Amphiphilic conetworks and gels physically cross-linked via stereocomplexation of polylactide

Preparation and Properties of Physical Gel on Medical Titanium Alloy Surface

Medical titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V (TC4) has been widely used in the medical field, especially in human tissue repair. However, TC4 has some shortcomings, which may cause problems with biocompatibility and mechanical compatibility in direct contact with the human body. To solve this problem, physical gels are formed on the surface of TC4, and the storage modulus of the formed physical gel matches that of the human soft tissue. 2-bromoisobutyryl bromide (BIBB) and dopamine (DA) were used to form initiators on the surface of hydroxylated medical titanium alloy. Different initiators were formed by changing the ratio of BIBB and DA, and the optimal one was selected for subsequent reactions. Under the action of the catalyst, L-lactide and D-lactide were ring-opened polymerized with hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), respectively, to form macromolecular monomers HEMA-PLLA₂₉ and HEMA-PDLA₂₉ with a polymerization degree of 29. The two macromolecular monomers were stereo-complexed by ultrasound to form HEMA-stereocomplex polylactic acid (HEMA-scPLA₂₉). Based on two monomers, 2-(2-methoxyethoxy) ethyl methacrylate (MEO₂MA) and oligo (ethylene oxide) methacrylate (OEGMA), and the physical crosslinking agent HEMA-scPLA_29, physical gels are formed on the surface of TC4 attached to the initiator via Atom Transfer Radical Addition Reaction (ATRP) technology. The hydrogels on the surface of titanium alloy were characterized and analyzed by a series of instruments. The results showed that the storage modulus of physical glue was within the range of the energy storage modulus of human soft tissue, which was conducive to improving the mechanical compatibility of titanium alloy and human soft tissue.

A Temperature/pH Double-Responsive and Physical Double-Crosslinked Hydrogel Based on PLA and Histidine

Hydrogel is a good drug carrier, widely used in the sustained-release aspect of tumor drugs, which can achieve the continuous release of drugs to the tumor sites. In this study, diethylene glycol monomethyl ether methacrylate (MEO₂MA) and poly (ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (OEGMA) are temperature-sensitive monomers. N-Methacryloyl-L-Histidine (Mist) is pH sensitive monomer and ligand for metal coordination bond. The temperature-sensitive monomers and pH sensitive monomer with stereocomplex of modified polylactic acid (HEMA-PLLA₃₀/PDLA₃₀) were mixed, under 2,2’-azobis (2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN) as radical initiator, polymer was formed by free-radical polymerization. The polymer was then immersed in ZnSO₄ solution, the imidazole group of Mist monomer forms a tridentate metal coordination bond with Zn²⁺, temperature/pH double-responsive and physical double-crosslinked hydrogel was finally obtained. Comparing the hydrogen bond hydrogel, hydrogen bond and metal coordination bond double crosslinking hydrogel, metal coordination bond hydrogel, testing thermal stability, viscoelasticity, swelling, and morphology of three hydrogels. In addition, using UV-Visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) to test the sustained release of the hydrophobic drug doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX-HCl) in the human tumor environment (37 °C, pH = 5). We found that the temperature/pH double-responsive and physical double-crosslinked hydrogel had the most potential for the sustained drug release.

Stereocomplexation Reinforced High Strength Poly(L-lactide)/Nanohydroxyapatite Composites for Potential Bone Repair Applications

