Multifunctional nanoemulsion platform for imaging guided therapy evaluated in experimental cancer

Lipid-engineered nanotherapeutics for cancer management

Cancer causes significant mortality and morbidity worldwide, but existing pharmacological treatments are greatly limited by the inherent heterogeneity of cancer as a disease, as well as the unsatisfactory efficacy and specificity of therapeutic drugs. Biopharmaceutical barriers such as low permeability and poor water solubility, along with the absence of active targeting capabilities, often result in suboptimal clinical results. The difficulty of successfully reaching and destroying tumor cells is also often compounded with undesirable impacts on healthy tissue, including off-target effects and high toxicity, which further impair the ability to effectively manage the disease and optimize patient outcomes. However, in the last few decades, the development of nanotherapeutics has allowed for the use of rational design in order to maximize therapeutic success. Advances in the fabrication of nano-sized delivery systems, coupled with a variety of surface engineering strategies to promote customization, have resulted in promising approaches for targeted, site-specific drug delivery with fewer unwanted effects and better therapeutic efficacy. These nano systems have been able to overcome some of the challenges of conventional drug delivery related to pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and target specificity. In particular, lipid-based nanosystems have been extensively explored due to their high biocompatibility, versatility, and adaptability. Lipid-based approaches to cancer treatment are varied and diverse, including liposomal therapeutics, lipidic nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipidic carriers, lipid-polymer nanohybrids, and supramolecular nanolipidic structures. This review aims to provide an overview of the use of diverse formulations of lipid-engineered nanotherapeutics for cancer and current challenges in the field, as researchers attempt to successfully translate these approaches from bench to clinic.

Extracted saponin from Anabasis setifera plant as a biosurfactant for stabilization of oil in water (O/W) nano-emulsion based on date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) kernel oil

Saponin was extracted from the Anabasis setifera plant and used to stabilize an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion based on date palm kernel oil. Different amounts of the extracted saponin were used with a constant oil concentration (1.5% w/w). The droplet size distribution, emulsion droplet size value (d-ave), polydispersity index (PDI) and zeta potential of the emulsions were determined using dynamic light scattering (DLS). These parameters were measured and compared after seven days of emulsion preparation. The best results (d-ave = 41.7 nm, PDI = 0.1 and zeta potential = −29.8 mV) were obtained for the CMC of saponin. Both the oil and the surfactant were specifically extracted and used from the nature of Saravan in the Baluchestan region of Iran. This research presents a green and cost-effective aspect for potential formulations of nano-emulsions that can be used in the food and cosmetic industries.

Multifunctional Nanoaggregates Composed of Active CPUL1 and a Triphenylphosphine Derivative for Mitochondria-Targeted Drug Delivery and Cell Imaging

We report that active substance (CPUL1) and triphenylphosphine (TPP) derivative could self-assemble into multifunctional nanoaggregates (CPUL1-TPP NAs) through electrostatic and π-π stacking interactions. CPUL1 was wrapped tightly inside the nanoparticles as well as CPUL1 and TPP derivative self-assembled into stable and compact nanoparticles in water. The positive surface charge of CPUL1-TPP NAs made them much easier to be endocytosed to enter cytoplasm, accumulate in the mitochondria and induce cell apoptosis based on their mitochondria targeting ability, fluorescence property and fast cell uptake characteristic, which showed better antitumor efficacy on HUH7 hepatoma cells in vitro than that of free CPUL1.

Exploring Nanoemulsions for Prostate Cancer Therapy

Prostate carcinoma is typical cancer. It is the second most common cancer globally. The estimated new cases in 2020 was 191 930 and estimated deaths was 33 330. Age, family history, & genetic factors are major factors that drive prostate cancer. Although, for treating metastatic disease, the major therapies available are radiation,bisphosphonate, and palliative chemotherapy. But the major drawback is therapy is disease-driven and later becomes metastatic and requires treatment. The ability to revolutionize cancer treatment by major targeting vehicles via the exploration of nanoemulsion suggests a potential for cancer treatment. The unique property of a biphasic liquid dosage form called nanoemulsion to reach leaky tumor vasculature is due to its nano-meter oil-droplet size of 20-200 nm. Recent reporting on nanoemulsions disclose their embracing and lay alternative for re-purposing herbal and synthetic drugs and their combination especially for targeting prostate cancer formulating an obtainable nanomedicine. So, this article emphasizes the use of nanoemulsions incorporating therapeutic agents for successful and targeted delivery for prostate cancer.

