Photophysical Properties of Coordination-Driven Self-Assembled Metallosupramolecular Rhomboids: Experimental and Theoretical Investigations

Construction of Covalent Organic Cages with Aggregation-Induced Emission Characteristics from Metallacages for Mimicking Light-Harvesting Antenna

A series of covalent organic cages built from fluorophores capable of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) were elegantly prepared through the reduction of preorganized M2 (LA )3 (LB )2 -type metallacages, simultaneously taking advantage of the synthetic accessibility and well-defined shapes and sizes of metallacages, the good chemical stability of the covalent cages as well as the bright emission of AIE fluorophores. Moreover, the covalent cages could be further post-synthetically modified into an amide-functionalized cage with a higher quantum yield. Furthermore, these presented covalent cages proved to be good energy donors and were used to construct light-harvesting systems employing Nile Red as an energy acceptor. These light-harvesting systems displayed efficient energy transfer and relatively high antenna effect, which enabled their use as efficient photocatalysts for a dehalogenation reaction. This research provides a new avenue for the development of luminescent covalent cages for light-harvesting and photocatalysis.

Unveiling and regulating the solvent-polarity-associated excited state intramolecular double proton transfer behavior for 1-bis(benzothiazolyl)naphthalene-diol fluorophore

Inspired by the regulatory luminescence properties of HBT derivatives, in this work, we mainly conduct a detailed theoretical exploration on the photoinduced excitation behavior of a novel di-proton-transfer type HBT derivative 1-bis(benzothiazolyl)naphthalene-diol (1-BBTND). The intramolecular double hydrogen bonding interaction and the excited state intramolecular double proton transfer (ESDPT) behavior of 1-BBTND fluorophore are investigated in combination with different polar solvent environments. From the structural changes and charge recombination induced by photoexcitation, we can conclude that strong polar solvent environment promotes the excited state dynamical reaction for 1-BBTND compound. By constructing potential energy surfaces (PESs) in S₀ and S₁ states, we clarify that 1-BBTND fluorophore should undergo a stepwise ESDPT reaction after photoexcitation. Combined with the size of potential energy barriers along with reaction paths in different solvents, we finally propose a new solvent-polarity-dependent stepwise ESDPT for 1-BBTND fluorophore.

Unveiling the effects of atomic electronegativity on ESIPT behaviors for FQ-OH system: A theoretical study

In this work, we mainly focus on exploring the effects of atomic electronegativity on excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) behavior for novel FQ-OH derivatives theoretically. Combining analyses of geometrical changes, infrared (IR) spectral variations, and bonding energies via band critical point (BCP) parameters, we clarify the excited state hydrogen bonding strength is enhancing with decrease of atomic electronegativity. In addition, photo-induced charge reorganization and different energy gap of momentous frontier molecular orbitals (MOs) further reflect intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) promotes ESIPT reaction. Low atomic electronegativity reveals excited state high kinetic dynamics and chemical activities. Via constructing potential energy curves (PECs) and searching transition state (TS), we clarify atomic electronegativity dependent ESIPT behavior for FQ-OH. Particularly, the modification of atomic electronegativity also plays critical roles in regulating UV-Vis spectra. This work not only uncovering detailed ESIPT mechanism for FQ-OH, but also presents a novel regulated mechanism via atomic electronegativity.

Discrete Platinum(II) Metallacycles with Inner- and Outer-Modified 9,10-Distyrylanthracene: Design, Self-Assembly, and Luminescence Properties

To completely unravel the relationship between structures and luminescence properties of inner- and outer-modified metallacycles, two rhombic metallacycles S1 and S2 with 9,10-distyrylanthracene (DSA) were constructed herein via the design of DSA moieties on the inside or outside of metallacycles. Similar building blocks of the two metallacycles led to the same emission wavelengths in a dilute solution. In contrast, their fluorescence emissions in the aggregation and solid states were significantly different and revealed interesting emission behaviors from structures with inner- and outer-modified design. Finally, based on their luminescence properties, a tunable solid-state fluorescence emissive material was easily obtained by the mixing of two supramolecules in different ratios. This unique design suggested that the modified position of fluorophores exerts a key impact on the adjustment of luminescence from a dilute solution to the aggregated state and will be of great significance for the development of luminescent materials based on supramolecules.

