Voltage-gated ion transport through semiconducting conical nanopores formed by metal nanoparticle-assisted plasma etching

Angstrom-Scale 2D Channels Designed For Osmotic Energy Harvesting

Confronting the impending exhaustion of traditional energy, it is urgent to devise and deploy sustainable clean energy alternatives. Osmotic energy contained in the salinity gradient of the sea-river interface is an innovative, abundant, clean, and renewable osmotic energy that has garnered considerable attention in recent years. Inspired by the impressively intelligent ion channels in nature, the developed angstrom-scale 2D channels with simple fabrication process, outstanding design flexibility, and substantial charge density exhibit excellent energy conversion performance, opening up a new era for osmotic energy harvesting. However, this attractive research field remains fraught with numerous challenges, particularly due to the complexities associated with the regulation at angstrom scale. In this review, the latest advancements in the design of angstrom-scale 2D channels are primarily outlined for harvesting osmotic energy. Drawing upon the analytical framework of osmotic power generation mechanisms and the insights gleaned from the biomimetic intelligent devices, the design strategies are highlighted for high-performance angstrom channels in terms of structure, functionalization, and application, with a particular emphasis on ion selectivity and ion transport resistance. Finally, current challenges and future prospects are discussed to anticipate the emergence of more anomalous properties and disruptive technologies that can promote large-scale power generation.

Study on the controllability of the fabrication of single-crystal silicon nanopores/nanoslits with a fast-stop ionic current-monitored TSWE method

The application of single-crystal silicon (SCS) nanopore structures in single-molecule-based analytical devices is an emerging approach for the separation and analysis of nanoparticles. The key challenge is to fabricate individual SCS nanopores with precise sizes in a controllable and reproducible way. This paper introduces a fast-stop ionic current-monitored three-step wet etching (TSWE) method for the controllable fabrication of SCS nanopores. Since the nanopore size has a quantitative relationship with the corresponding ionic current, it can be regulated by controlling the ionic current. Thanks to the precise current-monitored and self-stop system, an array of nanoslits with a feature size of only 3 nm was obtained, which is the smallest size ever reported using the TSWE method. Furthermore, by selecting different current jump ratios, individual nanopores of specific sizes were controllably prepared, and the smallest deviation from the theoretical value was 1.4 nm. DNA translocation measurement results revealed that the prepared SCS nanopores possessed the excellent potential to be applied in DNA sequencing.

Fabrication of solid-state nanopores

Nanopores are valuable single-molecule sensing tools that have been widely applied to the detection of DNA, RNA, proteins, viruses, glycans, etc. The prominent sensing platform is helping to improve our health-related quality of life and accelerate the rapid realization of precision medicine. Solid-state nanopores have made rapid progress in the past decades due to their flexible size, structure and compatibility with semiconductor fabrication processes. With the development of semiconductor fabrication techniques, materials science and surface chemistry, nanopore preparation and modification technologies have made great breakthroughs. To date, various solid-state nanopore materials, processing technologies, and modification methods are available to us. In the review, we outline the recent advances in nanopores fabrication and analyze the virtues and limitations of various membrane materials and nanopores drilling techniques.

Voltage-gated nanofluidic devices for protein capture, concentration, and release

A nanofluidic device with spatially, non-uniformly distributed gate electrodes is reported.

Effect of single nanoparticle-nanopore interaction strength on ionic current modulation

