1
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Zhang Y, Li M, Li B, Sheng W. Surface Functionalization with Polymer Brushes via Surface-Initiated Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization: Synthesis, Applications, and Current Challenges. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024; 40:5571-5589. [PMID: 38440955 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c03647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
Polymer brushes have received great attention in recent years due to their distinctive properties and wide range of applications. The synthesis of polymer brushes typically employs surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) techniques. To realize the control of the polymerization process in different environments, various SI-ATRP techniques triggered by different stimuli have been developed. This review focuses on the latest developments in different stimuli-triggered SI-ATRP methods, such as electrochemically mediated, photoinduced, enzyme-assisted, mechanically controlled, and organocatalyzed ATRP. Additionally, SI-ATRP technology triggered by a combination of multiple stimuli sources is also discussed. Furthermore, the applications of polymer brushes in lubrication, biological applications, antifouling, and catalysis are also systematically summarized and discussed. Despite the advancements in the synthesis of various types of 1D, 2D, and 3D polymer brushes via controlled radical polymerization, contemporary challenges remain in the quest for more efficient and straightforward synthetic protocols that allow for precise control over the composition, structure, and functionality of polymer brushes. We anticipate the readers could promote the understanding of surface functionalization based on ATRP-mediated polymer brushes and envision future directions for their application in surface coating technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- Shandong Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Green Manufacturing at Yantai, Yantai 264000, Shandong, China
| | - Mengyang Li
- Shandong Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Green Manufacturing at Yantai, Yantai 264000, Shandong, China
| | - Bin Li
- Shandong Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Green Manufacturing at Yantai, Yantai 264000, Shandong, China
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Wenbo Sheng
- Shandong Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Green Manufacturing at Yantai, Yantai 264000, Shandong, China
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
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2
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Zangi R. Breakdown of Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm in Small Closed Systems. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024. [PMID: 38315174 PMCID: PMC10883037 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c03894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
For more than a century, monolayer adsorptions in which adsorbate molecules and adsorbing sites behave ideally have been successfully described by Langmuir's adsorption isotherm. For example, the amount of adsorbed material, as a function of concentration of the material which is not adsorbed, obeys Langmuir's equation. In this paper, we argue that this relation is valid only for macroscopic systems. However, when particle numbers of adsorbate molecules and/or adsorbing sites are small, Langmuir's model fails to describe the chemical equilibrium of the system. This is because the kinetics of forming, or the probability of observing, occupied sites arises from two-body interactions, and as such, ought to include cross-correlations between particle numbers of the adsorbate and adsorbing sites. The effect of these correlations, as reflected by deviations in predicting composition when correlations are ignored, increases with decreasing particle numbers and becomes substantial when only few adsorbate molecules, or adsorbing sites, are present in the system. In addition, any change that augments the fraction of occupied sites at equilibrium (e.g., smaller volume, lower temperature, or stronger adsorption energy) further increases the discrepancy between observed properties of small systems and those predicted by Langmuir's theory. In contrast, for large systems, these cross-correlations become negligible, and therefore when expressing properties involving two-body processes, it is possible to consider independently the concentration of each component. By applying statistical mechanics concepts, we derive a general expression of the equilibrium constant for adsorption. It is also demonstrated that in ensembles in which total numbers of particles are fixed, the magnitudes of fluctuations in particle numbers alone can predict the average chemical composition of the system. Moreover, an alternative adsorption equation, predicting the average fraction of occupied sites from the value of the equilibrium constant, is proposed. All derived relations were tested against results obtained by Monte Carlo simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronen Zangi
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Department of Organic Chemistry I, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48009 Bilbao, Spain
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3
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Del Castillo GFD, Kyriakidou M, Adali Z, Xiong K, Hailes RLN, Dahlin A. Electrically Switchable Polymer Brushes for Protein Capture and Release in Biological Environments. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202115745. [PMID: 35289480 PMCID: PMC9311814 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202115745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Interfaces functionalized with polymers are known for providing excellent resistance towards biomolecular adsorption and for their ability to bind high amounts of protein while preserving their structure. However, making an interface that switches between these two states has proven challenging and concepts to date rely on changes in the physiochemical environment, which is static in biological systems. Here we present the first interface that can be electrically switched between a high‐capacity (>1 μg cm−2) multilayer protein binding state and a completely non‐fouling state (no detectable adsorption). Switching is possible over multiple cycles without any regeneration. Importantly, switching works even when the interface is in direct contact with biological fluids and a buffered environment. The technology offers many applications such as zero fouling on demand, patterning or separation of proteins as well as controlled release of biologics in a physiological environment, showing high potential for future drug delivery in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Kyriakidou
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemigården 4, 41296, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Zeynep Adali
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemigården 4, 41296, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Kunli Xiong
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemigården 4, 41296, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Rebekah L N Hailes
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemigården 4, 41296, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Andreas Dahlin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemigården 4, 41296, Göteborg, Sweden
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4
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Castillo GF, Kyriakidou M, Adali Z, Xiong K, Hailes RLN, Dahlin A. Electrically Switchable Polymer Brushes for Protein Capture and Release in Biological Environments**. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202115745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gustav Ferrand‐Drake Castillo
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology Kemigården 4 41296 Göteborg Sweden
| | - Maria Kyriakidou
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology Kemigården 4 41296 Göteborg Sweden
| | - Zeynep Adali
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology Kemigården 4 41296 Göteborg Sweden
| | - Kunli Xiong
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology Kemigården 4 41296 Göteborg Sweden
| | - Rebekah L. N. Hailes
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology Kemigården 4 41296 Göteborg Sweden
| | - Andreas Dahlin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology Kemigården 4 41296 Göteborg Sweden
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5
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6
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Sompalli NK, Mohanty A, Mohan AM, Deivasigamani P. Visible-light harvesting innovative W 6+/Yb 3+/TiO 2 materials as a green methodology photocatalyst for the photodegradation of pharmaceutical pollutants. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2021; 20:401-420. [PMID: 33721273 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-021-00028-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we report on the synthesis of a new-age reusable visible-light photocatalyst using a heterojunction nanocomposite of W6+/Yb3+ on a mixed-phase mesoporous network of monolithic TiO2. The structural properties of the monolithic photocatalysts are characterized using p-XRD, SEM-EDAX, TEM-SAED, XPS, PLS, UV-Vis-DRS, FT-IR, micro-Raman, TG-DTA, and N2 isotherm analysis. The electron microscopic analysis reveals a mesoporous network of ordered worm-like monolithic design, with a polycrystalline mixed-phase (anatase/rutile) TiO2 composite, as indicated by diffraction studies. The UV-Vis-DRS analysis reveals a redshift in the light absorption characteristics of the mixed-phase TiO2 monolith as a function of W6+/Yb3+ co-doping. It is observed that the use of (8.0 mol%)W6+/0.4 (mole%)Yb3+ co-doped monolithic TiO2 photocatalyst, with an energy bandgap of 2.77 eV demonstrates superior visible-light photocatalysis, which corroborates with the PLS studies in terms of voluminous e-/h+ pair formation. The practical application of the photocatalyst has been investigated through a time-dependent dissipation of enrofloxacin, a widely employed antimicrobial drug, and its degradation pathway has been monitored by LC-MS-ESI and TOC analysis. The impact of physio-chemical parameters such as solution pH, sensitizers, drug concentration, dopant/codopant stoichiometry, catalyst quantity, and light intensity has been comprehensively studied to monitor the process efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naveen Kumar Sompalli
- Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore Campus, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India
| | - Ankita Mohanty
- Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore Campus, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India
| | - Akhila Maheswari Mohan
- Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore Campus, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India
| | - Prabhakaran Deivasigamani
- Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore Campus, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India.
