Micrometer scale adhesion on nanometer-scale patchy surfaces: adhesion rates, adhesion thresholds, and curvature-based selectivity

Particle Deposition to Silica Surfaces Functionalized with Cationic Polyelectrolytes

Positively charged water-solid interfaces are prepared by adsorption of a cationic polyelectrolyte poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) from aqueous solutions to planar silica substrates. These substrates are characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM), optical reflectivity, and streaming current measurements. By tuning the amount of adsorbed polyelectrolyte, the surface charge of the substrate can be systematically varied. These substrates are further used to study deposition of sulfate latex nanoparticles, which is also accomplished by optical reflectivity. This deposition process is found to be consistent with an extension of the random sequential adsorption (RSA) model in a semi-quantitative fashion. Such deposition studies were further used to ascertain that the substrates obtained by in situ and ex situ functionalization behave in an identical fashion.

Synergies of surface roughness and hydration on colloid detachment in saturated porous media: Column and atomic force microscopy studies

Saturated column experiments were conducted to systematically examine the influence of hydration on the detachment of nano- and micro-sized latex colloids (35 nm and 1 μm, respectively) from sand. The colloids were attached on the sand in primary minima (PM) using high ionic strength (IS) NaCl solutions. The PM were predicted to be shallower and located farther from sand surfaces with increasing IS due to the hydration force. Consequently, a greater amount of colloid detachment occurred in deionized water when the colloids were initially deposited at a higher IS. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) examinations showed that both nanoscale protruding asperities and large wedge-like valleys existed on the sand surface. The influence of these surface features on the interaction energies/forces was modeled by approximating the roughness as cosinoidal waves and two intersecting half planes, respectively. The PM were deep and attachment was irreversible at concave regions for all ISs, even if the hydration force was included. Conversely, colloids were weakly attached at protruding asperities due to a reduced PM depth, and thus were responsible for the detachment upon IS reduction. The AFM examinations confirmed that the adhesive forces were enhanced and reduced (or even completely eliminated) at concave and convex locations of sand surfaces, respectively. These results have important implications for surface cleaning and prediction of the transport and fate of hazardous colloids and colloid-associated contaminants in subsurface environments.

Surfaces that Adhesively Discriminate Breast Epithelial Cell Lines and Lymphocytes in Buffer and Human Breast Milk

We report new surface coatings that adhesively distinguish three breast epithelial cell lines (MCF-10A, MCF-7, and TMX2-28) when cell suspensions in buffer or breast milk are flowed over the coatings. We also report the selective capture of epithelial cells and rejection of Jurkat lymphocytes, with average selectivities exceeding 60 and captured cell purities often exceeding >99%. The surfaces achieve the dual goals of selective cell capture and resistance to fouling by proteins and other components of breast milk. The coatings do not rely on antibody targeting of cell surface markers but instead contain polycation chains embedded within a layer of end-tethered poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chains. The PEG, somewhat shielding the polycations, prevents surface fouling by proteins, nondesired cells, and other milk components, while the polycations produce electrostatic attractions that are heterogeneous on nanoscopic length scales. These electrostatic heterogeneities on the engineered coating, shown to produce curvature-selective particle capture in other studies, produce cell selectivity here. The ability of the engineered surfaces to discriminate these cell lines via an electrostatic driving force is remarkable, as the cells are of very similar surface charge as evidenced by their nearly identical ζ-potentials. The current surfaces, which likely distinguish cells based on their electrostatic surface landscape combined with other factors, adhesively distinguish cell lines that may differ only slightly in their expression of a surface marker, or cancer cells that minimally express EpCAM but which have different distributions of electrostatic charge on their surfaces. These surfaces are among the first to be documented for the compatibility of a polymer brush with human breast milk and may find use in technologies that capture cells from human breast milk or other complex fluids for cancer risk assessment.

Aggregation of Colloidal Particles in the Presence of Hydrophobic Anions: Importance of Attractive Non-DLVO Forces

Aqueous suspensions of amidine latex (AL) and sulfate latex (SL) particles containing sodium tetraphenylborate and NaCl are studied with electrokinetic and time-resolved light-scattering techniques. In monovalent salt solutions, AL is positively charged, whereas SL is negatively charged. Electrophoretic mobility measurements demonstrate that adsorption of tetraphenylborate anions leads to a charge reversal of AL particles. At higher concentrations, both types of particles accumulate negative charge. For AL particles, the charge reversal leads to a narrow fast aggregation region and an intermediate regime of slow aggregation. For SL particles, the intermediate slow regime is also observed. These aspects can be explained with classical theory of Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek (DLVO). Another regime of fast aggregation is observed at intermediate concentrations, and the existence of this regime can be rationalized by an additional attractive non-DLVO force. We suspect that this additional force is caused by surface charge heterogeneities.