Solid-state nanopores are rapidly emerging as promising platforms for developing various single molecule sensing applications. The modulation of ionic current through the pore due to translocation of the target molecule has been the dominant measurement modality in nanopore sensors. Here, we focus on the dwell time, which is the duration taken by the target molecule or particle to traverse the pore and study its dependence on the strength of interaction of the target with the pore using single gold nanoparticles (NPs) as targets interacting with a silicon nitride (SiN) nanopore. The strength of interaction, which in our case is electrostatic in nature, can be controlled by coating the nanoparticles with charged polymers. We report on an operating regime of this nanopore sensor, characterized by attractive interactions between the nanoparticle and the pore, where the dwell time is exponentially sensitive to the target-pore interaction. We used negatively and positively charged gold nanoparticles to control the strength of their interaction with the Silicon Nitride pore which is negatively charged. Our experiments revealed how this modulation of the electrostatic force greatly affects the dwell time. Positively charged NPs with strong attractive interactions with the pore resulted in increase of dwell times by 2-3 orders of magnitude, from 0.4 ms to 75.3 ms. This extreme sensitivity of the dwell time on the strength of interaction between a target and nanopore can be exploited in emerging nanopore sensor applications.

Engulfment control of platinum nanoparticles into oxidized silicon substrates for fabrication of dense solid-state nanopore arrays

We found that platinum (Pt) nanoparticles, upon annealing at high temperature of 1000 °C, are engulfed into amorphous fused-silica or thermal oxide silicon substrates. The same phenomenon was previously published for gold (Au) nanoparticles. Similar to the Au nanoparticles, the engulfed Pt nanoparticles connect to the surface of the substrates through conical nanopores, and the size of the Pt nanoparticles decreases with increasing depth of the nanopores. We explain the phenomena as driven by the formation of platinum oxide by reaction of the platinum with atmospheric oxygen, with platinum oxide evaporating to the environment. We found that the use of Pt provides much better controllability than the use of Au. Due to the high vapor pressure of platinum oxide, the engulfment of the Pt nanoparticles into oxidized silicon (SiO₂) substrates is faster than of Au nanoparticles. At high temperature annealing we also find that the aggregation of Pt nanoparticles on the substrate surface is insignificant. As a result, the Pt nanoparticles are uniformly engulfed into the substrates, leading to an opportunity for patterning dense nanopore arrays. Moreover, the use of oxidized Si substrates enables us to precisely control the depth of the nanopores since the engulfment of Pt nanoparticles stops at a short distance above the SiO _x /Si interface. After subsequent etching steps, a membrane with dense nanopore through-holes with diameters down to sub-30 nm is obtained. With its simple operation and high controllability, this fabrication method provides an alternative for rapid patterning of dense arrays of solid-state nanopores at low-cost.

Gated ion transport through layered graphene oxide membranes

The gate-induced directional ion transport in 2D layered materials provides a new way for effective control over the transport behaviors in synthetic systems.

Scalable fabrication of nanopores in membranes via thermal annealing of Au nanoparticles

Nanopores are promising candidates for versatile sensing of micro- and nanomaterials. However, the fabrication of isolated nanopores with optimal dimensions and distributions requires complex processes that involve the use of high-cost equipment. Herein, we report a scalable fabrication of isolated conical nanopores with adjustable dimensions and distribution densities on a Si₃N₄ membrane via thermal annealing of Au nanoparticles (AuNPs). The AuNP-dispersed solution was dropped and evaporated on the membrane, while the pH value and concentration of AuNPs controlled the zeta potential difference and the distribution density of the attached AuNPs. The optimized thermal annealing directly fabricated conical nanopores at the positions of the AuNPs because of the quasi-liquid state of the AuNPs and their interaction with the Si₃N₄ lattices. The 50, 100, and 200 nm AuNPs enabled one-step fabrication of 8-, 26-, and 63 nm nanopores, while the inter-distances and distribution densities were controllable over the membrane. The physicochemical analyses elucidated the underlying mechanisms of direct nanopore formation, and the precise adjustment of thermal annealing developed three unique nanopores that differently interacted with the AuNPs: (1) Au-residue-embedded nanopores, (2) isolated nanopores, and (3) nanopores with the remaining Au droplet. The AuNPs-driven fabrication of versatile nanopore membranes enables new applications for sensing and transporting small-scale materials.