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7
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Bourassin N, Baaden M, Lojou E, Sacquin-Mora S. Implicit Modeling of the Impact of Adsorption on Solid Surfaces for Protein Mechanics and Activity with a Coarse-Grained Representation. J Phys Chem B 2020; 124:8516-8523. [PMID: 32924507 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c05347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Surface immobilized enzymes play a key role in numerous biotechnological applications such as biosensors, biofuel cells, or biocatalytic synthesis. As a consequence, the impact of adsorption on the enzyme structure, dynamics, and function needs to be understood on the molecular level as it is critical for the improvement of these technologies. With this perspective in mind, we used a theoretical approach for investigating local protein flexibility on the residue scale that couples a simplified protein representation with an elastic network and Brownian dynamics simulations. The impact of protein adsorption on a solid surface is implicitly modeled via additional external constraints between the residues in contact with the surface. We first performed calculations on a redox enzyme, bilirubin oxidase (BOD) from M. verrucaria, to study the impact of adsorption on its mechanical properties. The resulting rigidity profiles show that, in agreement with the available experimental data, the mechanical variations observed in the adsorbed BOD will depend on its orientation and its anchor residues (i.e., residues that are in contact with the functionalized surface). Additional calculations on ribonuclease A and nitroreductase shed light on how seemingly stable adsorbed enzymes can nonetheless display an important decrease in their catalytic activity resulting from a perturbation of their mechanics and internal dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Bourassin
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, UPR 9080, Université de Paris, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France.,Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique-Fondation Edmond de Rotschild, PSL Research University, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Marc Baaden
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, UPR 9080, Université de Paris, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France.,Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique-Fondation Edmond de Rotschild, PSL Research University, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Elisabeth Lojou
- CNRS, Bioénergétique et Ingénierie des Protéines, UMR 7281, Aix Marseille Univ, 31, chemin Joseph Aiguier, CS 70071, 13402 Cedex 09 Marseille, France
| | - Sophie Sacquin-Mora
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, UPR 9080, Université de Paris, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France.,Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique-Fondation Edmond de Rotschild, PSL Research University, 75006 Paris, France
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8
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Ferrand-Drake Del Castillo G, Hailes RLN, Adali-Kaya Z, Robson T, Dahlin A. Generic high-capacity protein capture and release by pH control. Chem Commun (Camb) 2020; 56:5889-5892. [PMID: 32373823 DOI: 10.1039/d0cc01250e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Techniques for immobilization and release of proteins are of general interest but challenging to develop. Here we show a new method for high-capacity (several μg cm-2) immobilization of proteins in polyelectrolyte brushes by multivalent hydrogen bonds. Upon increasing pH, the proteins are fully released with preserved structure and activity.
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9
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Staszewski T, Borówko M. Adsorption-induced co-assembly of hairy and isotropic particles. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:8757-8767. [PMID: 32281995 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp06854f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We use coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations to study the behavior of polymer-tethered particles immersed in fluids of isotropic particles. Particles modified with weakly anchored, mobile ligands are considered. We discuss how the concentration of fluid particles affects the morphology of an isolated hairy particle. It is shown that hairy particles present different morphologies including typical core-shell, octopus-like and corn-like, depending on fluid-segment interactions and the fluid density. The mechanism of changes in the shape of hairy particles is explained. The reconfiguration of the polymer corona arises from adsorption of fluid particles "on chains". The adsorbed fluid particles form bridges between the chains. This causes the mobile ligands to merge into clusters on the core surface. A part of the core remains empty so the hairy particle becomes a Janus-like object. We also study co-assembly in mixtures of hairy and isotropic particles. Depending on the strength of fluid-segment interactions, hairy particles with fluid particles trapped inside their coronas remain isolated or form mixed clusters of different structures. The aggregation of hairy particles results from the formation of bridges between chains belonging to different cores by fluid particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Staszewski
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland.