Nanoscale Functionalized Particles with Rotation-Controlled Capture in Shear Flow

Important processes in nature and technology involve the adhesive capture of flowing particles or cells on the walls of a conduit. This paper introduces engineered spherical microparticles whose capture rates are limited by their near surface motions in flow. Specifically, these microparticles are sparsely functionalized with nanoscopic regions ("patches") of adhesive functionality, without which they would be nonadhesive. Not only is particle capture on the wall of a shear-chamber limited by surface chemistry as opposed to transport, but also the capture rates depend specifically on particle rotations that result from the vorticity of the shear flow field. These particle rotations continually expose new particle surface to the opposing chamber wall, sampling the particle surface for an adhesive region and controlling the capture rate. Control studies with the same patchy functionality on the chamber wall rather than the particles reveal a related signature of particle capture but substantially faster (still surface limited) particle capture rates. Thus, when the same functionality is placed on the wall rather than the particles, the capture is faster because it depends on the particle translation past a functionalized wall rather than on the particle rotations. The dependence of particle capture on functionalization of the particles versus the wall is consistent with the faster near-wall particle translation in shearing flow compared with the velocity of the rotating particle surface near the wall. These findings, in addition to providing a new class of nanoscopically patchy engineered particles, provide insight into the capture and detection of cells presenting sparse distinguishing surface features and the design of delivery packages for highly targeted pharmaceutical delivery.

Flow-Driven Assembly of Microcapsules into Three-Dimensional Towers

By harnessing biochemical signaling and chemotaxis, unicellular slime molds can aggregate on a surface to form a long, vertical stalk. Few synthetic systems can self-organize into analogous structures that emerge out of the plane. Through computational modeling, we devise a mechanism for assembling tower-like structures using microcapsules in solution as building blocks. In the simulations, chemicals diffusing from a central patch on a surface produce a concentration gradient, which generates a radially directed diffusioosmotic flow along the surface toward the center. This toroidal roll of a fluid pulls the microcapsules along the surface and lifts them above the patch. As more capsules are drawn toward the patch, some units are pushed off the surface but remain attached to the central microcapsule cluster. The upward-directed flow then draws out the cluster into a tower-like shape. The final three-dimensional (3D) structure depends on the flow field, the attractive capsule-capsule and capsule-surface interaction strengths, and the sedimentation force on the capsules. By tuning these factors, we can change the height of the structures that are produced. Moreover, by patterning the areas of the wall that are attractive to the capsules, we can form multiple vertical strands instead of a single tower. Our approach for flow-directed assembly can permit the growth of reconfigurable, 3D structures from simple subunits.

Selective Adhesive Cell Capture without Molecular Specificity: New Surfaces Exploiting Nanoscopic Polycationic Features as Discrete Adhesive Units

This work explored how molecularly non-specific polycationic nanoscale features on a collecting surface control kinetic and selectivity aspects of mammalian cell capture. Key principles for selective collector design were demonstrated by comparing the capture of two closely related breast cancer cell lines: MCF-7 and TMX2-28. TMX2-28 is a tamoxifen-selected clone of MCF-7. The collector was a silica surface, negatively-charged at pH 7.4, containing isolated molecules (~ 8 nm diameter) of the cationic polymer, poly(dimethyl-aminoethylmethacrylate), pDMAEMA. Important in this work is the non-selective nature of the pDMAEMA interactions with cells: pDMAEMA generally adheres negatively charged particles and cells in solution. We show here that selectivity towards cells results from collector design: this includes competition between repulsive interactions involving the negative silica and attractions to the immobilized pDMAEMA molecules, the random pDMAEMA arrangement on the surface, and the concentration of positive charge in the vicinity of the adsorbed pDMAEMA chains. The latter act as nanoscopic cationic surface patches, each weakly attracted to negatively-charged cells. Collecting surfaces engineered with an appropriate amount pDMAEMA, exposed to mixtures of MCF-7 and TMX2-28 cells preferentially captured TMX2-28 with a selectivity of 2.5. (This means that the ratio of TMX2-28 to MCF cells on the surface was 2.5 times their compositional ratio in free solution.) The ionic strength-dependence of cell capture was shown to be similar to that of silica microparticles on the same surfaces. This suggests that the mechanism of selective cell capture involves nanoscopic differences in the contact areas of the cells with the collector, allowing discrimination of closely related cell line-based small scale features of the cell surface. This work demonstrated that even without molecular specificity, selectivity for physical cell attributes produces adhesive discrimination.