Interfacial Contact is Required for Metal-Assisted Plasma Etching of Silicon

For decades, fabrication of semiconductor devices has utilized well-established etching techniques to create complex nanostructures in silicon. The most common dry process is reactive ion etching which fabricates nanostructures through the selective removal of unmasked silicon. Generalized enhancements of etching have been reported with mask-enhanced etching with Al, Cr, Cu, and Ag masks, but there is a lack of reports exploring the ability of metallic films to catalytically enhance the local etching of silicon in plasmas. Here, metal-assisted plasma etching (MAPE) is performed using patterned nanometers-thick gold films to catalyze the etching of silicon in an SF6/O2 mixed plasma, selectively increasing the rate of etching by over 1000%. The catalytic enhancement of etching requires direct Si-metal interfacial contact, similar to metal-assisted chemical etching (MACE), but is different in terms of the etching mechanism. The mechanism of MAPE is explored by characterizing the degree of enhancement as a function of Au catalyst configuration and relative oxygen feed concentration, along with the catalytic activities of other common MACE metals including Ag, Pt, and Cu.

Nanoporous silicon nitride-based membranes of controlled pore size, shape and areal density: Fabrication as well as electrophoretic and molecular filtering characterization

A new route will be presented for an all-parallel fabrication of highly flexible, freestanding membranes with well-defined porosity. This fabrication is based on arrays of well-defined Au nanoparticles (NPs) exhibiting a high degree of hexagonal order as obtained in a first step by a proven micellar approach. These NP arrays serve as masks in a second reactive ion etching (RIE) step optimized for etching Si and some important Si compounds (silicon oxide, silicon nitride) on the nanoscale. Application to commercially available silicon nitride membranes of well-defined thickness, delivers a diaphragm with millions of nanopores of intended and controlled size, shape, and areal density with narrow distributions of these parameters. Electrophoretic transport measurements indicated a very low flow resistance of these porous membranes in ionic solutions as expected theoretically. Size-selective separation of protein molecules was demonstrated by real-time fluorescence microscopy.

Electrochemically-Driven Insertion of Biological Nanodiscs into Solid State Membrane Pores as a Basis for "Pore-In-Pore" Membranes

Nanoporous membranes are of increasing interest for many applications, such as molecular filters, biosensors, nanofluidic logic and energy conversion devices. To meet high-quality standards, e.g., in molecular separation processes, membranes with well-defined pores in terms of pore diameter and chemical properties are required. However, the preparation of membranes with narrow pore diameter distributions is still challenging. In the work presented here, we demonstrate a strategy, a "pore-in-pore" approach, where the conical pores of a solid state membrane produced by a multi-step top-down lithography procedure are used as a template to insert precisely-formed biomolecular nanodiscs with exactly defined inner and outer diameters. These nanodiscs, which are the building blocks of tobacco mosaic virus-deduced particles, consist of coat proteins, which self-assemble under defined experimental conditions with a stabilizing short RNA. We demonstrate that the insertion of the nanodiscs can be driven either by diffusion due to a concentration gradient or by applying an electric field along the cross-section of the solid state membrane. It is found that the electrophoresis-driven insertion is significantly more effective than the insertion via the concentration gradient.

Smart Bioinspired Nanochannels and their Applications in Energy-Conversion Systems

Smart bioinspired nanochannels exhibiting ion-transport properties similar to biological ion channels have attracted extensive attention. Like ion channels in nature, smart bioinspired nanochannels can respond to various stimuli, which lays a solid foundation for mass transport and energy conversion. Fundamental research into smart bioinspired nanochannels not only furthers understanding of life processes in living bodies, but also inspires researchers to construct smart nanodevices to meet the increasing demand for the use of renewable resources. Here, a brief summary of recent research progress regarding the design and preparation of smart bioinspired nanochannels is presented. Moreover, representative applications of smart bioinspired nanochannels in energy-conversion systems are also summarized. Finally, an outlook for future challenges in this field is given.