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10
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Wang W, Zhou F, Cheng X, Su Z, Guo H. High-efficiency Ni 2+-NTA/PAA magnetic beads with specific separation on His-tagged protein. IET Nanobiotechnol 2020; 14:67-72. [PMID: 31935680 PMCID: PMC8676476 DOI: 10.1049/iet-nbt.2019.0271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 09/01/2023] Open
Abstract
To effective capture and universal enrichment of His-tagged protein, polyacrylic acid (PAA) brushes were used to encapsulate Fe3O4 nanoparticles, connect NTA, and Ni2+ to prepare magnetic beads. These materials provide many advantages, such as excellent stability, tuneable particle size, and a surface for further functionalisation with biomolecules. His-tagged green fluorescence protein (GFP) was separated efficiently, and the binding capacity of Fe3O4/MPS@PAA/NTA-Ni2+ was 93.4 mg/g. Compared with High-Affinity Ni-NTA Resin and Ni-NTA Magnetic Agarose Beads, Fe3O4/MPS@PAA/NTA-Ni2+ nanocomposites exhibited higher separation efficiency and binding capacity towards His-tagged GFP. Moreover, the selectivity and recyclability of them for the target proteins were maintained well after six cycles. This study would widen the application of PAA in constructing multifunctional nanocomposites for biomedical fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Wang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengzhen Zhou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiyao Cheng
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhengding Su
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, People's Republic of China
| | - Huiling Guo
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, People's Republic of China.
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11
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Koenig M, König U, Eichhorn KJ, Müller M, Stamm M, Uhlmann P. In-situ-Investigation of Enzyme Immobilization on Polymer Brushes. Front Chem 2019; 7:101. [PMID: 30899756 PMCID: PMC6416228 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein, we report on the use of a combined setup of quartz-crystal microbalance, with dissipation monitoring and spectroscopic ellipsometry, to comprehensively investigate the covalent immobilization of an enzyme to a polymer layer. All steps of the covalent reaction of the model enzyme glucose oxidase with the poly(acrylic acid) brush by carbodiimide chemistry, were monitored in-situ. Data were analyzed using optical and viscoelastic modeling. A nearly complete collapse of the polymer chains was found upon activation of the carboxylic acid groups with N-(3-Dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylcarbodiimide and N-Hydroxysuccinimide. The reaction with the amine groups of the enzyme occurs simultaneously with re-hydration of the polymer layer. Significantly more enzyme was immobilized on the surface compared to physical adsorption at similar conditions, at the same pH. It was found that the pH responsive swelling behavior was almost not affected by the presence of the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meike Koenig
- Department of Nanostructured Materials, Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ulla König
- Department of Nanostructured Materials, Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Klaus-Jochen Eichhorn
- Department of Analytics, Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Martin Müller
- Department of Polyelectrolytes and Dispersions, Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Physical Chemistry of Polymer Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Manfred Stamm
- Department of Nanostructured Materials, Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Physical Chemistry of Polymer Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Petra Uhlmann
- Department of Nanostructured Materials, Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States
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12
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Ferrand-Drake Del Castillo G, Koenig M, Müller M, Eichhorn KJ, Stamm M, Uhlmann P, Dahlin A. Enzyme Immobilization in Polyelectrolyte Brushes: High Loading and Enhanced Activity Compared to Monolayers. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2019; 35:3479-3489. [PMID: 30742441 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Catalysis by enzymes on surfaces has many applications. However, strategies for efficient enzyme immobilization with preserved activity are still in need of further development. In this work, we investigate polyelectrolyte brushes prepared by both grafting-to and grafting-from with the aim to achieve high catalytic activity. For comparison, self-assembled monolayers that bind enzymes with the same chemical interactions are included. We use the model enzyme glucose oxidase and two kinds of polymers: anionic poly(acrylic acid) and cationic poly(diethylamino)methyl methacrylate. Surface plasmon resonance and spectroscopic ellipsometry are used for accurate quantification of surface coverage. Besides binding more enzymes, the "3D-like" brush environment enhances the specific activity compared to immobilization on self-assembled monolayers. For grafting-from brushes, multilayers of enzymes were spontaneously and irreversibly immobilized without conjugation chemistry. When the pH was between the pI of the enzyme and the p Ka of the polymer, binding was considerable (thousands of ng/cm2 or up to 50% of the polymer mass), even at physiological ionic strength. However, binding was observed also when the brushes were neutrally charged. For acidic brushes (both grafting-to and grafting-from), the activity was higher for covalent immobilization compared to noncovalent. For grafting-from brushes, a fully preserved specific activity compared to enzymes in the liquid bulk was achieved, both with covalent (acidic brush) and noncovalent (basic brush) immobilization. Catalytic activity of hundreds of pmol cm-2 s-1 was easily obtained for polybasic brushes only tens of nanometers in dry thickness. This study provides new insights for designing functional interfaces based on enzymatic catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Meike Koenig
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden , Hohe Str. 6 , D-01069 Dresden , Germany
| | - Martin Müller
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden , Hohe Str. 6 , D-01069 Dresden , Germany
- Technische Universität Dresden, Physical Chemistry of Polymer Materials, Dresden , Germany
| | - Klaus-Jochen Eichhorn
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden , Hohe Str. 6 , D-01069 Dresden , Germany
| | - Manfred Stamm
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden , Hohe Str. 6 , D-01069 Dresden , Germany
- Technische Universität Dresden, Physical Chemistry of Polymer Materials, Dresden , Germany
| | - Petra Uhlmann
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden , Hohe Str. 6 , D-01069 Dresden , Germany
