Reversible photorheological lyotropic liquid crystals

Structure-property relationship in functionalized azobenzene photoswitches and their supramolecular behavior

Herein, we report the design, synthesis, and supramolecular behavior of 30 structurally diverse photoresponsive azobenzene molecular systems. To establish structure-property relationships, azobenzenes appended with N-picolinyl and/or N-benzyl groups tethered directly through carboxamides or via triazolylmethyl carboxamide linkages were explored. We have evaluated the photoswitching characteristics and thermal stability of the Z isomers through systematic studies. All the targets were also screened for their aggregation behavior and supramolecular aspects. Among all the derivatives, a few carboxamide-based systems formed microcrystals upon aggregation, showing light responsiveness. In contrast, the derivatives tethered via triazolylmethyl carboxamide linkage exhibited hydrogel formation with excellent water-absorbing capacity. All supramolecular aspects of the morphology of the microcrystal and hydrogel states and their stimuli-responsiveness have been studied using spectroscopy and various microscopic techniques.

Light-Driven Hexagonal-to-Cubic Phase Switching in Arylazopyrazole Lyotropic Liquid Crystals

Photoinduced manipulation of the nanoscale molecular structure and organization of soft materials can drive changes in the macroscale properties. Here we demonstrate the first example of a light-induced one- to three-dimensional mesophase transition at room temperature in lyotropic liquid crystals constructed from arylazopyrazole photosurfactants in water. We exploit this characteristic to use light to selectively control the rate of gas (CO2) diffusion across a prototype lyotropic liquid crystal membrane. Such control of phase organization, dimensionality, and permeability unlocks the potential for stimuli-responsive analogues in technologies for controlled delivery.

Cationic Azobenzenes as Light-Responsive Crosslinkers for Alginate-Based Supramolecular Hydrogels

Azobenzene photoswitches are fundamental components in contemporary approaches aimed at light-driven control of intelligent materials. Significant endeavors are directed towards enhancing the light-triggered reactivity of azobenzenes for such applications and obtaining water-soluble molecules able to act as crosslinkers in a hydrogel. Here, we report the rational design and the synthesis of azobenzene/alginate photoresponsive hydrogels endowed with fast reversible sol-gel transition. We started with the synthesis of three cationic azobenzenes (AZOs A, B, and C) and then incorporated them in sodium alginate (SA) to obtain photoresponsive supramolecular hydrogels (SMHGs). The photoresponsive properties of the azobenzenes were investigated by UV-Vis and 1H NMR spectroscopy. Upon irradiation with 365 nm UV light, the azobenzenes demonstrated efficient trans-to-cis isomerization, with complete isomerization occurring within seconds. The return to the trans form took several hours, with AZO C exhibiting the fastest return, possibly due to higher trans isomer stability. In the photoresponsive SMHGs, the minimum gelation concentration (MGC) of azobenzenes was determined for different compositions, indicating that small amounts of azobenzenes could induce gel formation, particularly in 5 wt% SA. Upon exposure to 365 nm UV light, the SMHGs exhibited reversible gel-sol transitions, underscoring their photoresponsive nature. This research offers valuable insights into the synthesis and photoresponsive properties of cationic, water-soluble azobenzenes, as well as their potential application in the development of photoresponsive hydrogels.

Light-Controlled Lyotropic Liquid Crystallinity of Polyaspartates Exploited as Photo-Switchable Alignment Medium