Ultrasound-assisted production and optimization of mini-emulsions in a microfluidic chip in continuous-flow

The use of ultrasound to generate mini-emulsions (50 nm to 1 μm in diameter) and nanoemulsions (mean droplet diameter < 200 nm) is of great relevance in drug delivery, particle synthesis and cosmetic and food industries. Therefore, it is desirable to develop new strategies to obtain new formulations faster and with less reagent consumption. Here, we present a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based microfluidic device that generates oil-in-water or water-in-oil mini-emulsions in continuous flow employing ultrasound as the driving force. A Langevin piezoelectric attached to the same glass slide as the microdevice provides enough power to create mini-emulsions in a single cycle and without reagents pre-homogenization. By introducing independently four different fluids into the microfluidic platform, it is possible to gradually modify the composition of oil, water and two different surfactants, to determine the most favorable formulation for minimizing droplet diameter and polydispersity, employing less than 500 µL of reagents. It was found that cavitation bubbles are the most important mechanism underlying emulsions formation in the microchannels and that degassing of the aqueous phase before its introduction to the device can be an important factor for reduction of droplet polydispersity. This idea is demonstrated by synthetizing solid polymeric particles with a narrow size distribution starting from a mini-emulsion produced by the device.

A Nano-Emulsion Platform Functionalized with a Fully Human scFv-Fc Antibody for Atheroma Targeting: Towards a Theranostic Approach to Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is at the onset of the cardiovascular diseases that are among the leading causes of death worldwide. Currently, high-risk plaques, also called vulnerable atheromatous plaques, remain often undiagnosed until the occurrence of severe complications, such as stroke or myocardial infarction. Molecular imaging agents that target high-risk atheromatous lesions could greatly improve the diagnosis of atherosclerosis by identifying sites of high disease activity. Moreover, a "theranostic approach" that combines molecular imaging agents (for diagnosis) and therapeutic molecules would be of great value for the local management of atheromatous plaques. The aim of this study was to develop and characterize an innovative theranostic tool for atherosclerosis. We engineered oil-in-water nano-emulsions (NEs) loaded with superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) purposes. Dynamic MRI showed that NE-SPIO nanoparticles decorated with a polyethylene glycol (PEG) layer reduced their liver uptake and extended their half-life. Next, the NE-SPIO-PEG formulation was functionalized with a fully human scFv-Fc antibody (P3) recognizing galectin 3, an atherosclerosis biomarker. The P3-functionalized formulation targeted atheromatous plaques, as demonstrated in an immunohistochemistry analyses of mouse aorta and human artery sections and in an Apoe^-/- mouse model of atherosclerosis. Moreover, the formulation was loaded with SPIO nanoparticles and/or alpha-tocopherol to be used as a theranostic tool for atherosclerosis imaging (SPIO) and for delivery of drugs that reduce oxidation (here, alpha-tocopherol) in atheromatous plaques. This study paves the way to non-invasive targeted imaging of atherosclerosis and synergistic therapeutic applications.

Fabrication and Applications of Microfluidic Devices: A Review

Microfluidics is a relatively newly emerged field based on the combined principles of physics, chemistry, biology, fluid dynamics, microelectronics, and material science. Various materials can be processed into miniaturized chips containing channels and chambers in the microscale range. A diverse repertoire of methods can be chosen to manufacture such platforms of desired size, shape, and geometry. Whether they are used alone or in combination with other devices, microfluidic chips can be employed in nanoparticle preparation, drug encapsulation, delivery, and targeting, cell analysis, diagnosis, and cell culture. This paper presents microfluidic technology in terms of the available platform materials and fabrication techniques, also focusing on the biomedical applications of these remarkable devices.

Dye-Loaded Nanoemulsions: Biomimetic Fluorescent Nanocarriers for Bioimaging and Nanomedicine

Lipid nanoemulsions (NEs), owing to their controllable size (20 to 500 nm), stability and biocompatibility, are now frequently used in various fields, such as food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, drug delivery, and even as nanoreactors for chemical synthesis. Moreover, being composed of components generally recognized as safe (GRAS), they can be considered as "green" nanoparticles that mimic closely lipoproteins and intracellular lipid droplets. Therefore, they attracted attention as carriers of drugs and fluorescent dyes for both bioimaging and studying the fate of nanoemulsions in cells and small animals. In this review, the composition of dye-loaded NEs, methods for their preparation, and emerging biological applications are described. The design of bright fluorescent NEs with high dye loading and minimal aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) is focused on. Common issues including dye leakage and NEs stability are discussed, highlighting advanced techniques for their characterization, such as Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). Attempts to functionalize NEs surface are also discussed. Thereafter, biological applications for bioimaging and single-particle tracking in cells and small animals as well as biomedical applications for photodynamic therapy are described. Finally, challenges and future perspectives of fluorescent NEs are discussed.