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska-Lincoln , Hamilton Hall, 639 North 12th Street , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588 , United States
| | - Andreas Dahlin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Chalmers University of Technology , 41296 Göteborg , Sweden
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13
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Marschelke C, Müller M, Köpke D, Matura A, Sallat M, Synytska A. Hairy Particles with Immobilized Enzymes: Impact of Particle Topology on the Catalytic Activity. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:1645-1654. [PMID: 30525381 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b17703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Enzymes are described as ideal green biocatalysts because they are highly specific and selective. However, their practical application is hampered because of the low stability and missing reusability of free enzymes. One method to overcome these problems is the immobilization of enzymes onto carriers. Although numerous publications discuss different immobilization strategies, optimization of these carriers for the highest enzyme activity and loading capacity, enzyme selectivity, reusability, and reactor system configuration still remains a challenging task. In this contribution, we aim to address the role of the core-shell particle design with respect to their geometry as well as the polymer shell thickness on the immobilization of biomolecules. We discovered that spherical particles with a core diameter of 200 nm and intermediate shell thickness as well as platelet-like particles exhibited excellent results with a maximum immobilization yield of laccase from Trametes versicolor of up to 92% and an activity on the carrier material of 5.722 U/(g particle). Especially, the platelet-like particles offered a scalable and convenient alternative for the immobilization of laccase. Circular dichroism measurements proved that the secondary structure of the enzyme is not impaired by immobilization onto all kinds of carrier particles. Moreover, the immobilized laccase was successfully used for the decolorization of Cibacron blue P-3R in up to 18 cycles. Finally, particle separation was achieved via citrate-induced flocculation within 10 min. This detailed study contributes to the understanding of rational design of catalytically active hybrid materials and their effective performance at interfaces for applications in textile industry and environmental technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Marschelke
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden e.V. , Hohe Str. 6 , 01069 Dresden , Germany
| | - Martin Müller
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden e.V. , Hohe Str. 6 , 01069 Dresden , Germany
| | | | | | - Marco Sallat
- Sächsisches Textilforschungsinstitut e.V. , Annaberger Straße 240 , 09125 Chemnitz , Germany
| | - Alla Synytska
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden e.V. , Hohe Str. 6 , 01069 Dresden , Germany
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14
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Badoux M, Billing M, Klok HA. Polymer brush interfaces for protein biosensing prepared by surface-initiated controlled radical polymerization. Polym Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9py00163h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This article discusses protein-binding polymer brushes and the various strategies that can be used to immobilize proteins on these films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Badoux
- Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimique
- Laboratoire des Polymères
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)
- Bâtiment MXD
- CH-1015 Lausanne
| | - Mark Billing
- Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimique
- Laboratoire des Polymères
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)
- Bâtiment MXD
- CH-1015 Lausanne
| | - Harm-Anton Klok
- Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimique
- Laboratoire des Polymères
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)
- Bâtiment MXD
- CH-1015 Lausanne
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15
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Rosenthal A, Rauch S, Eichhorn KJ, Stamm M, Uhlmann P. Enzyme immobilization on protein-resistant PNIPAAm brushes: impact of biotin linker length on enzyme amount and catalytic activity. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2018; 171:351-357. [PMID: 30056296 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2018.07.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Thermoresponsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) brushes with terminal click functionality can be used to selectively immobilize enzymes. Exploiting their inherent protein-repellent and thus non-fouling properties, surfaces with specific bioactivity can be created in this way. This report describes the functionalization of alkyne-PNIPAAm brushes with two biotin linkers of different poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) spacer length via click chemistry and the subsequent immobilization of streptavidin-conjugated horseradish peroxidase (SA-HRP) by the strong interaction between biotin and streptavidin. Spectroscopic ellipsometry is used to quantify the biotin and the SA-HRP amount on the PNIPAAm brushes. Enzyme activities are determined by UV‑vis spectroscopy. A better accessibility to the alkyne-functionalized chain ends for the short biotin-PEG3 linker leads to a higher biotin amount on these PNIPAAm brushes, which in turn results in higher SA‑HRP amounts on biotin-PEG3-modified brushes in the swollen (20 °C) and collapsed state (37 °C) compared to biotin-PEG23-modified ones. For both linkers, an increased immobilization temperature leads to higher SA-HRP amounts due to an enhanced reaction kinetics and mobility. All immobilized SA-HRP amounts are in range of 81-98% monolayer coverage, except for SA-HRP immobilized on biotin-PEG23-modified PNIPAAm brushes at 20 °C, exhibiting only 43% monolayer coverage. A high mobility of the biotin linker combined with a low surface loading of SA-HRP is found to be beneficial for the activity of SA-HRP. Hence, the highest specific activity as measured by HRP-catalyzed 3,3´,5,5´‑tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) oxidation is found for a low SA-HRP amount on biotin-PEG23-modified brushes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Rosenthal
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany; Technische Universität Dresden, Physical Chemistry of Polymeric Materials, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Sebastian Rauch
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Manfred Stamm
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany; Technische Universität Dresden, Physical Chemistry of Polymeric Materials, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Petra Uhlmann
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany; Department of Chemistry, Hamilton Hall, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588, United States.