Engineering nanoscale surface features to sustain microparticle rolling in flow

Nanoscopic features of channel walls are often engineered to facilitate microfluidic transport, for instance when surface charge enables electro-osmosis or when grooves drive mixing. The dynamic or rolling adhesion of flowing microparticles on a channel wall holds potential to accomplish particle sorting or to selectively transfer reactive species or signals between the wall and flowing particles. Inspired by cell rolling under the direction of adhesion molecules called selectins, we present an engineered platform in which the rolling of flowing microparticles is sustained through the incorporation of entirely synthetic, discrete, nanoscale, attractive features into the nonadhesive (electrostatically repulsive) surface of a flow channel. Focusing on one example or type of nanoscale feature and probing the impact of broad systematic variations in surface feature loading and processing parameters, this study demonstrates how relatively flat, weakly adhesive nanoscale features, positioned with average spacings on the order of tens of nanometers, can produce sustained microparticle rolling. We further demonstrate how the rolling velocity and travel distance depend on flow and surface design. We identify classes of related surfaces that fail to support rolling and present a state space that identifies combinations of surface and processing variables corresponding to transitions between rolling, free particle motion, and arrest. Finally we identify combinations of parameters (surface length scales, particle size, flow rates) where particles can be manipulated with size-selectivity.

Surfaces for competitive selective bacterial capture from protein solutions

Active surfaces that form the basis for bacterial sensors for threat detection, food safety, or certain diagnostic applications rely on bacterial adhesion. However, bacteria capture from complex fluids on the active surfaces can be reduced by the competing adsorption of proteins and other large molecules. Such adsorption can also interfere with device performance. As a result, multiple upstream processing steps are frequently employed to separate macromolecules from any cells, which remain in the buffer. Here, we present an economical approach to capture bacteria, without competitive adsorption by proteins, on engineered surfaces that do not employ biomolecular recognition, antibodies, or other molecules with engineered sequences. The surfaces are based on polyethylene glycol (PEG) brushes that, on their own, repel both proteins and bacteria. These PEG brushes backfill the surface around sparsely adsorbed cationic polymer coils (here, poly-L-lysine (PLL)). The PLL coils are effectively embedded within the brush and produce locally cationic nanoscale regions that attract negatively charged regions of proteins or cells against the steric background repulsion from the PEG brush. By carefully designing the surfaces to include just enough PLL to capture bacteria, but not enough to capture proteins, we achieve sharp selectivity where S. aureus is captured from albumin- or fibrinogen-containing solutions, but free albumin or fibrinogen molecules are rejected from the surface. Bacterial adhesion on these surfaces is not reduced by competitive protein adsorption, in contrast to performance of more uniformly cationic surfaces. Also, protein adsorption to the bacteria does not interfere with capture, at least for the case of S. aureus, to which fibrinogen binds through a specific receptor.

Capture of soft particles on electrostatically heterogeneous collectors: brushy particles

This work investigated how particle softness can influence the initial adhesive capture of submicrometer colloidal particles from flow onto collecting surfaces. The study focused on the case dominated by potential attractions at the particle periphery (rather than, for instance, steric stabilization, requiring entropically costly deformations to access shorter-range van der Waals attractions.) The particles, "spherical polyelectrolyte brushes" with diameters in the range of 150-200 nm depending on the ionic strength, consisted of a polystyrene core and a corona of grafted poly(acrylic acid) chains, producing a relatively thick (20-40 nm) negative brushy layer. The adhesion of these particles was studied on electrostatically heterogeneous collecting surfaces: negatively charged substrates carrying flat polycationic patches made by irreversibly adsorbing the poly-l-lysine (PLL) polyelectrolyte. Variation in the amount of adsorbed PLL changed the net collector charge from completely negatively charged (repulsive) to positively charged (attractive). Adjustments in ionic strength varied the range of the electrostatic interactions. Comparing capture kinetics of soft brushy particles to those of similarly sized and similarly charged silica particles revealed nearly identical particle capture kinetics over the full range of collecting surface compositions at high ionic strengths. Even though the brushy particles contained an average of 5 vol % PAA in the brushy shell, with the rest being water under these conditions, their capture was indistinguishable from that of similarly charged rigid spheres. The brushy particles were, however, considerably less adherent at low ionic strengths where the brush was more extended, suggesting an influence of particle deformability or reduced interfacial charge. These findings, that the short time adhesion of brushy particles can resemble that of rigid particles, suggest that for bacteria and cell capture, modeling the cells as rigid particles can, in some instances, be a good approximation.

Stabilization of weakly charged microparticles using highly charged nanoparticles

An experimental study was performed to understand the ability of highly charged nanoparticles to stabilize a dispersion of weakly charged microspheres. The experiments involved adding either anionic (sulfate) or cationic (amidine) latex nanoparticles to dispersions of micrometer-sized silica particles near the silica isoelectric point (IEP). Although both types of nanoparticles increased the zeta potential of the silica microspheres above the value at which dispersions containing only silica spheres remained stable, only with the amidine nanoparticles was stability obtained. Adsorption tests with flat silica slides showed that the amidine nanoparticles deposited in much greater numbers onto the silica, producing multilayer coverage with adsorbed particle densities that were roughly three times that obtained with the sulfate nanoparticles. A model calculating the DLVO interaction between the silica spheres in which the adsorbed nanoparticle layers were treated as a continuous film with dielectric properties between those of polystyrene and water predicted stability for both systems. It is hypothesized that the relatively low adsorption of the sulfate nanoparticles (fractional surface coverages ≤ 25%) led to patches of bare silica on the microspheres that could align during interaction due to Brownian motion. These results indicate that highly charged nanoparticles can be effective stabilizers provided the level of adsorption is sufficiently high. It was also found that the zeta potential alone is not a sufficient parameter for predicting stability of these binary systems.

