studies, thermal analysis, and swelling kinetics). The results confirm that chemically cross-linked chitosan hydrogels can be synthesized using malic or glutaric acid without additives or catalysts. The adsorption capacity of hydrogels for three different ACE2 inhibitors, as APIs, has also been investigated. The API content of hydrogels and their mucoadhesive property can provide an excellent basis to use the hydrogels for the development of a nasal formulation in order to reduce the risk of SARS-CoV 2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Vörös-Horváth
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Rókus u. 2, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Pavo Živković
- Department
of Chemistry, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University
of Osijek, Ulica Cara
Hadrijana 8/A, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Krisztina Bánfai
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Rókus u. 2, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Judit Bóvári-Biri
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Rókus u. 2, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Judit Pongrácz
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Rókus u. 2, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gábor Bálint
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Rókus u. 2, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Szilárd Pál
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Rókus u. 2, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Aleksandar Széchenyi
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Rókus u. 2, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Department
of Chemistry, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University
of Osijek, Ulica Cara
Hadrijana 8/A, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
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6
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Mohaček-Grošev V, Brljafa S, Škrabić M, Marić I, Blažek Bregović V, Amendola V, Ropret P, Kvaček Blažević A. Glucosamine to gold nanoparticles binding studied using Raman spectroscopy. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2022; 264:120326. [PMID: 34481250 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2021.120326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The binding of glucosamine to gold in water solutions of glucosamine hydrochloride mixed with clean colloidal gold nanoparticles obtained by laser ablation in liquid was studied using surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), dynamic light scattering (DLS) and UV-VIS spectroscopy. The purpose of this study was to establish whether the binding of charged aminogroup to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) is taking place, and if it does, how can it be identified by means of SERS. The average size of dried gold nanoparticles was (20 ± 4) nm determined by averaging the sizes observed in transmission electron microscopy micrographs, which is smaller than the average size of gold nanoparticles in water solution as determined by DLS: (52 ± 2) nm. Upon adding the glucosamine solutions to gold colloid, average hydrodynamic diameter of ions was slightly larger for 0.1 mM glucosamine solution (55 ± 2 nm), while it increased to (105 ± 22) nm in the case of 1 mM solution, and was (398 ± 54) nm when 10 mM glucosamine solution was added. Most prominent Raman bands observed both for 0.1 mM and 1 mM glucosamine solutions were located at 1165 cm-1, 1532 and 1586 cm-1 and assigned to C-N coupled with C-C stretching, and C-NH3+ deformation angles bending. In SERS spectrum of 1 mM GlcN+ solution, two strong bands at 999 and 1075 cm-1 were found and attributed to C-Oring stretching coupled with C-NH3+ bending (999 cm-1) and to dominantly C-O stretching vibration. The differences in SERS spectra are attributed to different number of glucosamine molecules that attach to gold nanoparticles and their orientation with respect to the metal particle surface, partly due to presence of beta anomers protonated at anomeric oxygen position. The assignment of glucosamine bands was further corroborated by comparison with vibrational spectra of alpha and beta glucose and of polycrystalline powder of glucosamine hydrochloride. For all three substances comprehensive calculation of vibrational density of states was conducted using density functional theory. Benchmark bands for polycrystalline glucose anomers distinction are 846 and 915 cm-1 for alpha glucose, and 902 cm-1 for beta glucose. However, the bands observed in SERS spectra of 0.1 mM glucosamine solution at 831, 899, and 946 cm-1 or in 1 mM solution at 934 cm-1 cannot be easily identified as belonging either to alpha or beta glucosamine anomer, due to complexity of atomic motions involved. The identification of vibrational bands associated with -CNH3+ group will aid SERS studies on amino acids, especially in cases when several atomic groups could possibly bind to AuNPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vlasta Mohaček-Grošev
- Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials and Sensing Devices, Research Unit New Functional Materials, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijeničkacesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Sandro Brljafa