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16
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Hu MX, Li X, Li JN, Huang JJ, Ren GR. Multilayer affinity adsorption of albumin on polymer brushes modified membranes in a continuous-flow system. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1538:94-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2018.01.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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17
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Wu J, Chen Y, Wang Y, Yin H, Zhao Z, Liu N, Xie M, Chen Y. Poly-L-lysine brushes on magnetic nanoparticles for ultrasensitive detection of Escherichia coli O157: H7. Talanta 2017; 172:53-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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18
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Marschelke C, Raguzin I, Matura A, Fery A, Synytska A. Controlled and tunable design of polymer interface for immobilization of enzymes: does curvature matter? SOFT MATTER 2017; 13:1074-1084. [PMID: 28094405 DOI: 10.1039/c6sm02380k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Control and tuning of surface properties is indispensable for the programmed and rational design of materials. Particularly, polymeric brush-modified colloids can be used as carrier materials for enzyme immobilization. Although it is of prime importance to control the brush architecture, there is still a lack of systematic investigations concerning the impact of grafting density on the properties of the designed interface, as well as on the immobilization of biomolecules. In this work, we investigate the surface properties of polymer brushes with different grafting densities prepared using a "grafting from" approach on flat and on colloidal particle substrates by varying the density of initiator groups. In this way, we control and tune interfacial properties of the carrier material such as swelling, charge, adhesion as well as adsorption of laccase from Trametes versicolor on the grafted polyelectrolyte layer. We show that there is no direct transferability of the results received from planar to curved substrates regarding the swelling behavior in dependence on the grafting density. The maximum of swelling degree of PDMAEMA layers is achieved at 0.34 nm-2 and at 0.1 nm-2 grafting density for planar and curved particle substrates, respectively. The adhesion properties of the polymeric layer on both substrates are also strongly influenced by the grafting density, i.e. a decrease of the grafting density causes a transition from the adhesive to non-adhesive state. As proven by the cryo-TEM and AFM force distance measurements, an immobilization of laccase from Trametes versicolor causes a decrease of the polymer swelling and therefore leads to the changes in the surface morphology, charge and adhesion performance of final polymer-enzyme layer. Moreover, the higher effectiveness and activity of laccase were observed for the intermediate grafting densities which seem to be preferable over the maximum brush densities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Marschelke
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, Hohe Str. 6, 01069, Dresden, Germany
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19
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Zoppe JO, Ataman NC, Mocny P, Wang J, Moraes J, Klok HA. Surface-Initiated Controlled Radical Polymerization: State-of-the-Art, Opportunities, and Challenges in Surface and Interface Engineering with Polymer Brushes. Chem Rev 2017; 117:1105-1318. [PMID: 28135076 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 587] [Impact Index Per Article: 83.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The generation of polymer brushes by surface-initiated controlled radical polymerization (SI-CRP) techniques has become a powerful approach to tailor the chemical and physical properties of interfaces and has given rise to great advances in surface and interface engineering. Polymer brushes are defined as thin polymer films in which the individual polymer chains are tethered by one chain end to a solid interface. Significant advances have been made over the past years in the field of polymer brushes. This includes novel developments in SI-CRP, as well as the emergence of novel applications such as catalysis, electronics, nanomaterial synthesis and biosensing. Additionally, polymer brushes prepared via SI-CRP have been utilized to modify the surface of novel substrates such as natural fibers, polymer nanofibers, mesoporous materials, graphene, viruses and protein nanoparticles. The last years have also seen exciting advances in the chemical and physical characterization of polymer brushes, as well as an ever increasing set of computational and simulation tools that allow understanding and predictions of these surface-grafted polymer architectures. The aim of this contribution is to provide a comprehensive review that critically assesses recent advances in the field and highlights the opportunities and challenges for future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin O Zoppe
- Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères Bâtiment MXD, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Station 12 CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nariye Cavusoglu Ataman
- Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères Bâtiment MXD, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Station 12 CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Piotr Mocny
- Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères Bâtiment MXD, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Station 12 CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jian Wang
- Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères Bâtiment MXD, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Station 12 CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - John Moraes
- Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères Bâtiment MXD, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Station 12 CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Harm-Anton Klok
- Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères Bâtiment MXD, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Station 12 CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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20
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Aden B, Kite CM, Hopkins BW, Zetterberg A, Lokitz BS, Ankner JF, Kilbey SM. Assessing Chemical Transformation of Reactive, Interfacial Thin Films Made of End-Tethered Poly(2-vinyl-4,4-dimethyl azlactone) (PVDMA) Chains. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b01999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bethany Aden
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences and ∥Spallation Neutron Source, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Camille M. Kite
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences and ∥Spallation Neutron Source, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Benjamin W. Hopkins
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences and ∥Spallation Neutron Source, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Anna Zetterberg
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences and ∥Spallation Neutron Source, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Bradley S. Lokitz
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences and ∥Spallation Neutron Source, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - John F. Ankner
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences and ∥Spallation Neutron Source, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - S. Michael Kilbey
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences and ∥Spallation Neutron Source, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
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21
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Adsorption of enzymes to stimuli-responsive polymer brushes: Influence of brush conformation on adsorbed amount and biocatalytic activity. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2016; 146:737-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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22
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Wiarachai O, Vilaivan T, Iwasaki Y, Hoven VP. Clickable and Antifouling Platform of Poly[(propargyl methacrylate)-ran-(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine)] for Biosensing Applications. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2016; 32:1184-1194. [PMID: 26695478 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b02727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A functional copolymer platform, namely, poly[(propargyl methacrylate)-ran-(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine)] (PPgMAMPC), was synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization. In principle, the alkyne moiety of propargyl methacrylate (PgMA) should serve as an active site for binding azide-containing molecules via a click reaction, i.e., Cu-catalyzed azide/alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC), and 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC), the hydrophilic monomeric unit, should enable the copolymer to suppress nonspecific adsorption. The copolymers were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and (1)H NMR spectroscopies. Thiol-terminated, PPgMAMPC-SH, obtained by aminolysis of PPgMAMPC, was immobilized on a gold-coated substrate using a "grafting to" approach via self-assembly. Azide-containing species, namely, biotin and peptide nucleic acid (PNA), were then immobilized on the alkyne-containing copolymeric platform via CuAAC. The potential use of surface-attached PPgMAMPC in biosensing applications was shown by detection of specific target molecules, i.e., streptavidin (SA) and DNA, by the developed sensing platform using a surface plasmon resonance technique. The copolymer composition strongly influenced the performance of the developed sensing platform in terms of signal-to-noise ratio in the case of the biotin-SA system and hybridization efficiency and mismatch discrimination for the PNA-DNA system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yasuhiko Iwasaki
- Faculty of Chemistry, Materials and Bioengineering, Kansai University , 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita-shi, Osaka 564-8680, Japan
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23