Colloid interaction energies for physically and chemically heterogeneous porous media

The mean and variance of the colloid interaction energy (Φ*) as a function of separation distance (h) were calculated on physically and/or chemically heterogeneous solid surfaces at the representative elementary area (REA) scale. Nanoscale roughness was demonstrated to have a significant influence on the colloid interaction energy for different ionic strengths. Increasing the roughness height reduced the magnitude of the energy barrier (Φmax*) and the secondary minimum (Φ2min*). Conversely, increasing the fraction of the solid surface with roughness increased the magnitude of Φmax* and Φ2min*. Our results suggest that primary minimum interactions tend to occur in cases where only a portion of the solid surface was covered with roughness (i.e., isolated roughness pillars), but their depths were shallow as a result of Born repulsion. The secondary minimum was strongest on smooth surfaces. The variance in the interaction energy was also a strong function of roughness parameters and h. In particular, the variance tended to increase with the colloid size, the magnitude of Φ*, the height of the roughness, and especially the size (cross-sectional area) of the heterogeneity. Nonzero values of the variance for Φ2min* implied the presence of a tangential component of the adhesive force and a resisting torque that controls immobilization and release for colloids at this location. Heterogeneity reduced the magnitude of Φ* in comparison to the corresponding homogeneous situation. Physical heterogeneity had a greater influence on mean properties of Φ* than similar amounts of chemical heterogeneity, but the largest reduction occurred on surfaces with both physical and chemical heterogeneity. The variance in Φ* tended to be higher for a chemically heterogeneous solid.

Colloid adhesive parameters for chemically heterogeneous porous media

A simple modeling approach was developed to calculate colloid adhesive parameters for chemically heterogeneous porous media. The area of the zone of electrostatic influence between a colloid and solid-water interface (A(z)) was discretized into a number of equally sized grid cells to capture chemical heterogeneity within this region. These cells were divided into fractions having specific zeta potentials (e.g., negative or positive values). Mean colloid adhesive parameters such as the zeta potential, the minimum and maximum in the interaction energy, the colloid sticking efficiency (α), and the fraction of the solid surface area that contributes to colloid immobilization (S(f)) were calculated for possible charge realizations within A(z). The probability of a given charge realization in A(z) was calculated using a binomial mass distribution. Probability density functions (PDFs) for the colloid adhesive parameters on the heterogeneous surface were subsequently calculated at the representative elementary area (REA) scale for a porous medium. This approach was applied separately to the solid-water interface (SWI) and the colloid, or jointly to both the SWI and colloid. To validate the developed model, the mean and standard deviation of the interaction energy distribution on a chemically heterogeneous SWI were calculated and demonstrated to be consistent with published Monte Carlo simulation output using the computationally intensive grid surface integration technique. Our model results show that the PDFs of colloid adhesive parameters at the REA scale were sensitive to the size of the colloid and the heterogeneity, the charge and number of grid cells, and the ionic strength.

Causes and implications of colloid and microorganism retention hysteresis

Experiments were designed to better understand the causes and implications of colloid and microorganism retention hysteresis with transients in solution ionic strength (IS). Saturated packed column experiments were conducted using two sizes of carboxyl modified latex (CML) microspheres (0.1 and 1.1 μm) and microorganisms (coliphage φX174 and E. coli D21g) under various transient solution chemistry conditions, and 360 μm Ottawa sand that was subject to different levels of cleaning, namely, a salt cleaning procedure that removed clay particles, and a salt+acid cleaning procedure that removed clay and reduced microscopic heterogeneities due to metal oxides and surface roughness. Comparison of results from the salt and salt+acid treated sand indicated that microscopic heterogeneity was a major contributor to colloid retention hysteresis. The influence of this heterogeneity increased with IS and decreasing colloid/microbe size on salt treated sand. These trends were not consistent with calculated mean interaction energies (the secondary minima), but could be explained by the size of the electrostatic zone of influence (ZOI) near microscopic heterogeneities. In particular, the depth of local minima in the interaction energy has been predicted to increase with a decrease in the ZOI when the colloid size and/or the Debye length decreased (IS increased). The adhesive interaction was therefore largely irreversible for smaller sized 0.1 μm CML colloids, whereas it was reversible for larger 1.1 μm CML colloids. Similarly, the larger E. coli D21g exhibited greater reversibility in retention than φX174. However, direct comparison of CML colloids and microbes was not possible due to differences in size, shape, and surface properties. Retention and release behavior of CML colloids on salt+acid treated sand was much more consistent with mean interaction energies due to reduction in microscopic heterogeneities.