Two polyaspartates bearing ortho-fluorinated azobenzenes (pFAB) as photo-responsive groups in the side chain were synthesized: PpFABLA (1) and co-polyaspartate PpFABLA-co-PBLA [11, 75%(n/n) PpFABLA content]. As a consequence of the E/Z-isomerization of the side chain, PpFABLA (1) undergoes a visible-light-induced reversible coil-helix transition in solution: Green light (525 nm) affords the coil, and violet light (400 nm) affords the helix. pFAB significantly increases the thermal stability of the Z-isomer at 20 °C (t_1/2 = 66 d for the Z-isomer) and effectively counters the favored back formation of the helix. At 20%(w/w) polymer concentration, the helical polymer forms a lyotropic liquid crystal (LLC) that further orients unidirectionally inside a magnetic field, while the coil polymer results in an isotropic solution. The high viscosity of the polymer solution stabilizes the coexistence of liquid crystalline and isotropic domains, which were obtained with spatial control by partial light irradiation. When used as an alignment medium, PpFABLA (1) enables (i) the measurement of dipolar couplings without the need for a separate isotropic reference and (ii) the differentiation of enantiomers. PpFABLA-co-PBLA (11) preserves the helical structure, by intention, independently of the E/Z-isomerization of the side chain: Both photo-isomers of PpFABLA-co-PBLA (11) form a helix that─at a concentration of 16%(w/w)─form an LLC. Despite the absence of a change in the secondary structure, the E/Z-isomerization of the side chain changes the morphology of the liquid crystal and leads to different sets of dipolar coupling for the same probe molecule.

Light-Responsive Molecular Release from Cubosomes Using Swell-Squeeze Lattice Control

Stimuli-responsive materials are crucial to advance controlled delivery systems for drugs and catalysts. Lyotropic liquid crystals (LLCs) have well-defined internal structures suitable to entrap small molecules and can be broken up into low-viscosity dispersions, aiding their application as delivery systems. In this work, we demonstrate the first example of light-responsive cubic LLC dispersions, or cubosomes, using photoswitchable amphiphiles to enable external control over the LLC structure and subsequent on-demand release of entrapped guest molecules. Azobenzene photosurfactants (AzoPS), containing a neutral tetraethylene glycol head group and azobenzene-alkyl tail, are combined (from 10-30 wt %) into monoolein-water systems to create LLC phases. Homogenization of the bulk LLC forms dispersions of particles, ∼200 nm in diameter with internal bicontinuous primitive cubic phases, as seen using small-angle X-ray scattering and cryo-transmission electron microscopy. Notably, increasing the AzoPS concentration leads to swelling of the cubic lattice, offering a method to tune the internal nanoscale structure. Upon UV irradiation, AzoPS within the cubosomes isomerizes within seconds, which in turn leads to squeezing of the cubic lattice and a decrease in the lattice parameter. This squeeze mechanism was successfully harnessed to enable phototriggerable release of trapped Nile Red guest molecules from the cubosome structure in minutes. The ability to control the internal structure of LLC dispersions using light, and the dramatic effect this has on the retention of entrapped molecules, suggests that these systems may have huge potential for the next-generation of nanodelivery.

Light-responsive self-assembly of a cationic azobenzene surfactant at high concentration

The formation of high-concentration mesophases by a cationic azobenzene photosurfactant is described for the first time. Using a combination of polarised optical microscopy and small-angle X-ray scattering, optically anisotropic, self-assembled structures with long-range order are reported. The mesophases are disrupted or lost upon UV irradiation.

A single-component photorheological fluid with light-responsive viscosity

Viscoelastic fluids whose rheological properties are tunable with light have the potential to deliver significant impact in fields relying on a change in flow behavior, such as in-use tuning of combined efficient heat-transfer and drag-reduction agents, microfluidic flow and controlled encapsulation and release. However, simple, single-component systems must be developed to allow integration with these applications. Here, we report a single-component viscoelastic fluid, capable of a dramatic light-sensitive rheological response, from a neutral azobenzene photosurfactant, 4-hexyl-4'butyloxymonotetraethylene glycol (C₆AzoOC₄E₄) in water. From cryo-transmission electron microscopy (TEM), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and rheology measurements, we observe that the photosurfactant forms an entangled network of wormlike micelles in water, with a high viscosity (28 Pa s) and viscoelastic behaviour. UV irradiation of the surfactant solution creates a less dense micellar network, with some vesicle formation. As a result, the solution viscosity is reduced by four orders of magnitude (to 1.2 × 10^-3 Pa s). This process is reversible and the high and low viscosity states can be cycled several times, through alternating UV and blue light irradiation.

Molecular engineering of stimuli-responsive, functional, side-chain liquid crystalline copolymers: synthesis, properties and applications

This review describes recent progress made in designing stimuli-responsive, functional, side-chain, end-on mesogen attached liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs).