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Palivan CG, Goers R, Najer A, Zhang X, Car A, Meier W. Bioinspired polymer vesicles and membranes for biological and medical applications. Chem Soc Rev 2016; 45:377-411. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cs00569h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 413] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Biological membranes play an essential role in living organisms by providing stable and functional compartments, supporting signalling and selective transport. Combining synthetic polymer membranes with biological molecules promises to be an effective strategy to mimic the functions of cell membranes and apply them in artificial systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Roland Goers
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Basel
- CH-4056 Basel
- Switzerland
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering
| | - Adrian Najer
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Basel
- CH-4056 Basel
- Switzerland
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Basel
- CH-4056 Basel
- Switzerland
| | - Anja Car
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Basel
- CH-4056 Basel
- Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Meier
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Basel
- CH-4056 Basel
- Switzerland
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24
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Boyer C, Corrigan NA, Jung K, Nguyen D, Nguyen TK, Adnan NNM, Oliver S, Shanmugam S, Yeow J. Copper-Mediated Living Radical Polymerization (Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization and Copper(0) Mediated Polymerization): From Fundamentals to Bioapplications. Chem Rev 2015; 116:1803-949. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 356] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cyrille Boyer
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, and ‡Centre for Advanced
Macromolecular
Design (CAMD), School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Nathaniel Alan Corrigan
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, and ‡Centre for Advanced
Macromolecular
Design (CAMD), School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Kenward Jung
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, and ‡Centre for Advanced
Macromolecular
Design (CAMD), School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Diep Nguyen
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, and ‡Centre for Advanced
Macromolecular
Design (CAMD), School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Thuy-Khanh Nguyen
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, and ‡Centre for Advanced
Macromolecular
Design (CAMD), School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Nik Nik M. Adnan
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, and ‡Centre for Advanced
Macromolecular
Design (CAMD), School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Susan Oliver
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, and ‡Centre for Advanced
Macromolecular
Design (CAMD), School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Sivaprakash Shanmugam
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, and ‡Centre for Advanced
Macromolecular
Design (CAMD), School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Jonathan Yeow
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, and ‡Centre for Advanced
Macromolecular
Design (CAMD), School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
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25
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Grubbs JB, Arnold RM, Roy A, Durie K, Bilbrey JA, Gao J, Locklin J. Degradable Polycaprolactone and Polylactide Homopolymer and Block Copolymer Brushes Prepared by Surface-Initiated Polymerization with Triazabicyclodecene and Zirconium Catalysts. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2015; 31:10183-10189. [PMID: 26317405 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b02093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Surface-initiated ring-opening polymerization (SI-ROP) of polycaprolactone (PCL) and polylactide (PLA) polymer brushes with controlled degradation rates were prepared on oxide substrates. PCL brushes were polymerized from hydroxyl-terminated monolayers utilizing triazabicyclodecene (TBD) as the polymerization catalyst. A consistent brush thickness of 40 nm could be achieved with a reproducible unique crystalline morphology. The organocatalyzed PCL brushes were chain extended using lactide in the presence of zirconium n-butoxide to successfully grow PCL/PLA block copolymer (PCL-b-PLA) brushes with a final thickness of 55 nm. The degradation properties of "grafted from" PCL brush and the PCL-b-PLA brush were compared to "grafted to" PCL brushes, and we observed that the brush density plays a major role in degradation kinetics. Solutions of methanol/water at pH 14 were used to better solvate the brushes and increase the kinetics of degradation. This framework enables a control of degradation that allows for the precise removal of these coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe B Grubbs
- Department of Chemistry, College of Engineering, and the Center for Nanoscale Science and Engineering, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
- Meredian Holdings Group - MHG, 140 Industrial Boulevard, Bainbridge, Georgia 39817, United States
| | - Rachelle M Arnold
- Meredian Holdings Group - MHG, 140 Industrial Boulevard, Bainbridge, Georgia 39817, United States
| | - Anandi Roy
- Department of Chemistry, College of Engineering, and the Center for Nanoscale Science and Engineering, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Karson Durie
- Department of Chemistry, College of Engineering, and the Center for Nanoscale Science and Engineering, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Jenna A Bilbrey
- Department of Chemistry, College of Engineering, and the Center for Nanoscale Science and Engineering, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Jing Gao
- Department of Chemistry, College of Engineering, and the Center for Nanoscale Science and Engineering, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Jason Locklin
- Department of Chemistry, College of Engineering, and the Center for Nanoscale Science and Engineering, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
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26
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Köse K, Erol K, Emniyet AA, Köse DA, Avcı GA, Uzun L. Fe(II)-Co(II) Double Salt Incorporated Magnetic Hydrophobic Microparticles for Invertase Adsorption. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2015; 177:1025-39. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-015-1794-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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27
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Qu Z, Xu H, Gu H. Synthesis and Biomedical Applications of Poly((meth)acrylic acid) Brushes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:14537-14551. [PMID: 26067846 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b02912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Poly((meth)acrylic acid) (P(M)AA) brushes possess a number of distinctive properties that are particularly attractive for biomedical applications. This minireview summarizes recent advances in the synthesis and biomedical applications of P(M)AA brushes and brushes containing P(M)AA segments. First, we review different surface-initiated polymerization (SIP) methods, with a focus on recent progress in the surface-initiated controlled/living radical polymerization (SI-CLRP) techniques used to generate P(M)AA brushes with a tailored structure. Next, we discuss biomolecule immobilization methods for P(M)AA brushes, including physical adsorption, covalent binding, and affinity interactions. Finally, typical biomedical applications of P(M)AA brushes are reviewed, and their performance is discussed based on their unique properties. We conclude that P(M)AA brushes are promising biomaterials, and more potential biomedical applications are expected to emerge with the further development of synthetic techniques and increased understanding of their interactions with biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyuan Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Cancer Institute, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Hong Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Cancer Institute, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Hongchen Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Cancer Institute, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai 200030, China
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28
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Paik BA, Blanco MA, Jia X, Roberts CJ, Kiick KL. Aggregation of poly(acrylic acid)-containing elastin-mimetic copolymers. SOFT MATTER 2015; 11:1839-50. [PMID: 25611563 PMCID: PMC4376481 DOI: 10.1039/c4sm02525c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Polymer-peptide conjugates were produced via the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition of poly(tert-butyl acrylate) (PtBA) and elastin-like peptides. An azide-functionalized polymer was produced via atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) followed by conversion of bromine end groups to azide groups. Subsequent reaction of the polymer with a bis-alkyne-functionalized, elastin-like peptide proceeded with high efficiency, yielding di- and tri-block conjugates, which after deprotection, yielded poly(acrylic acid) (PAA)-based diblock and triblock copolymers. These conjugates were solubilized in dimethyl formamide, and addition of phosphate buffered saline (PBS) induced aggregation. The presence of polydisperse spherical aggregates was confirmed by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. Additionally, a coarse-grained molecular model was designed to reasonably capture inter- and intramolecular interactions for the conjugates and its precursors. This model was used to assess the effect of the different interacting molecular forces on the conformational thermodynamic stability of the copolymers. Our results indicated that the PAA's ability to hydrogen-bond with both itself and the peptide is the main interaction for stabilizing the diblocks and triblocks and driving their self-assembly, while interactions between peptides are suggested to play only a minor role on the conformational and thermodynamic stability of the conjugates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradford A Paik
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Delaware Biotechnology Institute, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA.