- Osnovna škola Antuna Gustava Matoša, Albrechtova bb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Marko Škrabić
- Department of Physics and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Šalata 3b, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivan Marić
- Radiation Chemistry and Dosimetry Laboratory, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Vesna Blažek Bregović
- Laboratory for Optics and Optical Thin Films, Division of Materials Physics, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Vincenzo Amendola
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova I -35131, Italy
| | - Polona Ropret
- Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia, Research Institute, Poljanska cesta 40, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Anita Kvaček Blažević
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology Osijek, Kneza Trpimira 2b, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
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7
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Screening of the Chemical Composition and Identification of Hyaluronic Acid in Food Supplements by Fractionation and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13224002. [PMID: 34833306 PMCID: PMC8620353 DOI: 10.3390/polym13224002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyaluronic acid, together with collagen, vitamins or plant extracts, is a part of many cosmetic and food preparations. For example, this polysaccharide is used in formulation of many food supplements due to its protective effects on human health. In this work, the screening of the chemical composition of three chosen dietary supplements (powder, tablets and capsules) containing hyaluronic acid was carried out using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Because of the low amount of analyte in all these samples, it was isolated or concentrated prior to the analysis using a suitable sequential fractionation protocol. Individual isolation procedures were established for each sample based on their declared composition. Firstly, the major components such as collagen or vitamins were removed to obtain polysaccharide fractions by the enzymatic treatment and/or washing out with the appropriate solvents. In some cases, the water insoluble part was removed from the rest dissolved in water. Then, hyaluronic acid was precipitated with copper(II) cations and thus separated from the other polysaccharides. Finally, the analyte was identified in the enriched fractions by the characteristic vibrational bands. The amount of hyaluronic acid in the purified fractions was determined in three ways: gravimetrically, spectrophotometrically, and using isotachophoresis. The combination of the appropriate preparative and analytical steps led to the successful evaluation of chemical composition, finding and quantification of hyaluronic acid in all the studied samples.
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8
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Todorova Z, Nikolova I, Popova M, Grozdanov P, Karashanova D, Koseva N. Modification of eggshell membrane to impart biospecific properties. POLYM INT 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.6309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zornica Todorova
- Institute of Polymers, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Bulgaria
| | - Ivanka Nikolova
- Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Bulgaria
| | - Margarita Popova
- Institute of Organic Chemistry with Centre of Phytochemistry, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Bulgaria
| | - Petar Grozdanov
- Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Bulgaria
| | - Daniela Karashanova
- Institute of Optical Materials and Technologies, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Bulgaria
| | - Neli Koseva
- Institute of Polymers, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Bulgaria
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9
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Smith D, Escobar AP, Andris MN, Boardman BM, Peters GM. Understanding the Molecular-Level Interactions of Glucosamine-Glycerol Assemblies: A Model System for Chitosan Plasticization. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:25227-25234. [PMID: 34632182 PMCID: PMC8495686 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c03016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Glycerol is the most widely used plasticizer for the biopolymer chitosan. However, there remains a lack of understanding of the molecular-level interactions between chitosan and glycerol. Here, we describe an in-depth spectroscopic study of the intermolecular interactions between the monomeric repeating unit of chitosan, glucosamine, and the plasticizer glycerol. Infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy were used to probe glucosamine assembly at high and low concentrations to establish diagnostic signals for intra- and intermolecular glucosamine interactions. Systematic addition of glycerol was found to disrupt intramolecular glucosamine hydrogen bonds and promote glucosamine self-assembly. Furthermore, we observed a significant preference for glycerol binding to the amine functionality of glucosamine. These findings indicate that the plasticization of chitosan with glycerol requires a specific binding motif and likely occurs via the gel theory mechanism.