Photoresponsive Behavior of Wormlike Micelles Constructed by Gemini Surfactant 12-3-12·2Br- and Different Cinnamate Derivatives

The photoresponsive wormlike micelles constructed by Gemini surfactants and cinnamate derivatives play a great role in the field of smart materials. However, how the structure of cinnamate derivatives affects the photoresponsive behavior of micelles is still a hotspot for scientists to research. Here, three kinds of aromatic salts with different ortho-substituted groups including trans- o-methoxy cinnamate ( trans-OMCA), trans- o-hydroxy cinnamate ( trans-OHCA), and trans-cinnamate ( trans-CA) were introduced into Gemini surfactant 12-3-12·2Br^- aqueous solutions to construct photoresponsive wormlike micelles through their noncovalent interactions. Their properties were researched using the rheological method, cryo-transmission electron microscopy, and ¹H NMR and two-dimensional nuclear Overhauser effect spectra. The results show that these cinnamate derivatives could well construct wormlike micelles with 12-3-12·2Br^-. Furthermore, subtle differences in the ortho substituents' structure have a significant effect on the photoresponsive behavior of formed wormlike micelles. Specifically, the zero viscosity (η₀) of 40 mM 12-3-12·2Br^-/24 mM trans-OHCA mixed solution decreases from 26.72 to 2.6 Pa·s with the shortening of the length of wormlike micelles after UV irradiation. Correspondingly, the η₀ for the same ratio of 12-3-12·2Br^-/ trans-OMCA decreases from 2.42 to 0.06 Pa·s and the wormlike micelles are transited into rodlike micelles and even spherical micelles after the same UV irradiation time. However, the variation of wormlike micelles in the 12-3-12·2Br^-/ trans-CA system induced by UV light is not obvious with η₀ being maintained at around 2.89 Pa·s. This study will help us better understand the effects of chemical groups on macrophenomena and microinteraction for micellar systems. It provides a theoretical basis for the construction of photoresponsive micelles, thus widening their application in the field of soft materials.

Probing the dynamic self-assembly behaviour of photoswitchable wormlike micelles in real-time

Understanding the dynamic self-assembly behaviour of azobenzene photosurfactants (AzoPS) is crucial to advance their use in controlled release applications such as drug delivery and micellar catalysis. Currently, their behaviour in the equilibrium cis- and trans-photostationary states is more widely understood than during the photoisomerisation process itself. Here, we investigate the time-dependent self-assembly of the different photoisomers of a model neutral AzoPS, tetraethylene glycol mono(4',4-octyloxy,octyl-azobenzene) (C8AzoOC8E4) using small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). We show that the incorporation of in situ UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy with SANS allows the scattering profile, and hence micelle shape, to be correlated with the extent of photoisomerisation in real-time. It was observed that C8AzoOC8E4 could switch between wormlike micelles (trans native state) and fractal aggregates (under UV light), with changes in the self-assembled structure arising concurrently with changes in the absorption spectrum. Wormlike micelles could be recovered within 60 seconds of blue light illumination. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time the degree of AzoPS photoisomerisation has been tracked in situ through combined UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy-SANS measurements. This technique could be widely used to gain mechanistic and kinetic insights into light-dependent processes that are reliant on self-assembly.

Added-Value Surfactants

Surfactants are ubiquitous in cellular membranes, detergents or as emulsification agents. Due to their amphiphilic properties, they cannot only mediate between two domains of very different solvent compatibility like water and organic but also show fascinating self-assembly features resulting in micelles, vesicles, or lyotropic liquid crystals. The current review article highlights some approaches towards the next generation surfactants, for example, those with catalytically active heads. Furthermore, it is shown that amphiphilic properties can be obtained beyond the classical hydrophobic-hydrophilic interplay, for instance with surfactants containing one molecular block with a special shape. Whereas, classical surfactants are static, researchers have become more interested in species that are able to change their properties depending on external triggers. The article discusses examples for surfactants sensitive to chemical (e.g., pH value) or physical triggers (temperature, electric and magnetic fields).