Design of Multifunctional Nanogate in Response to Multiple External Stimuli Using Amphiphilic Diblock Copolymer

Nature uses the interplay between hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions of disordered proteins to orchestrate complicated molecular gates such as the nuclear pore complex to control the transport of biological masses. Inspired by nature, we here theoretically show that well-defined gate shape, sensitive response to pH and salt concentration, and selectivity in cargo transport can be simultaneously achieved by grafting amphiphilic diblock copolymers made of sequence-controlled hydrophobic and ionizable monomers on the inner surface of solid-state nanopore. As a result, multiple functions such as ionic gating and molecular filtering can be implemented into one single copolymer nanogate. The gate structure and thermodynamics is a result of the self-assembly of the sequence-designed copolymer in the confined geometry that minimizes the free energy of the system. Our theory further predicts a phase transition and discontinuous charge regulation of the confined copolymer that allows logical gating in biosensors and nanofluidic devices. As an example of application, a nanolocker with the potential of molecular pumping has also been designed with the cooperation of two amphiphilic copolymer gates. Our results highlight the importance of polymer sequence in nanogating, and these insights can be used to guide the rational design of polymer-coated smart nanopores.

Oscillatory Reaction Induced Periodic C-Quadruplex DNA Gating of Artificial Ion Channels

Many biological ion channels controlled by biochemical reactions have autonomous and periodic gating functions, which play important roles in continuous mass transport and signal transmission in living systems. Inspired by these functional biological ion channel systems, here we report an artificial self-oscillating nanochannel system that can autonomously and periodically control its gating process under constant conditions. The system is constructed by integrating a chemical oscillator, consisting of BrO₃^-, Fe(CN)₆^4-, H⁺, and SO₃^2-, into a synthetic proton-sensitive nanochannel modified with C-quadruplex (C4) DNA motors. The chemical oscillator, containing H⁺-producing and H⁺-consuming reactions, can cyclically drive conformational changes of the C4-DNA motors on the channel wall between random coil and folded i-motif structures, thus leading to autonomous gating of the nanochannel between open and closed states. The autonomous gating processes are confirmed by periodic high-low ionic current oscillations of the channel monitored under constant reaction conditions. The utilization of a chemical oscillator integrated with DNA molecules represents a method to directly convert chemical energy of oscillating reactions to kinetic energy of conformational changes of the artificial nanochannels and even to achieve diverse autonomous gating functions in artificial nanofluidic devices.

Non-scaling behavior of electroosmotic flow in voltage-gated nanopores

Ionic size effects and electrostatic correlations result in the non-monotonic dependence of the electrical conductivity on the pore size. For ion transport at a high gating voltage, the conductivity oscillates with the pore size due to a significant overlap of the electric double layers.

Precise control of configuration, size and density of self-assembled Au nanostructures on 4H-SiC (0001) by systematic variation of deposition amount, annealing temperature and duration

Hexagonal Au nano-crystals, round dome-shaped droplets and irregular nano-mounds were fabricated on GaN (0001) based on the combinational effects of thermal dewetting and surface free energy minimization.

Evolution of Self-Assembled Au NPs by Controlling Annealing Temperature and Dwelling Time on Sapphire (0001)

Au nanoparticles (NPs) have been utilized in a wide range of device applications as well as catalysts for the fabrication of nanopores and nanowires, in which the performance of the associated devices and morphology of nanopores and nanowires are strongly dependent on the size, density, and configuration of the Au NPs. In this paper, the evolution of the self-assembled Au nanostructures and NPs on sapphire (0001) is systematically investigated with the variation of annealing temperature (AT) and dwelling time (DT). At the low-temperature range between 300 and 600 °C, three distinct regimes of the Au nanostructure configuration are observed, i.e., the vermiform-like Au piles, irregular Au nano-mounds, and Au islands. Subsequently, being provided with relatively high thermal energy between 700 and 900 °C, the round dome-shaped Au NPs are fabricated based on the Volmer-Weber growth model. With the increased AT, the size of the Au NPs is gradually increased due to a more favorable surface diffusion while the density is gradually decreased as a compensation. On the other hand, with the increased DT, the size and density of Au NPs decrease due to the evaporation of Au at relatively high annealing temperature at 950 °C.