Proton transfer reaction confined within carbon nanotubes: Density functional theory and quantitative structure–property relationship analysis

In this work, we focus our attention on chemical reactions confined within carbon nanotubes. As a result of the confinement within carbon nanotubes, novel physical and chemical properties are found for the confined materials. We consider the feasibility of proton transfer inside carbon nanotubes. To do that, we have chosen formamide as the simplest real model for exhibiting the tautomerization in DNA. We have used the quantitative structure–property relationship method, based on geometry optimization and quantum chemical structural descriptors, to illustrate the potential of using the confined space inside carbon nanotubes, which will provide comprehensive information about carbon nanotubes. All calculations have been carried out using density functional theory quantum calculations with the B3LYP functional. The geometries optimized by the Gaussian program were transferred to the computer software DRAGON to calculate pertinent descriptors that could be used in the quantitative structure–property relationship model.

TDDFT study on excited state intramolecular proton transfer mechanism in 2-amino-3-(2'-benzazolyl)-quinolines

The intramolecular proton transfer reaction of the 2-amino-3-(2'-benzoxazolyl)-quinoline (ABO) and 2-amino-3-(2'-benzothiazolyl)-quinoline (ABT) molecules in both S₀ and S₁ states at B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) level in ethanol solvent have been studied to reveal the deactivation mechanism of the tautomers of the two molecules from the S₁ state to the S₀ state. The results show that the tautomers of ABO and ABT molecules may return to the S₀ state by emitting fluorescence. In addition, the bond lengths, angles and infrared spectra are analyzed to confirm the hydrogen bonds strengthened upon photoexcitation, which can facilitate the proton transfer process. The frontier molecular orbitals (MOs) and natural bond orbital (NBO) are also calculated to indicate the intramolecular charge transfer which can be used to explore the tendency of ESIPT reaction. The potential energy surfaces of the ABO and ABT molecules in the S₀ and S₁ states have been constructed. According to the energy potential barrier of 9.12kcal/mol for ABO molecule and 5.96kcal/mol for ABT molecule, it can be indicated that the proton transfer may occur in the S₁ state.

Coordination-Driven Self-Assembly of Ruthenium Polypyridyl Nodes Resulting in Emergent Photophysical and Electrochemical Properties

Ruthenium polypyridyl complexes are among the most studied molecular species for photochemical applications such as light-harvesting and photocatalysis, with [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺ (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine) serving as an iconic example. We report the use of the [Ru(bpy)₂]²⁺ fragment as a 90° acceptor tecton (M) in coordination-driven self-assembly to synthesize a M₄L₄ metallacycle (L = 4,4'-bipyridine) and a M₆L₄ truncated tetrahedral cage [L = 2,4,6-tris(4-pyridyl)-1,3,5-triazine]. The M₆L₄ cage possesses emergent properties attributed to its unique electronic structure, which results in increased visible-light absorption and an emission band that decays biexponentially with times of 3 and 790 ns. The presence of multiple ruthenium centers in the cage results in multiple Ru^III/II reduction events, with a cathodic shift of the first reduction relative to that of [Ru(bpy)₃]Cl₂ (0.56 V vs 1.05 V). The ligand-centered reduction shifts anodically (-1.29 vs -1.64 V) versus the first bpy reduction observed in the parent [Ru(bpy)₃]Cl₂. The photophysical properties are explained by the existence of two localized charge-transfer states in the cage molecule: one that draws upon the bipyridine π* orbitals and the other upon the 2,4,6-tris(4-pyridyl)-1,3,5-triazine π* orbitals.

An analogy study on ESIPT reaction for 3BHC sensor between polar DMF and nonpolar toluene

A comparison about excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) mechanism of a new sensor 3-(1,3-benzothiazol-2-yl)-2-hydroxynaphthalene-1-carbaldehyde (3BHC) in polar solvent dimethylformamide (DMF) and nonpolar solvent toluene have been investigated within the framework of the time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) method. The reproduced previous experimental absorption and emission spectra via our calculations reveals the reasonability of the DFT and TD-DFT theoretical level. The staple bond lengths, bond angles, and corresponding infrared vibrational spectra demonstrate that the intramolecular hydrogen bond of 3BHC should be strengthened in both polar DMF and nonpolar toluene. Two kinds of ESIPT mechanisms for different solvents have been put forward; there is a low potential barrier in the ESIPT process in the DMF solvent, whereas there is almost a nonbarrier for the ESIPT process in the toluene solvent. Hence, we could conclude that the ESIPT process of 3BHC sensor is more likely to occur in the nonpolar solvent upon the photoexcitation, based on which, the excited state behavior of 3BHC could be controlled.