Composite materials composed of polylactide (PLA) and nano-hydroxyapatite (n-HA) have been recognized as excellent candidate material in bone repai The difference in hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity and poor interfacial compatibility between n-HA filler and PLA matrix leads to non-uniform dispersion of n-HA in PLA matrix and consequent poor reinforcement effect. In this study, an HA/PLA nanocomposite was designed based on the surface modification of n-HA with poly(D-lactide) (PDLA), which not only can improve the dispersion of n-HA in the poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) matrix but also could form a stereocomplex crystal with the matrix PLLA at the interface and ultimately lead to greatly enhanced mechanical performance The n-HA/PLA composites were characterized by means of scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-Ray diffraction, thermal gravity analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and a mechanical test; in vitro cytotoxicity of the composite material as well as its efficacy in inducing osteogenic differentiation of rat bone marrow stromal cells (rMSCs) were also evaluated. Compared with those of neat PLLA, the tensile strength, Young’s modulus, interfacial shear strength, elongation at break and crystallinity of the composites increased by 34%, 53%, 26%, 70%, and 17%, respectively. The adhesion and proliferation as well as the osteogenic differentiation of rMSCs on HA/PLA composites were clearly evidenced. Therefore, the HA/PLA composites have great potential for bone repai.

Engineering Biomaterials to Guide Heart Cells for Matured Cardiac Tissue

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is needed to maintain the structural integrity of tissues and to mediate cellular dynamics. Its main components are fibrous proteins and glycosaminoglycans, which provide a suitable environment for biological functions. Thus, biomaterials with ECM-like properties have been extensively developed by modulating their key components and properties. In the field of cardiac tissue engineering, the use of biomaterials offers several advantages in that biophysical and biochemical cues can be designed to mediate cardiac cells, which is critical for maturation and regeneration. This suggests that understanding biomaterials and their use in vivo and in vitro is beneficial in terms of advancing cardiac engineering. The current review provides an overview of both natural and synthetic biomaterials and their use in cardiac engineering. In addition, we focus on different strategies to recapitulate the cardiac tissue in 2D and 3D approaches, which is an important step for the maturation of cardiac tissues toward regeneration of the adult heart.

Synthesis and properties of a temperature-sensitive hydrogel based on physical crosslinking via stereocomplexation of PLLA-PDLA

A synthetic route to amphiphilic conetwork (APCN) gels was developed and involved (1) a ring-opening polymerization (ROP) synthesis of the macromonomer HEMA-PLLA/PDLA, and (2) a radical polymerization of a stereocomplex of the synthesized macromonomers with P(MEO₂MA-co-OEGMA) to form the APCN gels. The structure of the gel was successfully verified using X-ray diffraction. Thermal analysis and differential scanning calorimetry data showed that the thermal behaviors of the gels were greatly improved compared with that of polylactic acid (PLA). The mechanical properties of the gels were measured by using a dynamic viscometer, and the results indicated a greater mechanical strength before swelling than afterwards, and an increasing strength of the gels with increasing amount of PLA stereocomplex. Gels placed in different aqueous phases at different temperatures showed different swelling ratio (SR) values. Specifically, the SR gradually decreased as the temperature was increased, indicating a temperature sensitivity of the gels. In addition, the gels placed in the aqueous and organic phases presented as hydrogels and hydrophobic gels, respectively, and their SR values were relatively low. These results indicated the amphiphilic nature of the gel, and indicated great application prospects for the gel in biomedicine.

A synthetic route to amphiphilic conetwork (APCN) gels was developed and involved (1) ring-opening polymerization synthesis of the macromonomer, and (2) radical polymerization of stereocomplex of the synthesized macromonomers with MEO₂MA, OEGMA to form the APCN gels.

Stereocomplex Poly(Lactic Acid) Amphiphilic Conetwork Gel with Temperature and pH Dual Sensitivity

A novel stereocomplex poly(lactic acid) amphiphilic conetwork gel with temperature and pH dual sensitivity was synthesized by ring-opening polymerization (ROP) and free radical copolymerization. The chemical structure and composition of hydrogel were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The temperature and pH sensitivity and good amphiphilicity of hydrogel were studied using digital photos, the swelling ratios and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The thermal stability and mechanical properties of hydrogel were studied by differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) and dynamic viscoelastic spectrometer. The results indicated that the hydrogel has amphiphilicity, temperature and pH sensitivity, good thermal stability and mechanical strength.