Systematic Control of Self-Assembled Au Nanoparticles and Nanostructures Through the Variation of Deposition Amount, Annealing Duration, and Temperature on Si (111)

The size, density, and configurations of Au nanoparticles (NPs) can play important roles in controlling the electron mobility, light absorption, and localized surface plasmon resonance, and further in the Au NP-assisted nanostructure fabrications. In this study, we present a systematical investigation on the evolution of Au NPs and nanostructures on Si (111) by controlling the deposition amount (DA), annealing temperature (AT), and dwelling time (DT). Under an identical growth condition, the morphologies of Au NPs and nanostructures drastically evolve when the DA is only slightly varied, based on the Volmer-Weber and coalescence models: i.e. I: mini NPs, II: mid-sized round dome-shaped Au NPs, III: large Au NPs, and IV: coalesced nanostructures. With the AT control, three distinctive ranges are observed: i.e., NP nucleation, Au NPs maturation and melting. The gradual dimensional expansion of Au NPs is always compensated with the density reduction, which is explained with the thermodynamic theory. The DT effect is relatively minor on Au NPs, a sharp contrast to other metallic NPs, which is discussed based on the Ostwald-ripening.

Conductivity-based detection techniques in nanofluidic devices

This review covers conductivity detection in fabricated nanochannels and nanopores. Improvements in nanoscale sensing are a direct result of advances in fabrication techniques, which produce devices with channels and pores with reproducible dimensions and in a variety of materials. Analytes of interest are detected by measuring changes in conductance as the analyte accumulates in the channel or passes transiently through the pore. These detection methods take advantage of phenomena enhanced at the nanoscale, such as ion current rectification, surface conductance, and dimensions comparable to the analytes of interest. The end result is the development of sensing technologies for a broad range of analytes, e.g., ions, small molecules, proteins, nucleic acids, and particles.

Dual-response for Hg2+ and Ag+ ions based on biomimetic funnel-shaped alumina nanochannels

Biomimetic dual-ion-responsive nanochannels were developed by the principles of metal-ion-mediated base pairs of the responsive T-/C-rich single strand DNA (ssDNA). The responsive ssDNA was immobilized into the funnel-shaped alumina nanochannels, which were fabricated using the anodization technology and pore-widening process. In neutral solution, the conformation of the ssDNA changed from a loosely packed structure into a duplex structure by interacting with Hg²⁺ or Ag⁺ ions (T-Hg²⁺-T or C-Ag⁺-C complexes). The decreasing ionic currents through the nanochannels were utilized to detect concentrations of Hg²⁺ or Ag⁺ ions. The conversion of duplex-quadruplex of Ag⁺ ions and DNA could be triggered by changing the pH value of aqueous solutions to 4.5, whereas it did not happen in Hg²⁺ ions solution. Thus, the ssDNA-modified alumina nanochannels selectively responded to Hg²⁺ and Ag⁺ ions at pH 4.5 with different ionic transportation properties. The biomimetic dual-ion-responsive nanochannels promised great potential in multiplexed ion sensing.

A bidirection-adjustable ionic current rectification system based on a biconical micro-channel

We developed a simple, cheap and bidirectional ionic current rectification system based on the integration of a biconical micro-channel, working electrode and reference electrode. This system may have potential and realistic future value for studying two-way ionic transport in the cell membrane.