Exploring the excited state behavior for 2-(phenyl)imidazo[4,5-c]pyridine in methanol solvent

In this present work, we theoretically investigate the excited state mechanism for the 2-(phenyl)imidazo[4,5-c]pyridine (PIP-C) molecule combined with methanol (MeOH) solvent molecules. Three MeOH molecules should be connected with PIP-C forming stable PIP-C-MeOH complex in the S₀ state. Upon the photo-excitation, the hydrogen bonded wires are strengthened in the S₁ state. Particularly the deprotonation process of PIP-C facilitates the excited state intermolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) process. In our work, we do verify that the ESIPT reaction should occur due to the low potential energy barrier 8.785 kcal/mol in the S₁ state. While the intersection of potential energy curves of S₀ and S₁ states result in the nonradiation transition from S₁ to S₀ state, which successfully explain why the emission peak of the proton-transfer PIP-C-MeOH-PT form could not be reported in previous experiment. As a whole, this work not only put forward a new excited state mechanism for PIP-C system, but also compensates for the defects about mechanism in previous experiment.

The new competitive mechanism of hydrogen bonding interactions and transition process for the hydroxyphenyl imidazo [1, 2-a] pyridine in mixed liquid solution

The new competitive mechanism of intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bond can be proposed with an improved mixed model. Upon the photoinduced process, the twisting intramolecular charge transfer (TICT) structure of the hydroxyphenyl imidazo [1, 2-a] pyridine (HPIP) can be obtained. TICT character prompts the fluorescent inactivation via non-radiative decay process. For exploring the photochemical and photophysical properties, the electronic spectra and the infrared (IR) vibrational spectra of titled compounds have been detailedly investigated. In addition, the frontier molecular orbitals (MOs) analysis visually reveals that the unbalanced electron population can give rise to the torsion of molecular structure. To further give an attractive insight into the non-radiative decay process, the potential energy curves have been depicted on the ground state (S₀), the first excited state (S₁) and the triple excited state (T₁). Minimum energy crossing point (MECP) has been found in the S₁ and T₁ state. On the MECP, the intersystem crossing (ISC) might be dominant channel. The density functional theory (DFT) and the time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) methods have been throughout employed in the S₀ state, T₁ state and S₁ state, respectively. The theoretical results are consistent with experiment in mixed and PCM model.

A theoretical study about the excited state intermolecular proton transfer mechanisms for 2-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine in methanol solvent

Within the framework of DFT and TDDFT methods, we have investigated the novel system 2-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PIP) with respect to the dynamical behavior of its excited state in methanol (MeOH) solvents.

A competitive excited state dynamical process for the 2,2′-((1E,1′E)-((3,3′-dimethyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diyl)-bis(azanylylidene))bis(methanylylidene))-diphenol system

By applying DFT and TDDFT methods, we theoretically investigate the excited state dynamical process for the 2,2′-((1E,1′E)-((3,3′-dimethyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diyl)-bis(azanylylidene))bis(methanylylidene))-diphenol system.

Photophysical Properties of Organoplatinum(II) Compounds and Derived Self-Assembled Metallacycles and Metallacages: Fluorescence and its Applications