Using flow to switch the valency of bacterial capture on engineered surfaces containing immobilized nanoparticles

Toward an understanding of nanoparticle-bacterial interactions and the development of sensors and other substrates for controlled bacterial adhesion, this article describes the influence of flow on the initial stages of bacterial capture (Staphylococcus aureus) on surfaces containing cationic nanoparticles. A PEG (poly(ethylene glycol)) brush on the surface around the nanoparticles sterically repels the bacteria. Variations in ionic strength tune the Debye length from 1 to 4 nm, increasing the strength and range of the nanoparticle attractions toward the bacteria. At relatively high ionic strengths (physiological conditions), bacterial capture requires several nanoparticle-bacterial contacts, termed "multivalent capture". At low ionic strength and gentle wall shear rates (on the order of 10 s(-1)), individual bacteria can be captured and held by single surface-immobilized nanoparticles. Increasing the flow rate to 50 s(-1) causes a shift from monovalent to divalent capture. A comparison of experimental capture efficiencies with statistically determined capture probabilities reveals the initial area of bacteria-surface interaction, here about 50 nm in diameter for a Debye length κ(-1) of 4 nm. Additionally, for κ(-1) = 4 nm, the net per nanoparticle binding energies are strong but highly shear-sensitive, as is the case for biological ligand-receptor interactions. Although these results have been obtained for a specific system, they represent a regime of behavior that could be achieved with different bacteria and different materials, presenting an opportunity for further tuning of selective interactions. These finding suggest the use of surface elements to manipulate individual bacteria and nonfouling designs with precise but finite bacterial interactions.

Stability of emulsified heavy oil: the combined effects of deterministic DLVO forces and random surface charges

When dispersed in aqueous solution, droplets of bitumen (extra heavy oil) are known to acquire negative surface charges. The resulting electrostatic repulsion, according to traditional DLVO theory, is far too strong for any droplet coalescence to occur. However, from experience it is known that bitumen droplets do coalesce in aqueous suspensions. Furthermore, the process appears to be random, with the probability of coalescence increasing sharply with the drop size. To explain these facts, we modeled the bitumen-water interface as a heterogeneous surface comprising charged "patches"; the zeta potentials of the patches constitute a random variable that is assumed to be Gaussian. The traditional DLVO theory, according to this model, remains sound on the local scale (i.e., for patches interacting across an intervening water layer). Such a theory can predict the probabilities of coalescence in remarkable detail. A parameter central to this theory is the lateral extent of the charged patches, which was estimated to be in the neighborhood of 0.6 μm.

Sensitivity of protein adsorption to architectural variations in a protein-resistant polymer brush containing engineered nanoscale adhesive sites

Patchy polymer brushes contain nanoscale (5-15 nm) adhesive elements, such as polymer coils or nanoparticles, embedded at their base at random positions on the surface. The competition between the brush's steric (protein resistant) repulsions and the attractions from the discrete adhesive elements provides a precise means to control bioadhesion. This differs from the classical approach, where functionality is placed on the brush's periphery. The current study demonstrates the impact of poly(etheylene glycol) (PEG) brush architecture and ionic strength on fibrinogen adsorption on brushes containing embedded poly-l-lysine (PLL, 20K MW) coils or "patches". The consistent appearance of a fibrinogen adsorption threshold, a minimum loading of patches on the surface, below which protein adsorption does not occur, suggests multivalent protein capture: Adsorbing proteins simultaneously engage several patches. The surface composition (patch loading) at the threshold is extremely sensitive to the brush height and ionic strength, varying up to a factor of 5 in the surface loading of the PLL patches (~50% of the range of possible surfaces). Variations in ionic strength have a similar effect, with the smallest thresholds seen for the largest Debye lengths. While trends with brush height were the clearest and most dominant, consideration of the PEG loading within the brush or its persistence length did not reveal a critical brush parameter for the onset of adsorption. The lack of straightforward correlation on brush physics was likely a result of multivalent binding, (producing an additional dependence on patch loading), and might be resolved for univalent adsorption onto more strongly binding patches. While studies with similar brushes placed uniformly on a surface revealed that the PEG loading within the brush is the best indicator of protein resistance, the current results suggest that brush height is more important for patchy brushes. Likely the interactions producing brush extension normal to the interface act similarly to drive lateral tether extension to obstruct patches.