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10
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Giamougiannis P, Morais CLM, Rodriguez B, Wood NJ, Martin-Hirsch PL, Martin FL. Detection of ovarian cancer (± neo-adjuvant chemotherapy effects) via ATR-FTIR spectroscopy: comparative analysis of blood and urine biofluids in a large patient cohort. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:5095-5107. [PMID: 34195877 PMCID: PMC8405472 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03472-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer remains the most lethal gynaecological malignancy, as its timely detection at early stages remains elusive. Attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy of biofluids has been previously applied in pilot studies for ovarian cancer diagnosis, with promising results. Herein, these initial findings were further investigated by application of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy in a large patient cohort. Spectra were obtained by measurements of blood plasma and serum, as well as urine, from 116 patients with ovarian cancer and 307 patients with benign gynaecological conditions. A preliminary chemometric analysis revealed significant spectral differences in ovarian cancer patients without previous chemotherapy (n = 71) and those who had received neo-adjuvant chemotherapy-NACT (n = 45), so these groups were compared separately with benign controls. Classification algorithms with blind predictive model validation demonstrated that serum was the best biofluid, achieving 76% sensitivity and 98% specificity for ovarian cancer detection, whereas urine exhibited poor performance. A drop in sensitivities for the NACT ovarian cancer group in plasma and serum indicates the potential of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy to identify chemotherapy-related spectral changes. Comparisons of regression coefficient plots for identification of biomarkers suggest that glycoproteins (such as CA125) are the main classifiers for ovarian cancer detection and responsible for smaller differences in spectra between NACT patients and benign controls. This study confirms the capacity of biofluids' ATR-FTIR spectroscopy (mainly blood serum) to diagnose ovarian cancer with high accuracy and demonstrates its potential in monitoring response to chemotherapy, which is reported for the first time. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy of blood serum achieves good segregation of ovarian cancers from benign controls, with attenuation of differences following neo-adjuvant chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiotis Giamougiannis
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Lancashire Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Preston, PR2 9HT, UK
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Camilo L M Morais
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Brice Rodriguez
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Lancashire Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Preston, PR2 9HT, UK
| | - Nicholas J Wood
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Lancashire Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Preston, PR2 9HT, UK
| | - Pierre L Martin-Hirsch
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Lancashire Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Preston, PR2 9HT, UK
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11
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Giubertoni G, Pérez de Alba Ortíz A, Bano F, Zhang X, Linhardt RJ, Green DE, DeAngelis PL, Koenderink GH, Richter RP, Ensing B, Bakker HJ. Strong Reduction of the Chain Rigidity of Hyaluronan by Selective Binding of Ca 2+ Ions. Macromolecules 2021; 54:1137-1146. [PMID: 33583956 PMCID: PMC7879427 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The biological functions of natural polyelectrolytes are strongly influenced by the presence of ions, which bind to the polymer chains and thereby modify their properties. Although the biological impact of such modifications is well recognized, a detailed molecular picture of the binding process and of the mechanisms that drive the subsequent structural changes in the polymer is lacking. Here, we study the molecular mechanism of the condensation of calcium, a divalent cation, on hyaluronan, a ubiquitous polymer in human tissues. By combining two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy experiments with molecular dynamics simulations, we find that calcium specifically binds to hyaluronan at millimolar concentrations. Because of its large size and charge, the calcium cation can bind simultaneously to the negatively charged carboxylate group and the amide group of adjacent saccharide units. Molecular dynamics simulations and single-chain force spectroscopy measurements provide evidence that the binding of the calcium ions weakens the intramolecular hydrogen-bond network of hyaluronan, increasing the flexibility of the polymer chain. We also observe that the binding of calcium to hyaluronan saturates at a maximum binding fraction of ∼10-15 mol %. This saturation indicates that the binding of Ca2+ strongly reduces the probability of subsequent binding of Ca2+ at neighboring binding sites, possibly as a result of enhanced conformational fluctuations and/or electrostatic repulsion effects. Our findings provide a detailed molecular picture of ion condensation and reveal the severe effect of a few, selective and localized electrostatic interactions on the rigidity of a polyelectrolyte chain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alberto Pérez de Alba Ortíz
- Van’t
Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University
of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Fouzia Bano
- School
of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of
Physics and Astronomy, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences,
Astbury Centre of Structural Molecular Biology, and Bragg Centre for
Materials Research, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT Leeds, U.K.