Over the past couple of decades, coordination-driven self-assembly has evolved as a broad multidisciplinary domain that not only covers the syntheses of aesthetically pleasing supramolecular architectures but also emerges as a method to form new optical materials, chemical sensors, theranostic agents, and compounds with light-harvesting and emissive properties. The majority of these applications depend upon investigations that reveal the photophysical nature and electronic structure of supramolecular coordination complexes (SCCs), including two-dimensional (2D) metallacycles and three-dimensional (3D) metallacages. As such, well-defined absorption and emission spectra are important for a given SCC to be used for sensing, bioimaging, and other applications with molecular fluorescence being an important component. In this Account, we summarize the photophysical properties of some bis(phosphine)organoplatinum(II) compounds and their discrete SCCs. The platinum(II) based organometallic precursors typically display spectral red-shifts and have low fluorescence quantum yields and short fluorescence lifetimes compared to their organic counterparts because the introduction of metal centers enhances both intersystem crossing (ISC) and intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) processes, which can compete with the fluorescence emissions. Likewise ligands with conjugation can also increase the ICT process; hence the corresponding organoplatinum(II) compounds undergo a further decrease in fluorescence lifetimes. The use of endohedral amine functionalized 120°-bispyridyl ligands can dramatically enhance the emission properties of the resultant organoplatinum(II) based SCCs. As such these SCCs display emissions in the visible region (ca. 400-500 nm) and are significantly red-shifted (ca. 80-100 nm) compared to the ligands. This key feature makes them suitable as supramolecular theranostic agents wherein these unique emission properties provide diagnostic spectroscopic handles and the organoplatinum(II) centers act as potential anticancer agents. Using steady state and time-resolved-spectroscopic techniques and quantum computations in concert, we have determined that the emissive properties stem from the ligand-centered transitions involving π-type molecular orbitals with modest contributions from the metal-based orbitals. The self-assembly and the photophysics of organoplatinum(II) ← 3-substituted pyridyl based SCCs are highly diverse. Subtle changes in the ligands' structures can form molecular congener systems with distinct conformational and photophysical properties. Furthermore, the heterometallic SCCs described herein possess rich photophysical properties and can be used for sensing based applications. Tetraphenylethylene (TPE) based SCCs display emissions in the aggregated state as well as in dilute solutions. This is a unique phenomenon that bridges the aggregation caused quenching (ACQ) and aggregation induced emission (AIE) effects. Moreover, a TPE based metallacage exhibits solvatoluminescence, including white light emission in THF solvent, and can act as a fluorescence-sensor for structurally similar ester compounds.

Detailed theoretical investigation of excited-state intramolecular proton transfer mechanism of a new chromophore II

In the present work, TDDFT has been used to investigate the excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) mechanism of a new chromophore II [Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 202 (2014) 1190]. The calculated absorption and fluorescence spectra agree well with experimental results. In addition, two types of II configurations are found in the first excited state (S1), which can be ascribed to the ESIPT reaction. Based on analysis of the calculated infrared (IR) spectra of O-H stretching vibration as well as the hydrogen bonding energies, the strengthening of the hydrogen bond in the S1 state has been confirmed. The frontier molecular orbitals (MOs), Hirshfeld charge distribution and the Natural bond orbital (NBO) have also been analyzed, which displays the tendency of the ESIPT process. Finally, potential energy curves of the S0 and S1 states were constructed, demonstrating that the ESIPT reaction can be facilitated based on the photo-excitation.

The investigation of excited state proton transfer mechanism in water-bridged 7-azaindole

Based on the time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT), the excited-state intermolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) mechanism of water-bridged 7-azaindole has been investigated theoretically. The calculations of primary bond lengths and the IR vibrational spectra between the S0 state and the S1 state that verified the intramolecular hydrogen bond were strengthened. The fact that reproduced experimental absorbance and fluorescence emission spectra well theoretically demonstrate that the TDDFT theory we adopted is reasonable and effective. In addition, intramolecular charge transfer based on the frontier molecular orbitals demonstrated the indication of the ESIPT reaction. The constructed potential energy curves of ground state and the first excited state based on keeping the H2···O3 and H6···N7 distances fixed at a series of values have been used to illustrate the ESIPT process. A relative lower barrier of 5.94 kcal/mol in the S1 state potential energy curve for type II (lower than that of 9.82 kcal/mol in the S1 state for type I) demonstrates that type II ESIPT process occurs firstly in 7Al-2H2O complex.

A DFT/TDDFT investigation of the excited state proton transfer reaction of fisetin chromophore

In the present work, 3, 3', 4', 7-tetrahydroxyflavone (fisetin), as one of the most extensive distributed flavonoids, has been investigated on the excited state proton transfer (ESPT) based on the time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) method. The calculated absorption and fluorescence spectra based on the TDDFT method are in agreement with the experimental results. Two kinds of structures of fisetin chromophore are found in the first excited (S1) state, which may be due to the proton transfer reactive. Hydrogen bond strengthening has been testified in the S1 state based on comparing staple bond lengths and bond angles involved in hydrogen bonding between the S0 state and the S1 state. In addition, the calculated infrared spectra at the O-H stretching vibrational region and calculated hydrogen bond energy also declare the phenomenon of hydrogen bond strengthening. The frontier molecular orbitals (MOs) analysis and Natural bond orbital (NBO) manifest the intramolecular charge transfer of fisetin chromophore, which reveals the tendency of proton transfer. The potential energy surfaces of the S0 and S1 states are constructed to explain the mechanism of the proton transfer in excited state in detail.