Effect of surface nanotopography on immunoaffinity cell capture in microfluidic devices

Immunoaffinity microfluidic devices have recently become a popular choice to isolate specific cells for many applications. To increase cell capture efficiency, several groups have employed capture beds with nanotopography. However, no systematic study has been performed to quantitatively correlate surface nanopatterns with immunoaffinity cell immobilization. In this work, we controlled substrate topography by depositing close-packed arrays of silica nanobeads with uniform diameters ranging from 100 to 1150 nm onto flat glass. These surfaces were functionalized with a specific antibody and assembled as the base in microfluidic channels, which were then used to capture CD4+ T cells under continuous flow. It is observed that capture efficiency generally increases with nanoparticle size under low flow rate. At higher flow rates, cell capture efficiency becomes increasingly complex; it initially increases with the bead size then gradually decreases. Surprisingly, capture yield plummets atop depositions of some particle diameters. These dips likely stem from dynamic interactions between nanostructures on the substrate and cell membrane as indicated by roughness-insensitive cell capture after glutaraldehyde fixing. This systematic study of surface nanotopography and cell capture efficiency will help optimize the physical properties of microfluidic capture beds for cell isolation from biological fluids.

Transport and deposition of functionalized CdTe nanoparticles in saturated porous media

Comprehensive understanding of the transport and deposition of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) in subsurface is required to assess their potential negative impact on the environment. We studied the deposition behavior of functionalized quantum dot (QD) NPs (CdTe) in different types of sands (Accusand, ultrapure quartz, and iron-coated sand) at various solution ionic strengths (IS). The observed transport behavior in ultrapure quartz and iron-coated sand was consistent with conventional colloid deposition theories. However, our results from the Accusand column showed that deposition was minimal at the lowest IS (1mM) and increased significantly as the IS increased. The effluent breakthrough occurred with a delay, followed by a rapid rise to the maximum normalized concentration of unity. Negligible deposition in the column packed with ultrapure quartz sand (100mM) and Accusand (1mM) rules out the effect of straining and suggests the importance of surface charge heterogeneity in QD deposition in Accusand at higher IS. Data analyses further show that only a small fraction of sand surface area contributed in QD deposition even at the highest IS (100mM) tested. The observed delay in breakthrough curves of QDs was attributed to the fast diffusive mass transfer rate of QDs from bulk solution to the sand surface and QD mass transfer on the solid phase. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis were used to examine the morphology and elemental composition of sand grains. It was observed that there were regions on the sand covered with layers of clay particles. EDX spectra collected from these regions revealed that Si and Al were the major elements suggesting that the clay particles were kaolinite. Additional batch experiments using gold NPs and SEM analysis were performed and it was observed that the gold NPs were only deposited on clay particles originally on the Accusand surface. After removing the clays from the sand surface, we observed negligible QD deposition even at 100mM IS. We proposed that nanoscale charge heterogeneities on clay particles on Accusand surface played a key role in QD deposition. It was shown that the value of solution IS determined the extent to which the local heterogeneities participated in particle deposition.

Particle capture via discrete binding elements: systematic variations in binding energy for randomly distributed nanoscale surface features

This work examines how the binding strength of surface-immobilized "stickers" (representative of receptors or, in nonbiological systems, chemical heterogeneities) influences the adhesion between surfaces that are otherwise repulsive. The study focuses on a series of surfaces designed with fixed average adhesive energy per unit area and demonstrates quantitatively how a redistribution of the adhesive functionality into progressively larger clusters (stronger stickers) increases the probability of adhesive events. The work employs an electrostatic model system: relatively uniform, negative 1 μm silica spheres flow gently over negative silica flats. The flats contain small amounts of randomly positioned nanoscale cationic patches. The silica-silica interaction is repulsive; however, the cationic patches (present at sufficiently low levels that the overall surface charge remains substantially negative) produce local attractions. In this study, the attractions are relatively weak so that multiple patches engage to capture flowing particles. Experiments reveal an adhesion signature characteristic of a renormalized random distribution when the sticker strength is increased at an overall fixed binding strength per unit area of surface. The form of the particle capture curves are in good quantitative agreement with a simple model that assumes only a fixed adhesion energy needed for particle capture. Aside from the quantitative details that provide a simple formalism for anticipating particle adhesion, this work demonstrates how increasing the heterogeneities in the surface functionality can cause a system to go from being nonadhesive to becoming strongly adhesive. Indeed, systems containing small amounts of discretized adhesive functionality are always more adhesive than systems in which the same functionality is distributed uniformly over the surface (the mean field scenario).

Phase segregation of untethered zwitterionic model lipid bilayers observed on mercaptoundecanoic-acid-modified gold by AFM imaging and force mapping

Planar supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) are often studied as model cell membranes because they are accessible to a variety of surface-analytic techniques. Specifically, recent studies of lipid phase coexistence in model systems suggest that membrane lateral organization is important to a range of cellular functions and diseases. We report the formation of phase-segregated dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC)/sphingomyelin/cholesterol bilayers on mercaptoundecanoic-acid-modified (111) gold by spontaneous fusion of unilamellar vesicles, without the use of charged or chemically modified headgroups. The liquid-ordered (l(o)) and liquid-disordered (l(d)) domains are observed by atomic force microscopy (AFM) height and phase imaging. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of the bilayer were characterized by force-indentation maps. Fits of force indentation to Sneddon mechanics yields average apparent Young's moduli of the l(o) and l(d) phases of 100 +/- 2 and 59.8 +/- 0.9 MPa, respectively. The results were compared to the same lipid membrane system formed on mica with good agreement, though modulus values on mica appeared higher. Semiquantitative comparisons suggest that the mechanical properties of the l(o) phase are dominated by intermolecular van der Waals forces, while those of the fluid l(d) phase, with relatively weak van der Waals forces, are influenced appreciably by differences in surface charge density between the two substrates, which manifests as a difference in apparent Poisson ratios.