| | - Xing Zhang
- Center for
Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, 12180 New York, United States
| | - Robert J. Linhardt
- Center for
Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, 12180 New York, United States
| | - Dixy E. Green
- Department
of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University
of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd., Oklahoma, 73104 Oklahoma, United States
| | - Paul L. DeAngelis
- Department
of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University
of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd., Oklahoma, 73104 Oklahoma, United States
| | - Gijsje H. Koenderink
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Ralf P. Richter
- School
of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of
Physics and Astronomy, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences,
Astbury Centre of Structural Molecular Biology, and Bragg Centre for
Materials Research, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT Leeds, U.K.
| | - Bernd Ensing
- Van’t
Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University
of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Huib J. Bakker
- AMOLF, Science Park 104, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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12
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Giubertoni G, Burla F, Bakker HJ, Koenderink GH. Connecting the Stimuli-Responsive Rheology of Biopolymer Hydrogels to Underlying Hydrogen-Bonding Interactions. Macromolecules 2020; 53:10503-10513. [PMID: 33335340 PMCID: PMC7735748 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c01742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Many biopolymer hydrogels are environmentally responsive because they are held together by physical associations that depend on pH and temperature. Here, we investigate how the pH and temperature responses of the rheology of hyaluronan hydrogels are connected to the underlying molecular interactions. Hyaluronan is an essential structural biopolymer in the human body with many applications in biomedicine. Using two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy, we show that hyaluronan chains become connected by hydrogen bonds when the pH is changed from 7.0 to 2.5 and that the bond density at pH 2.5 is independent of temperature. Temperature-dependent rheology measurements show that because of this hydrogen bonding the stress relaxation at pH 2.5 is strongly slowed down in comparison to pH 7.0, consistent with the sticky reptation model of associative polymers. From the flow activation energy, we conclude that each polymer is cross-linked by multiple (5-15) hydrogen bonds to others, causing slow macroscopic stress relaxation, despite the short time scale of breaking and reformation of each individual hydrogen bond. Our findings can aid the design of stimuli-responsive hydrogels with tailored viscoelastic properties for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Federica Burla
- AMOLF, Science Park 104, Amsterdam 1098 XG, The Netherlands
| | - Huib J. Bakker
- AMOLF, Science Park 104, Amsterdam 1098 XG, The Netherlands
| | - Gijsje H. Koenderink
- AMOLF, Science Park 104, Amsterdam 1098 XG, The Netherlands
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute
of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of
Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, Delft 2629 HZ, The Netherlands
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13
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N-acetyl-d-glucosamine-conjugated PAMAM dendrimers as dual receptor-targeting nanocarriers for anticancer drug delivery. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2020; 154:377-386. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2020.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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14
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Szymańska M, Karakulska J, Sobolewski P, Kowalska U, Grygorcewicz B, Böttcher D, Bornscheuer UT, Drozd R. Glycoside hydrolase (PelA h) immobilization prevents Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation on cellulose-based wound dressing. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 246:116625. [PMID: 32747262 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is recognized as a wound dressing material well-suited for chronic wounds; however, it has no intrinsic antimicrobial activity. Further, the formation of biofilms can limit the effectiveness of the pre-saturation of BC with antimicrobial agents. Here, to hinder biofilm formation by P. aeruginosa, we immobilized the hydrolytic domain of PelA (a glycohydrolase involved in the synthesis of biofilm polysaccharide Pel) on the surface of BC. The immobilization of 32.35 ± 1.05 mg PelAh per g BC membrane resulted in an eight-fold higher P. aeruginosa cell detachment from BC membrane, indicating reduced biofilm matrix stability. Further, 1D and 2D infrared spectroscopy analysis indicated systematic reduction of polysaccharide biofilm elements, confirming the specificity of immobilized PelAh. Importantly, BC-PelAh was not cytotoxic towards L929 fibroblast cells. Thus, we conclude that PelAh can be used in BC wound dressings for safe and specific protection against biofilm formation by P. aeruginosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Szymańska