Fabrication of single cylindrical Au-coated nanopores with non-homogeneous fixed charge distribution exhibiting high current rectifications

We designed and characterized a cylindrical nanopore that exhibits high electrochemical current rectification ratios at low and intermediate electrolyte concentrations. For this purpose, the track-etched single cylindrical nanopore in polymer membrane was coated with a gold (Au) layer via electroless plating technique. Then, a non-homogeneous fixed charge distribution inside the Au-coated nanopore was obtained by incorporating thiol-terminated uncharged poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) chains in series to poly(4-vinylpyridine) chains, which were positively charged at acidic pH values. The functionalization reaction was checked by measuring the current-voltage curves prior to and after the chemisorption of polymer chains. The experimental nanopore characterization included the effects of temperature, adsorption of chloride ions, electrolyte concentration, and pH of the external solutions. The results obtained are further explained in terms of a theoretical continuous model. The combination of well-established chemical procedures (thiol and self-assembled monolayer formation chemistry, electroless plating, ion track etching) and physical models (two-region pore and Nernst-Planck equations) permits the obtainment of a new nanopore with high current rectification ratios. The single pore could be scaled up to multipore membranes of potential interest for pH sensing and chemical actuators.

Fabrication of metal nanoelectrodes by interfacial reactions

Despite great improvements in the past decades, the controllable fabrication of metal nanoelectrodes still remains very challenging. In this work, a simple and general way to fabricate metal nanoelectrodes (Ag, Au, and Pt) is developed. On the basis of interfacial reactions at nano-liquid/liquid interfaces supported at nanopipettes, the nanoparticles can be formed in situ and have been used to block the orifices of pipettes to make nanoelectrodes. The effect of the driving force for interfacial reaction at the liquid/liquid interface, the ratio of redox species in organic and aqueous phases, and the surface charge of the inner wall of a pipette have been studied. The fabricated nanoelectrodes have been characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electrochemical techniques. A silver electrode with about 10 nm in radius has been employed as the scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) probe to explore the thickness of a water/nitrobenzene (W/NB) interface, and this value is equal to 0.8 ± 0.1 nm (n = 5). This method of fabrication of nanoelectrodes can be extended to other metal or semiconductor electrodes.

Controllable shrinking of inverted-pyramid silicon nanopore arrays by dry-oxygen oxidation

A novel and simple technique for the controllable shrinkage of inverted-pyramid silicon (Si) nanopore arrays is reported. The Si nanopore arrays with sizes from 60 to 150 nm, made using a combination of dry and wet etching, were shrunk to sub 10 nm, or even closed, using direct dry-oxygen oxidation at 900 ° C. The shrinkage process of the pyramidal nanopore induced by oxidation was carefully modeled and simulated. The simulation was found to be in good agreement with the experimental data within most of the oxidation time range. Using this method, square nanopore arrays with an average size of 30 nm, and rectangular nanopores and nanoslits with feature sizes as small as 8 nm, have been obtained. Furthermore, focused ion beam cutting experiments revealed that the inner structure of the nanopore after the shrinkage kept its typical inverted-pyramid shape, which is of importance in many fields such as biomolecular sensors and ionic analogs of electronic devices, as well as nanostencils for surface nano-patterning.

Photocatalysis-triggered ion rectification in artificial nanochannels based on chemically modified asymmetric TiO2 nanotubes

Ion rectification is one of the important characteristics of biological ion channels. Inspired by the function of biological ion channels, creation of artificial nanochannels that show analogous ion rectification characteristics has attracted a great interest recently. Herein, we demonstrate a new type of artificial solid-state nanochannel with ion rectification characteristics. The creation of artificial nanochannels includes the formation of asymmetric TiO2 nanotubes by electrochemical anodization of Ti metal, followed by chemical modification with octadecyltrimethoxysilane (OTS) molecules. The carboxylic groups are introduced onto the tip side of TiO2 nanotubes via photocatalytic decomposition of OTS molecules by TiO2 photocatalysis under ultraviolet light. When the radius of tip side of TiO2 nanotubular channels is comparable to the thickness of electric double layer, the negatively charged surface in neutral electrolyte in combination with the asymmetric pore geometry contributes to the ion rectification characteristics. Compared with previous artificial nanochannels, our new type of artificial nanochannel is more facile to fabricate and behaves as a diode that rectifies the ion transport, which also shows some other potential applications, such as sensor and separation materials.