Hysteresis of colloid retention and release in saturated porous media during transients in solution chemistry

Saturated packed column and micromodel transport studies were conducted to gain insight on mechanisms of colloid retention and release under unfavorable attachment conditions. The initial deposition of colloids in porous media was found to be a strongly coupled process that depended on solution chemistry and pore space geometry. During steady state chemical conditions, colloid deposition was not a readily reversible process, and micromodel photos indicated that colloids were immobilized in the presence of fluid drag. Upon stepwise reduction in eluting solution ionic strength (IS), a sharp release of colloids occurred in each step which indicates that colloid retention depends on a balance of applied (hydrodynamic) and resisting (adhesive) torques which varied with pore space geometry, surface roughness, and interaction energy. When the eluting fluid IS was reduced to deionized water, the final retention locations occurred near grain-grain contacts, and colloid aggregation was sometimes observed in micromodel experiments. Significant amounts of colloid retention hysteresis with IS were observed in the column experiments, and it depended on the porous medium (glass beads compared with sand), the colloid size (1.1 and 0.5 mum), and on the initial deposition IS. These observations were attributed to weak adhesive interactions that depended on the double layer thickness (e.g., the depth of the secondary minimum and/or nanoscale heterogeneity), colloid mass transfer on the solid phase to regions where the torque and force balances were favorable for retention, the number and extent of grain-grain contacts, and surface roughness.

Sustained rolling of microparticles in shear flow over an electrostatically patchy surface

This paper explores the particle-level dynamics involved in the capture of gently flowing microparticles on adhesive planar surfaces, governed by electrostatic interactions. The work focuses on conditions which produce sustained microparticle rolling, useful for the development of microfluidic devices which steer analyte particles and cells for manipulation and separation. In the regime where particle-surface interactions dominate particle-particle interactions, capture of individual negative silica microspheres, for thousands of microspheres, is studied on three model surfaces: negative silica, a flat polycation layer adsorbed on silica producing a strong positive charge, and an electrostatically patchy surface containing 6% areal coverage of flat 10 nm polycation coils. The patchy surface possesses a net negative charge close to that of bare silica. On the patchy surface, sustained rolling is observed for a substantial population of 1 microm silica particles, the ones which happened to diffuse close to the surface. Here, the velocity is near 2 microm/s (for a wall shear of 22 s(-1).) Run lengths for particle rolling exceed several hundred micrometers (usually exceeding the length of the microscopic field of view), with more particles escaping diffusively from the interface than permanently arresting. By contrast, firm particle arrest, with very few instances of rolling and a short run length when rolling did occur, was observed on the fully cationic surface. On the bare silica surface, a small rolling population was observed; however, the average run length was shorter than on the patchy surface. This study demonstrated how a patchy surface that produces adhesion through localized attractions can facilitate rolling in a shear field. The physicochemical heterogeneity acts like a surface roughness or a rapidly binding ligand-receptor pair, transferring stress and imparting torque across the interface.

Spatial control of chemistry on the inside and outside of inorganic nanocrystals

The ability to make inorganic nanocrystals of controlled size, shape, and composition is well-established for some elements and compounds, but by no means has been generalized to the entire periodic table. A new paper in this issue of ACS Nano offers a route to explore more of the periodic table with increased control over both composition and position for inorganic nanostructures. This Perspective provides a snapshot of the major challenges in controlling the positions of atoms and molecules both in the cores and on the surfaces of inorganic nanocrystals.

Phycobiliprotein diffusion in chloroplasts of cryptophyte Rhodomonas CS24

Unicellular cryptophyte algae employ antenna proteins with phycobilin chromophores in their photosynthetic machinery. The mechanism of light harvesting in these organisms is significantly different than the energy funneling processes in phycobilisomes utilized by cyanobacteria and red algae. One of the most striking features of cryptophytes is the location of the water-soluble phycobiliproteins, which are contained within the intrathylakoid spaces and are not on the stromal side of the lamellae as in the red algae and cyanobacteria. Studies of mobility of phycobiliproteins at the lumenal side of the thylakoid membranes and how their diffusional behavior may influence the energy funneling steps in light harvesting are reported. Confocal microscopy and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) are used to measure the diffusion coefficient of phycoerythrin 545 (PE545), the primary light harvesting protein of Rhodomonas CS24, in vivo. It is concluded that the diffusion of PE545 in the lumen is inhibited, suggesting possible membrane association or aggregation as a potential source of mobility hindrance.