UV-Responsive Behavior of Multistate and Multiscale Self-Assemblies Constructed by Gemini Surfactant 12-3-12·2Br- and trans- o-Methoxy-cinnamate

Photoresponsive systems with adjustable self-assembly morphologies and tunable rheological properties have aroused widespread concern of researchers in recent years because of their prospect applications in controlled release, microfluidics, sensors, and so forth. In this paper, we combine a cationic Gemini surfactant 12-3-12·2Br^- and trans-2-methoxy-cinnamate ( trans-OMCA) together to create a representative UV-responsive self-assembly system. The system displays abundant self-assembly behaviors, and the self-assemblies with different states and different scales including wormlike micelles, vesicles, and lyotropic liquid crystals (LCs) as well as an aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) are observed even at lower surfactant concentration. The UV-responsive behavior of the formed self-assemblies is investigated systematically. The results have shown that the photoisomerization of OMCA from trans form to cis form under UV light irradiation alters the hydrophobicity and steric hindrance effect of OMCA and thus affects the molecular packing at the micellar interface and further leads to the transformation of assembly morphologies. The long wormlike micelles can gradually transform into much shorter rodlike micelles under UV irradiation and companied by the decrease of solution viscosity by 2 orders of magnitude. In addition, the vesicles can evolve into multistate self-assembly structures including the ATPS, wormlike micelles, rod-like micelles, and small spherical micelles depending on the UV irradiation time. The ATPS and its adjacent anisotropic LC phase can respectively combine into a single phase and separate into ATPS under UV irradiation. The morphologies of assemblies in the 12-3-12·2Br^-/ trans-OMCA mixed system can be tailored by adjusting the system composition and duration of UV light irradiation on purpose. The photoresponsive system with abundant self-assembly behaviors and tunable rheological properties has wide application prospect in numerous fields such as drug delivery, materials science, smart fluids, and so forth, and the macroscopic phase separation and combination provide novel strategies for effective separation and purification of certain substances.

The surface rheological signature of the geometric isomers of an azobenzene-surfactant

The equilibrium and dynamic surface properties of a photosensitive azobenzene-surfactant subject to illumination with UV and Vis-light leading to the respective geometric cis- and trans-isomers were studied. The adsorption layers formed by the soluble surfactant were characterized by pendant drop tensiometry and surface rheology using the oscillating bubble technique. Aqueous solutions corresponding to the geometric isomers could clearly be distinguished in terms of both their equilibrium and dynamic surface properties. The frequency dependence of the surface dilatational modulus could be described by the extended Lucassen-van den Tempel (LvdT)-model. These findings can be interpreted in terms of the changes of the dipole moment. Furthermore, they shed some light on the relation between the molecular structure and macroscopic properties of the adsorption layer.

A gemini surfactant-containing system with abundant self-assembly morphology and rheological behaviors tunable by photoinduction

The photoisomerization of OMCA affects the degree of OMCA participation in the formation of mixed micelles and results in the transformation of micellar morphologies.

Toward the Fabrication of Advanced Nanofiltration Membranes by Controlling Morphologies and Mesochannel Orientations of Hexagonal Lyotropic Liquid Crystals

Water scarcity has been recognized as one of the major threats to human activity, and, therefore, water purification technologies are increasingly drawing attention worldwide. Nanofiltration (NF) membrane technology has been proven to be an efficient and cost-effective way in terms of the size and continuity of the nanostructure. Using a template based on hexagonal lyotropic liquid crystals (LLCs) and partitioning monomer units within this structure for subsequent photo-polymerisation presents a unique path for the fabrication of NF membranes, potentially producing pores of uniform size, ranging from 1 to 5 nm, and large surface areas. The subsequent orientation of this pore network in a direction normal to a flat polymer film that provides ideal transport properties associated with continuous pores running through the membrane has been achieved by the orientation of hexagonal LLCs through various strategies. This review presents the current progresses on the strategies for structure retention from a hexagonal LLCs template and the up-to-date techniques used for the reorientation of mesochanels for continuity through the whole membrane.