A Perspective on Polylactic Acid-Based Polymers Use for Nanoparticles Synthesis and Applications

Polylactic acid (PLA)-based polymers are ubiquitous in the biomedical field thanks to their combination of attractive peculiarities: biocompatibility (degradation products do not elicit critical responses and are easily metabolized by the body), hydrolytic degradation in situ, tailorable properties, and well-established processing technologies. This led to the development of several applications, such as bone fixation screws, bioresorbable suture threads, and stent coating, just to name a few. Nanomedicine could not be unconcerned by PLA-based materials as well, where their use for the synthesis of nanocarriers for the targeted delivery of hydrophobic drugs emerged as a new promising application. The purpose of the here presented review is two-fold: on one side, it aims at providing a broad overview of PLA-based materials and their properties, which allow them gaining a leading role in the biomedical field; on the other side, it offers a specific focus on their recent use in nanomedicine, highlighting opportunities and perspectives.

Stereocomplexed physical hydrogels with high strength and tunable crystallizability

Physical hydrogels crosslinked by non-covalent interactions have attained increasing attention due to their good mechanical properties and processability. However, the use of feasible and controllable non-covalent interactions is highly essential for preparing such hydrogels. In this article, we report on stereocomplexed physical hydrogels prepared by simple casting and swelling of amphiphilic graft copolymers bearing a poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) backbone and poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) or poly(d-lactic acid) (PDLA) stereocomplexable side chains. The microstructure, swelling behavior, and mechanical and shape memory properties of the obtained hydrogels can be tuned by varying the copolymer composition and stereocomplex (SC) crystallization of PLLA/PDLA enantiomeric chains. The long PLLA or PDLA chains segregate to form hydrophobic, crystallized domains in water, serving as physical crosslinking junctions for hydrogels. SC crystallization between PLLA and PDLA further enhances the number density of physical crosslinkers of enantiomerically mixed hydrogels. The SC content increases as the PLLA/PDLA ratio approaches 1/1 in enantiomerically mixed hydrogels. The average distance between crosslinking junctions declines for the hydrogels with a high PLLA (or PDLA) mass fraction (M_PLA) and SC content, due to the increased number density of physical crosslinkers. Accordingly, the tensile strength and the Young's modulus increase but the swelling ratio and the elongation-at-break of the hydrogels decrease with an increase in M_PLA and SC content. The hydrogels exhibit shape memory behavior; the shape fixing ability is enhanced by the SC crystallization of PLLA/PDLA side chains in the hydrogels.

Nanophasic morphologies as a function of the composition and molecular weight of the macromolecular cross-linker in poly(N-vinylimidazole)-l-poly(tetrahydrofuran) amphiphilic conetworks: bicontinuous domain structure in broad composition ranges

Compositionally asymmetrical morphologies and cocontinous nanophase-separated structures are formed over a broad composition range, affected by composition and the molecular weights of macromonomers.

Poly(lactic acid) based hydrogels

Polylactide (PLA) and its copolymers are hydrophobic polyesters used for biomedical applications. Hydrogel medicinal implants have been used as drug delivery vehicles and scaffolds for tissue engineering, tissue augmentation and more. Since lactides are non-functional, they are copolymerized with hydrophilic monomers or conjugated to a hydrophilic moiety to form hydrogels. Copolymers of lactic and glycolic acids with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) provide thermo-responsive hydrogels. Physical crosslinking mechanisms of PEG-PLA or PLA-polysaccharides include: lactic acid segment hydrophobic interactions, stereocomplexation of D and L-lactic acid segments, ionic interactions, and chemical bond formation by radical or photo crosslinking. These hydrogels may also be tailored as stimulus responsive (pH, photo, or redox). PLA and its copolymers have also been polymerized to include urethane bonds to fabricate shape memory hydrogels. This review focuses on the synthesis, characterization, and applications of PLA containing hydrogels.