Study of fluorescence probe transfer mechanism based on a new type of excited-state intramolecular proton transfer

3-Hydroxyflavone (3-HF) is a typical representative of a new type of fluorescent molecular probe. The intramolecular proton transfer mechanisms of 3-HF and its derivatives have been studied theoretically based on detailed density functional theory. An optical physical cycle diagram of intramolecular proton transfer of 3-HF and its derivatives has been found based on the optimal configuration before and after proton transfer. An analysis of the absorption and fluorescence spectra of these probes explains their optical physical mechanism, which agrees well with experimental results. This correlation indicates that the adopted theory is reasonable and effective. The primary bond lengths, angles and infrared vibrational spectra indicate that the intramolecular hydrogen bonds were strengthened, which is an indication of the excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) processes. The constructed potential energy curves of the ground and first excited state based on these three chromophores provide the ESIPT mechanism, which demonstrates that potential barriers lower than the 6kcal/mol and justifies the ESIPT processes occur in the first excited state. The fluorescence quenching phenomenon has been explained based on the ESIPT mechanism.

Photophysical Properties of a Post-Self-Assembly Host/Guest Coordination Cage: Visible Light Driven Core-to-Cage Charge Transfer

Supramolecular systems are capable of unique photophysical properties due to possible interactions between subcomponents, such as between an encapsulated molecule and its cage in a host/guest environment. Here, we report that the encapsulation of a chromophore by a metallacage dramatically enhances its photophysical properties. In the visible region, the encapsulated photosensitizer achieves a 6.5-fold enhancement to its absorptivity. The triplet lifetime of the encapsulated photosensitizer is three times longer than that of its free analogue. These enhancements are attributed to two key factors: (i) encapsulation-induced core-to-cage charge transfer (CCCT) generates new visible-light absorbing states, accounting for the enhanced absorption, and (ii) the microenvironment inside the metallacage inhibits nonradiative decay processes, resulting in prolonged triplet lifetime. The CCCT arises from the electrostatic interaction between the delocalized electrons of the guest coronene and the positive charge associated with the metallacage host. The work herein provides insight into the CCCT phenomenon.

Spin mixed charge transfer states of iridium complex Ir(ppy)3: transient absorption and time-resolved photoluminescence

Transient absorption and time-resolved PL together with quantum chemistry calculations demonstrated the existence of multiple low-lying metal-to-ligand charge transfer states of Ir(ppy)₃.

Excited-state intramolecular hydrogen bonding of compounds based on 2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-1,3-benzoxazole in solution: a TDDFT study

The excited-state properties of intramolecular hydrogen bonding in the compounds based on 2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-1,3-benzoxazole (6 and its tautomers 6a and 6b) have been investigated using theoretical methods. According to the geometric optimization and IR spectra in the ground and excited states calculated by density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) methods respectively, the type of intramolecular hydrogen bonding N⋯HO in 6 and 6a is demonstrated to be significantly strengthened, while NH⋯O in the tautomers 6a and 6b are proved to be sharply weakened upon excitation to excited state S1. The calculated absorption peaks of 6 are in good accordance with the experimental results. Moreover, other compounds based on 6 that R1 and R2 are both substituted as well as that only R1 is substituted are investigated to understand the effect of substituent on intramolecular hydrogen bonding. It is found that the hydrogen bond strength can be controlled by the inductive field effect of the substituent. In addition, the intramolecular charge transfers (ICT) of the S1 state for 6 and its tautomers 6a and 6b were theoretically investigated by analyses of molecular orbital.

A DFT/TD-DFT study of thiazolidinedione derivative in dimethylformamide: cooperative roles of hydrogen bondings, electronic and vibrational spectra

The time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) method has been applied to investigate the thiazolidinedione (TZD) derivative A and its hydrogen-bonded complexes with dimethylformamide (DMF) (A-DMF and A-2DMF). The calculation results showed that the excited-state hydrogen bondings of O-H⋯O=C and N-H⋯O=C are strengthened and weakened in the hydrogen-bonded trimer A-2DMF, and their cooperation effect caused a blue shift in the electronic spectrum of A-2DMF. This modulation mechanism of the hydrogen-bond strengthening and weakening and its role in influencing the spectroscopy property of the TZD derivative A in DMF have been analyzed and showed in details.