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Animal Husbandry, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 45 Piastow Avenue, 71-311, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Jolanta Karakulska
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Animal Husbandry, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 45 Piastow Avenue, 71-311, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Peter Sobolewski
- Department of Polymer and Biomaterials Science, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 45 Piastów Avenue, 71-311, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Urszula Kowalska
- Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials, Faculty of Food Science and Fisheries, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 35 Klemensa Janickiego Str., 71-270, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Bartłomiej Grygorcewicz
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Chair of Microbiology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 72 Powstańców Wielkopolskich Str., 70-111, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Dominique Böttcher
- Department of Biotechnology and Enzyme Catalysis, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, D-17487, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Uwe T Bornscheuer
- Department of Biotechnology and Enzyme Catalysis, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, D-17487, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Radosław Drozd
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Animal Husbandry, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 45 Piastow Avenue, 71-311, Szczecin, Poland.
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15
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Physicochemical characterization and antioxidant activity of cell-bound exopolysaccharides from Lactobacillus fermentum S1 obtained by two extraction methods. Process Biochem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2019.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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16
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Giubertoni G, Koenderink GH, Bakker HJ. Direct Observation of Intrachain Hydrogen Bonds in Aqueous Hyaluronan. J Phys Chem A 2019; 123:8220-8225. [PMID: 31478665 PMCID: PMC6767362 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.9b06462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
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We use two-dimensional
infrared spectroscopy to study the interactions
between the amide and carboxylate anion groups of hyaluronan polymers
at neutral pH. The spectra reveal the presence of intrachain hydrogen
bonds between the amide and carboxylate anion groups in aqueous solution.
We determine the relative orientation of the amide and carboxylate
anion groups when forming this hydrogen bond and quantify the fraction
of amide groups that participate in hydrogen bonding. We find that
a variation of the pH and/or temperature has a negligible effect on
this fraction, whereas the persistence length of the hyaluronan chains
and the associated viscosity of hyaluronan solutions are known to
change significantly. We conclude that the hydrogen bonding between
the amide and carboxylate anion groups does not significantly contribute
to the chain rigidity of hyaluronan polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Huib J Bakker
- AMOLF , Science Park 104 , 1098 XG Amsterdam , The Netherlands
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17
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Giubertoni G, Sofronov OO, Bakker HJ. Observation of Distinct Carboxylic Acid Conformers in Aqueous Solution. J Phys Chem Lett 2019; 10:3217-3222. [PMID: 31125521 PMCID: PMC6589744 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b00915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/24/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the molecular geometry of the carboxyl group of formic acid in acetonitrile and aqueous solutions at room temperature with two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy (2D-IR). We found that the carboxyl group adopts two distinct configurations: a configuration in which the carbonyl group is oriented antiparallel to the hydroxyl (anti-conformer), and a configuration in which the carbonyl group is oriented at an angle of ∼60° with respect to the hydroxyl (syn-conformer). These results constitute the first experimental evidence that carboxyl groups exist as two distinct and long-living conformational isomers in aqueous solution at room temperature.