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29
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Fernandes AE, Ye Q, Collard L, Le Duff C, d'Haese C, Deumer G, Haufroid V, Nysten B, Riant O, Jonas AM. Effects of Thickness and Grafting Density on the Activity of Polymer-Brush-Immobilized Tris(triazolyl) Copper(I) Catalysts. ChemCatChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201402913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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30
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Wu L, Glebe U, Böker A. Surface-initiated controlled radical polymerizations from silica nanoparticles, gold nanocrystals, and bionanoparticles. Polym Chem 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5py00525f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes recent progress in surface-initiated controlled radical polymerizations from silica nanoparticles, gold nanocrystals, and bionanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wu
- Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Polymer Research IAP
- 14476 Potsdam-Golm
- Germany
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials e.V
- Lehrstuhl für Makromolekulare Materialien und Oberflächen
| | - Ulrich Glebe
- Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Polymer Research IAP
- 14476 Potsdam-Golm
- Germany
| | - Alexander Böker
- Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Polymer Research IAP
- 14476 Potsdam-Golm
- Germany
- Lehrstuhl für Polymermaterialien und Polymertechnologie
- Universität Potsdam
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31
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Liu J, Yu G, Zhou J. Ribonuclease A adsorption onto charged self-assembled monolayers: A multiscale simulation study. Chem Eng Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2014.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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32
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Feng Q, Hou D, Zhao Y, Xu T, Menkhaus TJ, Fong H. Electrospun regenerated cellulose nanofibrous membranes surface-grafted with polymer chains/brushes via the atom transfer radical polymerization method for catalase immobilization. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2014; 6:20958-20967. [PMID: 25396286 DOI: 10.1021/am505722g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In this study, an electrospun regenerated cellulose (RC) nanofibrous membrane with fiber diameters of ∼200-400 nm was prepared first; subsequently, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), 2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA), and acrylic acid (AA) were selected as the monomers for surface grafting of polymer chains/brushes via the atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) method. Thereafter, four nanofibrous membranes (i.e., RC, RC-poly(HEMA), RC-poly(DMAEMA), and RC-poly(AA)) were explored as innovative supports for immobilization of an enzyme of bovine liver catalase (CAT). The amount/capacity, activity, stability, and reusability of immobilized catalase were evaluated, and the kinetic parameters (Vmax and Km) for immobilized and free catalase were determined. The results indicated that the respective amounts/capacities of immobilized catalase on RC-poly(HEMA) and RC-poly(DMAEMA) nanofibrous membranes reached 78 ± 3.5 and 67 ± 2.7 mg g(-1), which were considerably higher than the previously reported values. Meanwhile, compared to that of free CAT (i.e., 18 days), the half-life periods of RC-CAT, RC-poly(HEMA)-CAT, RC-poly(DMAEMA)-CAT, and RC-poly(AA)-CAT were 49, 58, 56, and 60 days, respectively, indicating that the storage stability of immobilized catalase was also significantly improved. Furthermore, the immobilized catalase exhibited substantially higher resistance to temperature variation (tested from 5 to 70 °C) and lower degree of sensitivity to pH value (tested from 4.0 and 10.0) than the free catalase. In particular, according to the kinetic parameters of Vmax and Km, the nanofibrous membranes of RC-poly(HEMA) (i.e., 5102 μmol mg(-1) min(-1) and 44.89 mM) and RC-poly(DMAEMA) (i.e., 4651 μmol mg(-1) min(-1) and 46.98 mM) had the most satisfactory biocompatibility with immobilized catalase. It was therefore concluded that the electrospun RC nanofibrous membranes surface-grafted with 3-dimensional nanolayers of polymer chains/brushes would be suitable/ideal as efficient supports for high-density and reusable enzyme immobilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Feng
- Key Laboratory of Textile Fabric, College of Textiles and Clothing, Anhui Polytechnic University , Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China
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Krishnamoorthy M, Hakobyan S, Ramstedt M, Gautrot JE. Surface-initiated polymer brushes in the biomedical field: applications in membrane science, biosensing, cell culture, regenerative medicine and antibacterial coatings. Chem Rev 2014; 114:10976-1026. [PMID: 25353708 DOI: 10.1021/cr500252u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 384] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mahentha Krishnamoorthy
- Institute of Bioengineering and ‡School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London , Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, United Kingdom
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Xie L, Lan F, Li W, Liu Z, Ma S, Yang Q, Wu Y, Gu Z. Polyacrylic acid brushes grafted from P(St-AA)/Fe 3 O 4 composite microspheres via ARGET-ATRP in aqueous solution for protein immobilization. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2014; 123:413-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2014] [Revised: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Ren T, Mao Z, Moya SE, Gao C. Immobilization of Enzymes on 2-Hydroxyethyl Methacrylate and Glycidyl Methacrylate Copolymer Brushes. Chem Asian J 2014; 9:2132-9. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201402150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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36
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Visnevskij C, Ciuta G, Ketleriute S, Savickaite M, Makuska R. ISARA ATRP of methacrylic acid neutralized by simple amines yielding linear polymers and anionic molecular brushes. Eur Polym J 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2014.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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37
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Qu Z, Chen K, Gu H, Xu H. Covalent Immobilization of Proteins on 3D Poly(acrylic acid) Brushes: Mechanism Study and a More Effective and Controllable Process. Bioconjug Chem 2014; 25:370-8. [DOI: 10.1021/bc400530s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyuan Qu
- Shanghai Engineering Research
Center of Medical Device and Technology at Med-X, School of Biomedical
Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Kaimin Chen
- Shanghai Engineering Research
Center of Medical Device and Technology at Med-X, School of Biomedical
Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Hongchen Gu
- Shanghai Engineering Research
Center of Medical Device and Technology at Med-X, School of Biomedical
Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Hong Xu
- Shanghai Engineering Research
Center of Medical Device and Technology at Med-X, School of Biomedical
Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai 200030, China
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38
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Biomaterial Thin Films by Soft Pulsed Laser Technologies for Biomedical Applications. LASERS IN MATERIALS SCIENCE 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-02898-9_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
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39