Insight into a Fast-Phototuning Azobenzene Switch for Sustainably Tailoring the Foam Stability

A photoresponsive surfactant of 4-octoxy-4'-[(trimethylamino)ethoxy]azobenzene (OTAEAzo) has been synthesized for developing a fast-phototuning foam switch based on its high sensitivity, reversibility, and fatigue resistance of the photoisomerization capability. Ultraviolet (UV)-light irradiation for 1 s enabled conversion from the trans isomer to the cis configuration, while exposure to visible (Vis)-light for 3 min induced a cis-to-trans transformation, which maintains an excellent cycling stability for 20 cycles of photoisomerization. The photoisomerization speed depended on the concentration of OTAEAzo, and a lower concentration facilitated a faster photoisomerization process. Because of the low critical micelle concentration (CMC), OTAEAzo with a small dosage of 0.2 g·L^-1 showed foamability, which accelerated the photoisomerization speed, enabling it to become a highly efficient switch. The surface activities of trans-OTAEAzo presented distinct differences from those of cis-OTAEAzo, resulting in the foam stabilization effects of trans-OTAEAzo (t_1/2 = 2.58 min) and the destabilization effects of cis-OTAEAzo (t_1/2 = 0.38 min). Moreover, the foam properties varied slightly in the phototuning cycles. OTAEAzo with low CMC presents high sensitivity and reversible photoisomerization capability, providing an environmental and sustainable approach for tailoring the foam stability.

Swollen liquid crystals (SLCs): a versatile template for the synthesis of nano structured materials

Swollen liquid crystals (SLCs) are the class of lyotropic liquid crystals (LLCs) that are usually formed by a quaternary mixture of aqueous phase, oil phase, surfactant and cosurfactant.

Dynamic formation of nanostructured particles from vesicles via invertase hydrolysis for on-demand delivery

Controlled hydrolysis via invertase action alters molecular shape and therefore lipid curvature, consequently triggering the release of encapsulated drug.

Light-Directed Self-Assembly of Robust Alginate Gels at Precise Locations in Microfluidic Channels

Recently there has been much interest in using light to activate self-assembly of molecules in a fluid, leading to gelation. The advantage of light over other stimuli lies in its spatial selectivity, i.e., its ability to be directed at a precise location, which could be particularly useful in microfluidic applications. However, existing light-responsive fluids are not suitable for these purposes since they do not convert into sufficiently strong gels that can withstand shear. Here, we address this deficiency by developing a new light-responsive system based on the well-known polysaccharide, alginate. The fluid is composed entirely of commercially available components: alginate, a photoacid generator (PAG), and a chelated complex of divalent strontium (Sr(2+)) cations. Upon exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, the PAG dissociates to release H(+) ions, which in turn induce the release of free Sr(2+) from the chelate. The Sr(2+) ions self-assemble with the alginate chains to give a stiff gel with an elastic modulus ∼2000 Pa and a yield stress ∼400 Pa (this gel is strong enough to be picked up and held by one's fingers). The above fluid is sent through a network of microchannels and a short segment of a specific channel is exposed to UV light. At that point, the fluid is locally transformed into a strong gel in a few minutes, and the resulting gel blocks the flow through that channel while other channels remain open. When the UV light is removed, the gel is gradually diluted by the flow and the channel reopens. We have thus demonstrated a remote-controlled fluidic valve that can be closed by shining light and reopened when the light is removed. In addition, we also show that light-induced gelation of our alginate fluid can be used to deposit biocompatible payloads at specific addresses within a microchannel.

Light-responsive multillamellar vesicles in coumaric acid/alkyldimethylamine oxide binary systems: Effects of surfactant and hydrotrope structures