Poly(lactic acid) stereocomplexes: A decade of progress

Upon blending enantiomeric poly(l-lactide) [i.e., poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA)] and poly(d-lactide) (PDLA) [i.e., poly(d-lactic acid) (PDLA)] or synthesis of stereo block poly(lactide) [i.e., poly(lactic acid) (PLA)], a stereocomplex (SC) is formed. PLA SC has a higher melting temperature (or heat resistance), mechanical performance, and hydrolysis-resistance compared to those of neat PLLA and PDLA. Because of such effects, PLA SC has been extensively studied in terms of biomedical and pharmaceutical applications as well as commodity, industrial, and environmental applications. Stereocomplexation stabilizes and strengthens PLA-based hydrogel or nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Stereocomplexation increases the barrier property of PLA-based materials and thereby prolongs drug release from PLA based materials. In addition, PLA SC is attracting significant attention because it can act as a nucleating agent for the widely used biobased polymer PLLA and thereby the heat resistance of PLLA-based materials can be enhanced. Interestingly, a wide variety of SCs other than PLA SC are found to have been formed in the enantiomeric substituted PLA blends and stereo block substituted PLA polymers. In the present review article, a decade of progress in investigation of PLA SCs is summarized.

Effect of Polyethylene Glycol on Properties and Drug Encapsulation-Release Performance of Biodegradable/Cytocompatible Agarose-Polyethylene Glycol-Polycaprolactone Amphiphilic Co-Network Gels

We synthesized agarose-polycaprolactone (Agr-PCL) bicomponent and Agr-polyethylene glycol-PCL (Agr-PEG-PCL) tricomponent amphiphilic co-network (APCN) gels by the sequential nucleophilic substitution reaction between amine-functionalized Agr and activated halide terminated PCL or PCL-b-PEG-b-PCL copolymer for the sustained and localized delivery of hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. The biodegradability of the APCNs was confirmed using lipase and by hydrolytic degradation. These APCN gels displayed good cytocompatibility and blood compatibility. Importantly, these APCN gels exhibited remarkably high drug loading capacity coupled with sustained and triggered release of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. PEG in the APCNs lowered the degree of phase separation and enhanced the mechanical property of the APCN gels. The drug loading capacity and the release kinetics were also strongly influenced by the presence of PEG, the nature of release medium, and the nature of the drug. Particularly, PEG in the APCN gels significantly enhanced the 5-fluorouracil loading capacity and lowered its release rate and burst release. Release kinetics of highly water-soluble gemcitabine hydrochloride and hydrophobic prednisolone acetate depended on the extent of water swelling of the APCN gels. Cytocompatibility/blood compatibility and pH and enzyme-triggered degradation together with sustained release of drugs show great promise for the use of these APCN gels in localized drug delivery and tissue engineering applications.

Facile Layer-by-Layer Self-Assembly toward Enantiomeric Poly(lactide) Stereocomplex Coated Magnetite Nanocarrier for Highly Tunable Drug Deliveries

A highly tunable nanoparticle (NP) system with multifunctionalities was developed as drug nanocarrier via a facile layer-by-layer (LbL) stereocomplex (SC) self-assembly of enantiomeric poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) and poly(d-lactic acid) (PDLA) in solution using silica-coated magnetite (Fe3O4@SiO2) as template. The poly(lactide) (PLA) SC coated NPs (Fe3O4@SiO2@-SC) were further endowed with different stimuli-responsiveness by controlling the outermost layer coatings with respective pH-sensitive poly(lactic acid)-poly(2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (PLA-D) and temperature-sensitive poly(lactic acid)-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PLA-N) diblock copolymers to yield Fe3O4@SiO2@SC-D and Fe3O4@SiO2@SC-N NPs, respectively, while the superparamagnetic properties of Fe3O4 were maintained. TEM images show a clearly resolved core-shell structure with a silica layer and sequential PLA SC co/polymer coating layers in the respective NPs. The well-designed NPs possess a size distribution in a range of 220-270 nm and high magnetization of 70.8-72.1 emu/g [Fe3O4]. More importantly, a drug release study from the as-constructed stimuli-responsive NPs exhibited sustained release profiles and the rates of release can be tuned by variation of external environments. Further cytotoxicity and cell culture studies revealed that PLA SC coated NPs possessed good cell biocompatibility and the doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded NPs showed enhanced drug delivery efficiency toward MCF-7 cancer cells. Together with the strong magnetic sensitivity, the developed hybrid NPs demonstrate a great potential of control over the drug release at a targeted site. The developed coating method can be further optimized to finely tune the nanocarrier size and operating range of pHs and temperatures for in vivo applications.