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Mahouche-Chergui S, Guerrouache M, Carbonnier B, Chehimi MM. Polymer-immobilized nanoparticles. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2013.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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40
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41
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Processing and immobilization of chondroitin-4-sulphate by UV laser radiation. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2013; 104:169-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.11.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Revised: 11/21/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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42
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Qu Z, Hu F, Chen K, Duan Z, Gu H, Xu H. A facile route to the synthesis of spherical poly(acrylic acid) brushes via RAFT polymerization for high-capacity protein immobilization. J Colloid Interface Sci 2013; 398:82-7. [PMID: 23506746 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2013.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2012] [Revised: 01/31/2013] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Spherical poly(acrylic acid) brushes were prepared via a facile RAFT polymerization route from silica nanoparticles (SiO2@PAAs). A silane functionalized RAFT chain transfer agent was designed and synthesized by a one-step reaction, and then immobilized onto silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) through its R group to afford RAFT polymerization. Key structural parameters and contents of carboxyl groups of SiO2@PAAs were thoroughly characterized by transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, gel permeation chromatography, thermogravimetric analysis and conductometric titration. The SiO2@PAAs exhibit excellent dispersity, tunable brush thicknesses (14.6-68.8 nm) and abundant carboxyl groups (0.82-2.37 mmol/g). An ultra-high protein immobilization capacity (2600 μg streptavidin/mg SiO2@PAAs) was realized by virtue of its rich carboxyl groups and spherical brush structure, which opens up new possibilities for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyuan Qu
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, PR China
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Rahim FA, Dong-Hwan K. Physical immobilization of antibodies in densely grafted polymer brushes via spot-drying: towards optimal protein loading. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra22326d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
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45
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Audouin F, Larragy R, Fox M, O'Connor B, Heise A. Protein immobilization onto poly(acrylic acid) functional macroporous polyHIPE obtained by surface-initiated ARGET ATRP. Biomacromolecules 2012; 13:3787-94. [PMID: 23077969 DOI: 10.1021/bm301251r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Amino-functional macroporous monoliths from polymerized high internal phase emulsion (polyHIPE) were surface modified with initiators for atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The ATRP initiator groups on the polyHIPE surface were successfully used to initiate activator regeneration by electron transfer (ARGET) ATRP of (meth)acrylic monomers, such as methyl methacrylate (MMA) or tert-butyl acrylate (tBA) resulting in a dense coating of polymers on the polyHIPE surface. Addition of sacrificial initiator permitted control of the amount of polymer grafted onto the monolith surface. Subsequent removal of the tert-butyl protecting groups yielded highly functional polyHIPE-g-poly(acrylic acid). The versatility to use the high density of carboxylic acid groups for secondary reactions was demonstrated by the successful conjugation of enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) and coral derived red fluorescent protein (DsRed) using EDC/sulfo-NHS chemistry, on the polymer 3D-scaffold surface. The materials and methodologies presented here are simple and robust, thus, opening new possibilities for the bioconjugation of highly porous polyHIPE for bioseparation applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice Audouin
- School of Chemical Sciences, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland
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Zhao G, Wang J, Li Y, Huang H, Chen X. Reversible immobilization of glucoamylase onto metal–ligand functionalized magnetic FeSBA-15. Biochem Eng J 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2012.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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47
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Galvin CJ, Genzer J. Applications of surface-grafted macromolecules derived from post-polymerization modification reactions. Prog Polym Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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48
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Choi J, Schattling P, Jochum FD, Pyun J, Char K, Theato P. Functionalization and patterning of reactive polymer brushes based on surface reversible addition and fragmentation chain transfer polymerization. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/pola.26200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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49
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Using immobilized enzymes to reduce RNase contamination in RNase mapping of transfer RNAs by mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 402:2701-11. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-5741-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 01/11/2012] [Accepted: 01/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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50
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Anuraj N, Bhattacharjee S, Geiger JH, Baker GL, Bruening ML. An all-aqueous route to polymer brush-modified membranes with remarkable permeabilites and protein capture rates. J Memb Sci 2012; 389:117-125. [PMID: 22287817 DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2011.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Microporous membranes are attractive for protein purification because convection rapidly brings proteins to binding sites. However, the low binding capacity of such membranes limits their applications. This work reports a rapid, aqueous procedure to create highly permeable, polymer brush-modified membranes that bind large amounts of protein. The synthetic method includes a 10-min adsorption of a macroinitiator in a hydroxylated nylon membrane and a subsequent 5-min aqueous atom transfer radical polymerization of 2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl succinate from the immobilized initiator to form poly(acid) brushes. This procedure likely leads to more swollen, less dense brushes than polymerization from silane initiators, and thus requires less polymer to achieve the same binding capacity. The hydraulic permeability of the poly(acid) membranes is 4-fold higher than that of similar membranes prepared by growing brushes from immobilized silane initiators. These brush-containing nylon membranes bind 120 mg/cm(3) of lysozyme using solution residence times as short as 35 ms, and when functionalized with nitrilotriacetate (NTA)-Ni(2+) complexes, they capture 85 mg/cm(3) of histidine(6)-tagged (His-tagged) Ubiquitin. Additionally the NTA-Ni(2+)-functionalized membranes isolate His-tagged myo-inositol-1-phosphate synthase directly from cell extracts and show >90% recovery of His-tagged proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nishotha Anuraj
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
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