Herein, we report a series of novel light-responsive multilamellar vesicles based on the surfactant/hydrotrope binary systems. The phase behaviors of alkyldimethylamine oxide (CmDMAO, m=10, 12, 14) and trans-coumaric acid (trans-CA) isomerides, including trans-ortho-coumaric acid (trans-OCA), trans-meta-coumaric acid (trans-MCA) and trans-para-coumaric acid (trans-PCA), show that the multilamellar vesicle (MLV) formation region is commonly presented in the trans-CA/CmDMAO systems except trans-PCA/C12DMAO. Moreover, the molecular structures of CmDMAO and trans-CA affect the multilamellar vesicle formation region significantly. Generally speaking, the bigger the m, the larger the MLV region. Various techniques such as rheology, polarized optical microscopy (POM), (1)H NMR, (2)H NMR, cryogen transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and freeze-fracture transmission electron microscopy (FF-TEM) are used to characterize the aggregate structures. The multilamellar vesicles can transform into a homogeneous and transparent micelle phase or a two-phase system in the trans-OCA/CmDMAO binary systems under UV light irradiation, which depends on the chain length of CmDMAO and the molar ratio of [trans-OCA]/[CmDMAO]. Specifically, the light-stimuli response of multilamellar vesicles in the trans-OCA/C12DMAO system is representatively studied in detail. UV-vis spectra and (1)H NMR measurements illustrate that the light-induced trans-OCA to cis-OCA isomerization is essential during the transitions and the light-induced two-phase formation is attributed to the enrichment of surfactants, because the trans-cis isomerization can not only strengthen the hydrophilicity of cis-OCA but also increase the steric hindrance between cis-OCA and C12DMAO, and thereby altering the morphology of aggregate and the rheological response of bulk phase significantly.

Synthesis of photo-responsive azobenzene molecules with different hydrophobic chain length for controlling foam stability

Photo-responsive azobenzene molecules of different hydrophobic chain length were synthesized and showed reversible photo-isomerization and tunability of foam stability.

Aggregation Behavior of Imidazolium-Based Surface-Active Ionic Liquids with Photoresponsive Cinnamate Counterions in the Aqueous Solution

Two imidazolium-based surface active ionic liquids (SAILs) with photoresponsive cinnamate aromatic counterions, viz. 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium cinnamate ([C12mim][CA]) and 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium para-hydroxy-cinnamate ([C12mim][PCA]), were newly synthesized, and their self-assembly behaviors in aqueous solutions were systematically explored. Results of surface tension and conductivity measurements show that both [C12mim][CA] and [C12mim][PCA] display a superior surface activity in aqueous solutions compared to the common imidazolium-based SAIL, 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (C12mimBr), which implies the incorporation of cinnamate aromatic counterions can promote the micellar formation. Furthermore, [C12mim][CA] shows higher surface activity due to the higher hydrophobicity of its counterion in comparison to [C12mim][PCA] that has a hydroxyl group. Both hexagonal liquid-crystalline phase (H1) and cubic liquid-crystalline phase (V2) were constructed in the [C12mim][CA] aqueous solutions. In contrast, the [C12mim][PCA]/H2O system only exhibits a single hexagonal liquid-crystalline phase (H1) in a broad concentration region. These lyotropic liquid crystal (LLC) phases were comprehensively characterized by polarized optical microscopy (POM), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and rheometer. Investigation on the temperature-dependent self-assembly nanostructures demonstrates that the higher temperature leads to a looser arrangement. Under UV irradiation, trans-cis photoisomerization of the phenylalkene group results in inferior surface activity of the prepared SAILs in aqueous solution with higher cmc values. Moreover, UV light irradiation induces obvious change of the structural parameters without altering the LLC phases. This work is expected to enrich the investigations of phase behaviors formed in SAILs systems and receive particular attention due to their unique properties and potential applications in drug delivery, biochemistry, materials science, etc.

Enhancing thermal stability and mechanical properties of lyotropic liquid crystals through incorporation of a polymerizable surfactant

We present a facile method to prepare thermally stable and mechanically robust crosslinked lyotropic liquid crystals (LLCs) through incorporation of a polymerizable amphiphile into a binary LLC system comprising commercially available surfactant Brij 97 and water. Thermal stability and mechanical properties of the polymerized LLCs were significantly enhanced after polymerization of the incorporated polymerizable surfactant. The effect of incorporating a polymerizable amphiphile on the phase behavior of the LLC system was studied in detail. In situ photo-rheology was used to monitor the change in the mechanical properties of the LLCs, namely the storage modulus, loss modulus, and viscosity, upon polymerization. The retention of the LLC nanostructures was evaluated by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The ability to control the thermal stability and mechanical strength of LLCs simply by adding a polymerizable amphiphile, without tedious organic synthesis or harsh polymerization conditions, could prove highly advantageous in the preparation of robust nanomaterials with well-defined periodic structures.