WITHDRAWN: PLA Stereocomplexes: A Decade of Progress

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Crystallization modification of poly(lactide) by using nucleating agents and stereocomplexation

Poly(lactide), PLA, as one of the most promising biopolymers, has been receiving increasing attention in recent years because of its excellent performances in renewability, mechanical properties, biocompatibility and biodegradability. However, its application is limited by its brittleness and low heat distortion temperatures (HDT). The low HDT mainly results from a low crystallization rate and lack of crystallinity after fast processing, e.g. injection molding. Consequently, considerable attention was paid, in recent years, to achieve fast(er) crystallization of PLA. In here, we briefly review the research progress in the crystallization modification of PLA notably by means of adding nucleating agents and stereocomplexation.

Poly(ethylene glycol) conjugated poly(lactide)-based polyelectrolytes: synthesis and formation of stable self-assemblies induced by stereocomplexation

A series of pH-responsive amphiphilic poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate)-block-poly(D-lactic acid)-block-poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) conjugated with poly(ethylene glycol) (D-PDLA-D@PEG) and D-PLLA-D@PEG copolymers were synthesized using a combination of ring-opening polymerization and atom-transfer radical polymerization followed by sequential quaternization of PDMAEMA chains and azide-alkyne click reaction with alkyne-end PEG. Gel permeation chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results demonstrate the successful synthesis of the copolymers, and the conjugated PEG percentages in the copolymers can be tuned by the feeding ratios in the quaternization reaction. Conjugating PEG onto the PDMAEMA segments also successfully facilitated the D-PDLA-D@PEG, D-PLLA-D@PEG, and its corresponding 1:1 D/L mixtures to be dissolved directly in aqueous solution at the desired concentration range without using any organic solvents unlike the copolymers without PEG conjugation (D-PDLA-D and D-PLLA-D). We demonstrate control over micellar size, charge, and stability via three different preparation pathways, i.e., solution pH, percentages of PEG conjugation in the copolymers, and formation of PLA stereocomplex in micellar core. Static and dynamic light scattering studies demonstrate that the size of the core-shell micelles increases when the solution pH is reduced due to the protonation of the PDMAEMA segments that caused the osmotic pressure within the micelle to increase until the micelles reached a maximum size. It is interesting to note that the micelles formed by 1:1 D/L mixtures have larger swelling ratios as well as aggregation number and hydrodynamic radius that do not change significantly with pH and dilution, respectively, as compared to micelles formed from individual D or L forms of the copolymers. The enhanced stability of the pH-responsive micelles prepared by direct dissolution of the 1:1 D/L mixtures of the PEG conjugated PLA-based polyelectrolytes in aqueous medium is attributed to the stereocomplex formation between PLLA and PDLA in the micellar core as confirmed by wide-angle X-ray scattering measurements.

Unexpected thermal decomposition behavior of poly(N-vinylimidazole)-l-poly(tetrahydrofuran) amphiphilic conetworks, a class of chemically forced blends

The underlying chemical processes of the unexpected thermal decomposition behavior of poly(N-vinylimidazole)-l-poly(tetrahydrofuran) amphiphilic conetworks were investigated by thermogravimetric analysis and thermogravimetry-mass spectrometry.

Towards high-performance poly(l-lactide)/elastomer blends with tunable interfacial adhesion and matrix crystallization via constructing stereocomplex crystallites at the interface

Preparing super-tough and heat-resistant PLLA/elastomer blends by constructing stereocomplex crystallites at the interface to simultaneously tailor interface and matrix properties.