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18
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Gonçalves GRF, Gandolfi ORR, Santos LS, Bonomo RCF, Veloso CM, Veríssimo LAA, Fontan RDCI. Immobilization of sugars in supermacroporous cryogels for the purification of lectins by affinity chromatography. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1068-1069:71-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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19
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Gangoiti M, Puertas A, Hamet M, Peruzzo P, Llamas M, Medrano M, Prieto A, Dueñas M, Abraham A. Lactobacillus plantarum CIDCA 8327: An α-glucan producing-strain isolated from kefir grains. Carbohydr Polym 2017; 170:52-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.04.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Revised: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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20
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Tan Y, Zhao N, Liu J, Li P, Stedwell CN, Yu L, Polfer NC. Vibrational Signatures of Isomeric Lithiated N-acetyl-D-hexosamines by Gas-Phase Infrared Multiple-Photon Dissociation (IRMPD) Spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2017; 28:539-550. [PMID: 28050874 DOI: 10.1007/s13361-016-1575-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Three lithiated N-acetyl-D-hexosamine (HexNAc) isomers, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc), N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (GalNAc), and N-acetyl-D-mannosamine (ManNAc) are investigated as model monosaccharide derivatives by gas-phase infrared multiple-photon dissociation (IRMPD) spectroscopy. The hydrogen stretching region, which is attributed to OH and NH stretching modes, reveals some distinguishing spectral features of the lithium-adducted complexes that are useful in terms of differentiating these isomers. In order to understand the effect of lithium coordination on saccharide structure, and therefore anomericity, chair configuration, and hydrogen bonding networks, the conformational preferences of lithiated GlcNAc, GalNAc, and ManNAc are studied by comparing the experimental measurements with density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The experimental results of lithiated GlcNAc and GalNAc show a good match to the theoretical spectra of low-energy structures adopting a 4 C 1 chair conformation, consistent with this motif being the dominant conformation in condensed-phase monosaccharides. The epimerization effect upon going to lithiated ManNAc is significant, as in this case the 1 C 4 chair conformers give a more compelling match with the experimental results, consistent with their lower calculated energies. A contrasting computational study of these monosaccharides in their neutral form suggests that the lithium cation coordination with Lewis base oxygens can play a key role in favoring particular structural motifs (e.g., a 4 C 1 versus 1 C 4 ) and disrupting hydrogen bond networks, thus exhibiting specific IR spectral features between these closely related lithium-chelated complexes. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanglan Tan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
- Institute for Nutritional Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Ning Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Jinfeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Spectroscopy, Institute of Theoretical and Computational Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Pengfei Li
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Corey N Stedwell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Long Yu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Nicolas C Polfer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
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21
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Forfang K, Zimmermann B, Kosa G, Kohler A, Shapaval V. FTIR Spectroscopy for Evaluation and Monitoring of Lipid Extraction Efficiency for Oleaginous Fungi. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170611. [PMID: 28118388 PMCID: PMC5261814 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To assess whether Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy could be used to evaluate and monitor lipid extraction processes, the extraction methods of Folch, Bligh and Lewis were used. Biomass of the oleaginous fungi Mucor circinelloides and Mortierella alpina were employed as lipid-rich material for the lipid extraction. The presence of lipids was determined by recording infrared spectra of all components in the lipid extraction procedure, such as the biomass before and after extraction, the water and extract phases. Infrared spectra revealed the incomplete extraction after all three extraction methods applied to M.circinelloides and it was shown that mechanical disruption using bead beating and HCl treatment were necessary to complete the extraction in this species. FTIR spectroscopy was used to identify components, such as polyphosphates, that may have negatively affected the extraction process and resulted in differences in extraction efficiency between M.circinelloides and M.alpina. Residual lipids could not be detected in the infrared spectra of M.alpina biomass after extraction using the Folch and Lewis methods, indicating their complete lipid extraction in this species. Bligh extraction underestimated the fatty acid content of both M.circinelloides and M.alpina biomass and an increase in the initial solvent-to-sample ratio (from 3:1 to 20:1) was needed to achieve complete extraction and a lipid-free IR spectrum. In accordance with previous studies, the gravimetric lipid yield was shown to overestimate the potential of the SCO producers and FAME quantification in GC-FID was found to be the best-suited method for lipid quantification. We conclude that FTIR spectroscopy can serve as a tool for evaluating the lipid extraction efficiency, in addition to identifying components that may affect lipid extraction processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Forfang
- Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
- Nofima AS, Ås, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Boris Zimmermann
- Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Gergely Kosa
- Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
- Nofima AS, Ås, Norway
| | - Achim Kohler
- Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Volha Shapaval
- Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
- Nofima AS, Ås, Norway
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22
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Bauer BA, Patel S. Recent applications and developments of charge equilibration force fields for modeling dynamical charges in classical molecular dynamics simulations. Theor Chem Acc 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s00214-012-1153-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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23
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Zhong Y, Bauer BA, Patel S. Solvation properties of N-acetyl-β-glucosamine: molecular dynamics study incorporating electrostatic polarization. J Comput Chem 2011; 32:3339-53. [PMID: 21898464 PMCID: PMC3193586 DOI: 10.1002/jcc.21873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2011] [Revised: 04/25/2011] [Accepted: 05/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
N-Acetyl-β-glucosamine (NAG) is an important moiety of glycoproteins and is involved in many biological functions. However, conformational and dynamical properties of NAG molecules in aqueous solution, the most common biological environment, remain ambiguous due to limitations of experimental methods. Increasing efforts are made to probe structural properties of NAG and NAG-containing macromolecules, like peptidoglycans and polymeric chitin, at the atomic level using molecular dynamics simulations. In this work, we develop a polarizable carbohydrate force field for NAG and contrast simulation results of various properties using this novel force field and an analogous nonpolarizable (fixed charge) model. Aqueous solutions of NAG and its oligomers are investigated; we explore conformational properties (rotatable bond geometry), electrostatic properties (dipole moment distribution), dynamical properties (self-diffusion coefficient), hydrogen bonding (water bridge structure and dynamics), and free energy of hydration. The fixed-charge carbohydrate force field exhibits deviations from the gas phase relative rotation energy of exocyclic hydroxymethyl side chain and of chair/boat ring distortion. The polarizable force field predicts conformational properties in agreement with corresponding first-principles results. NAG-water hydrogen bonding pattern is studied through radial distribution functions (RDFs) and correlation functions. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding between solute and solvent is found to stabilize NAG solution structures while intramolecular hydrogen bonds define glycosidic linkage geometry of NAG oligomers. The electrostatic component of hydration free energy is highly dependent on force field atomic partial charges, influencing a more favorable free energy of hydration in the fixed-charge model compared to the polarizable model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA
| | - Brad A. Bauer
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA
| | - Sandeep Patel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA
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24
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Hu X, Lu Q, Sun L, Cebe P, Wang X, Zhang X, Kaplan DL. Biomaterials from Ultrasonication-Induced Silk Fibroin−Hyaluronic Acid Hydrogels. Biomacromolecules 2010; 11:3178-88. [DOI: 10.1021/bm1010504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Hu
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Physics and Astronomy, and Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Qiang Lu
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Physics and Astronomy, and Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Lin Sun
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Physics and Astronomy, and Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Peggy Cebe
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Physics and Astronomy, and Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Xiaoqin Wang
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Physics and Astronomy, and Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Xiaohui Zhang
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Physics and Astronomy, and Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - David L. Kaplan
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Physics and Astronomy, and Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
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25
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Cagmat EB, Szczepanski J, Pearson WL, Powell DH, Eyler JR, Polfer NC. Vibrational signatures of metal-chelated monosaccharide epimers: gas-phase infrared spectroscopy of Rb+-tagged glucuronic and iduronic acid. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2010; 12:3474-9. [DOI: 10.1039/b924027f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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26
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Cocinero E, Stanca-Kaposta E, Dethlefsen M, Liu B, Gamblin D, Davis B, Simons J. Hydration of Sugars in the Gas Phase: Regioselectivity and Conformational Choice inN-Acetyl Glucosamine and Glucose. Chemistry 2009; 15:13427-34. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.200901830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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