Design of Light-Triggered Lyotropic Liquid Crystal Mesophases and Their Application as Molecular Switches in "On Demand" Release

Here, we present the design and assembly of a new light-responsive functional lyotropic liquid crystal system using host-guest lipidic mesophases (LMPs). Light as an external stimulus has many advantages in comparison to other stimuli: it is milder than acids or bases, and variation of intensity and duration can provide a high level of pharmacological control. The LMPs are composed of monoolein (MO) and oleic acid (OA) as host lipids and a small amount of a judiciously synthesized lipid bearing an azobenzene photoactive unit as a guest. While preserving the structure and stability of the host lipidic aggregates, the guest lipids render them specific functionalities. Single-step and sequential light-triggered release and retention of the embedded dye molecules are demonstrated, thereby achieving exquisite temporal, spatial, and dosage control of the release, opening up the possibility of using such lipidic biomaterials as effective matrices in therapy, when a continuous release of active drugs might be toxic.

Unusual, photo-induced self-assembly of azobenzene-containing amphiphiles

Stimuli-responsive self-assembly is playing an increasingly important role in emerging applications, ranging from smart materials to biosensors. However, obtaining essential information for further development, such as molecular arrangement and interaction, is still experimentally challenging. A molecular-level understanding of the stimuli-responsive self-assembly is needed. Azobenzene-containing (azo-containing) amphiphiles organize into photo-responsive assemblies because of the cis-trans isomerization triggered by the irradiation of ultraviolet (UV) and visible light. In this study, we applied a coarse grained (CG) molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, with the necessary potential parameters fitted from theoretical calculation data, to study the photo-induced self-assembly of 4,4'-bis(hydroxymethyl)-azobenzene (AzoCO), a simple azo-containing amphiphile. An unusual "chaotic micelle" and "monolayer phase" were obtained with cis- and trans-AzoCO molecules, respectively. The structural information and formation mechanism were studied. The "chaotic micelle" possesses a chaotic but not a pure hydrophobic interior as commonly understood. Through comparative simulations, we found that the azo (-N[double bond, length as m-dash]N-) group of azobenzene plays a crucial role in the formation of the "chaotic micelle". The "monolayer phase" is arranged by abreast rod-like trans-AzoCO molecules; the axial symmetry of the trans-AzoCO molecule drives the formation of this structure. The novel "chaotic micelle" and "monolayer phase" have potential applications in nanotechnology and bioengineering. This work is expected to trigger further studies on stimuli-responsive phenomena and materials.

Influence of electrostatic interactions on the release of charged molecules from lipid cubic phases

The release of positive, negative, and neutral hydrophilic drugs from pH responsive bicontinuous cubic phases was investigated under varying conditions of electrostatic interactions. A weak acid, linoleic acid (LA), or a weak base, pyridinylmethyl linoleate (PML), were added to the neutral monolinolein (ML) in order to form lyotropic liquid-crystalline (LLC) phases, which are negatively charged at neutral pH and positively charged at acidic pH. Release studies at low ionic strength (I = 20 mM) and at different pH values (3 and 7) revealed that electrostatic attraction between a positive drug, proflavine (PF), and the negatively charged LLC at pH = 7 or between a negative drug, antraquinone 2-sulfonic acid sodium salt (AQ2S), and the positively charged LLC at pH = 3 did delay the release behavior, while electrostatic repulsion affects the transport properties only to some extent. Release profiles of a neutral drug, caffeine, were not affected by the surface charge type and density in the cubic LLCs. Moreover, the influence of ionic strength was also considered up to 150 mM, corresponding to a Debye length smaller than the LLC water channels radius, which showed that efficient screening of electrostatic attractions occurring within the LLC water domains results in an increased release rate. Four transport models were applied to fit the release data, providing an exhaustive, quantitative insight on the role of electrostatic interactions in transport properties from pH responsive bicontinuous cubic phases.