Beyond molecular recognition: using a repulsive field to tune interfacial valency and binding specificity between adhesive surfaces

Surface-bound biomolecular fragments enable "smart" materials to recognize cells and other particles in applications ranging from tissue engineering and medical diagnostics to colloidal and nanoparticle assembly. Such smart surfaces are, however, limited in their design to biomolecular selectivity. This feature article demonstrates, using a completely nonbiological model system, how specificity can be achieved for particle (and cell) binding, employing surface designs where immobilized nanoscale adhesion elements are entirely nonselective. Fundamental principles are illustrated by a model experimental system where 11 nm cationic nanoparticles on a planar negative silica surface interact with flowing negative silica microspheres having 1.0 and 0.5 microm diameters. In these systems, the interfacial valency, defined as the number of cross-bonds needed to capture flowing particles, is tunable through ionic strength, which alters the range of the background repulsion and therefore the effective binding strength of the adhesive elements themselves. At high ionic strengths where long-range electrostatic repulsions are screened, single surface-bound nanoparticles capture microspheres, defining the univalent regime. At low ionic strengths, competing repulsions weaken the effective nanoparticle adhesion so that multiple nanoparticles are needed for microparticle capture. This article discusses important features of the univalent regime and then illustrates how multivalency produces interfacial-scale selectivity. The arguments are then generalized, providing a possible explanation for highly specific cell binding in nature, despite the degeneracy of adhesion molecules and cell types. The mechanism for the valency-related selectivity is further developed in the context of selective flocculation in the colloidal literature. Finally, results for multivalent binding are contrasted with the current thinking for interfacial design and the presentation of adhesion moieties on engineered surfaces.

Preparation and characterization of patchy particles

Anisotropic building blocks are necessary for the self-assembly of complex structures. Methods are reported here for the preparation and characterization of patchy particles. Spherical polymer particles were temporarily bound to a substrate, so that part of their surface is occluded during subsequent surface modification by adsorption of polyelectrolyte. The resulting surface-charge pattern was detected, and its size measured, by means of selective nanoparticle adsorption to this surface. Feasible (roll-to-roll) production rates and process yields are also discussed. In the limit explored here of a single small patch, self-aggregation of patchy particles was observed only at high salt concentration, conditions that suppress anisotropic interactions. Complementary particles however exhibited site-specific binding, to form various anisotropic aggregates.

Manipulating microparticles with single surface-immobilized nanoparticles

This experimental study explores the capture and manipulation of micrometer-scale particles by single surface-immobilized nanoparticles. The nanoparticles, approximately 10 nm in diameter, are cationic and therefore attract the micrometer-scale silica particles in an analyte suspension. The supporting surface on which the nanoparticles reside is negative (also silica) and repulsive toward approaching microparticles. In the limit where there are as few as 9 nanoparticles per square micrometer of collector, it becomes possible to capture and hold micrometer-scale silica particles with single nanoparticles. The strong nanoparticle-microparticle attractions, their nanometer-scale protrusion forward of the supporting surface, and their controlled density on the supporting surface facilitate microparticle-surface contact occurring through a single nanoelement. This behavior differs from most particle-particle, cell-cell, or particle (or cell)-surface interactions that involve multiple ligand-receptor bonds or much larger contact areas. Despite the limited contact of microparticles with surface-immobilized nanoparticles, microparticles resist shear forces of 9 pN or more but can be released through an increase in the ionic strength. The ability of nanoparticles to reversibly trap and hold much larger targets has implications in materials self-assembly, cell capture, and sorting applications, whereas the single point of contact affords precision in particle manipulation.

Hydrodynamic crossover in dynamic microparticle adhesion on surfaces of controlled nanoscale heterogeneity

This note documents the crossover from a regime where shear flow hinders microparticle adhesion on collecting surfaces to that where increased flow aids particle capture. Flow generally works against adhesion and successfully hinders particle capture when the net physicochemical attractions between the particles and collector are weak compared with hydrodynamic forces on the particle. Conversely, with strong attractions between particles and collector, flow aids particle capture by increasing the mass transport of particles to the interfacial region. Here, local hydrodynamics still generally oppose adhesion but are insufficient to pull particles off of the surface. Thus, flow actually increases the particle capture rate through the increased transport to the surface. These behaviors are demonstrated using 1 mum silica spheres flowing over electrostatically heterogeneous (length scales near 10 nm) collecting surfaces at shear rates from 22 to 795 s(-1). The net surface charge on the collector is varied systematically from strongly negative (pure silica) to strongly positive (a saturated polycationic overlayer), demonstrating the interplay between physicochemical and hydrodynamic contributions. These results clearly apply to situations where heterogeneous particle-surface interactions are electrostatic in nature; however, qualitatively similar behavior was previously reported for the effect receptor density on bacterial adhesion.