Activation Strategies in Image-Guided Nanotherapeutic Delivery

Therapeutic nanomaterials serve as an important platform for drug delivery under image guidance. Despite significant growth and broad applications, their design specifics remain a subject of continued interest primarily due to multifunctional factors involved, ranging from nanomaterial properties, imaging modalities, and therapeutic agents to activation strategies. This review article summarizes key findings on their design characteristics with a particular interest in strategies developed for therapeutic activation (release). First, their activation can be controlled using either an endogenous factor including low pH and glutathione or an external stimulation by light, ultrasound, or electromagnetic field. The former is passively controlled from a spatiotemporal aspect compared to the latter, which is otherwise actively controlled through drug linker photolysis, nanomaterial disassembly, or gate opening. Second, light stimulation serves a most notable strategy due to its essential role in controlled drug release, photothermal activation (hyperthermia), and photodynamic production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Third, some of those activation strategies that rely on ultrasound, photothermal, photoacoustic, magnetic field, or X-ray radiation are dually functional due to their role in imaging modalities. In summary, this review article presents recent advances and new insights that pertain to nanotherapeutic delivery systems. It also addresses their technical limitations associated with tissue penetration (light), spatial resolution (ultrasound, hyperthermia), and occurrence of cellular resistance (ROS).

Transferrin receptor 1 targeted optical imaging for identifying glioma margin in mouse models

OBJECTIVE

Optical molecular imaging technology that indiscriminately detects intracranial glioblastoma (GBM) can help neurosurgeons effectively remove tumor masses. Transferrin receptor 1 (TfR 1) is a diagnostic and therapeutic target in GBM. A TfR 1-targeted peptide, CRTIGPSVC (CRT), was shown to cross the blood brain barrier (BBB) and accumulate at high levels in GBM tissues. In this study, we synthesized a TfR 1-targeted near-infrared fluorescent (NIRF) probe, Cy5-CRT, for identifying the GBM tissue margin in mouse models.

METHODS

We initially confirmed the overexpression of TfR 1 in GBM and the tumor-specific homing ability of Cy5-CRT in subcutaneous and orthotopic GBM mouse models. We then examined the feasibility of Cy5-CRT for identifying the tumor margin in orthotopic GBM xenografts. Finally, we compared Cy5-CRT with the clinically used fluorescein sodium in identifying tumor margins.

RESULTS

Cy5-CRT specifically accumulated in GBM tissues and detected the tumor burden with exceptional contrast in mice with orthotopic GBM, enabling fluorescence-guided GBM resection under NIRF live imaging conditions. Importantly, Cy5-CRT recognized the GBM tissue margin more clearly than fluorescein sodium.

CONCLUSIONS

The TfR 1-targeted optical probe Cy5-CRT specifically differentiates tumor tissues from the surrounding normal brain with high sensitivity, indicating its potential application for the precise surgical removal of GBM.

Theranostic application of nanoemulsions in chemotherapy

Theranostics has the potential to revolutionize the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of cancer, where novel drug delivery systems could be used to detect the disease at an early stage with instantaneous treatment. Various preclinical approaches of nanoemulsions with entrapped contrast and chemotherapeutic agents have been documented to act specifically on the tumor microenvironment (TME) for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. However, bringing these theranostic nanoemulsions through preclinical trials to patients requires several fundamental hurdles to be overcome, including the in vivo behavior of the delivery tool, degradation, and clearance from the system, as well as long-term toxicities. Here, we discuss recent advances in the application of nanoemulsions in molecular imaging with simultaneous therapeutic efficacy in a single delivery system.

Nanomedicines in Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer: An Update

:

Nanomedicine has revolutionized the field of cancer detection and treatment by enabling the delivery of imaging agents and therapeutics into cancer cells. Cancer diagnostic and therapeutic agents can be either encapsulated or conjugated to nanosystems and accessed to the tumor environment through the passive targeting approach (EPR effect) of the designed nanomedicine. It may also actively target the tumor exploiting conjugation of targeting moiety (like antibody, peptides, vitamins, and hormones) to the surface of the nanoparticulate system. Different diagnostic agents (like contrast agents, radionuclide probes and fluorescent dyes) are conjugated with the multifunctional nanoparticulate system to achieve simultaneous cancer detection along with targeted therapy. Nowadays targeted drug delivery, as well as the early cancer diagnosis is a key research area where nanomedicine is playing a crucial role. This review encompasses the significant recent advancements in drug delivery as well as molecular imaging and diagnosis of cancer exploiting polymer-based, lipid-based and inorganic nanoparticulate systems.

Multimodal optical contrast agents as new tools for monitoring and tuning nanoemulsion internalisation into cancer cells. From live cell imaging to in vivo imaging of tumours

Tailor-made NIR emitting dyes were designed as multimodal optical probes. These asymmetric amphiphilic compounds show combined intense absorption in the visible region, NIR fluorescence emission, high two-photon absorption in the NIR (with the maximum located around 1000 nm) as well as large Stokes' shift values and second-harmonic generation ability. Thanks to their structure, high loading into nanoemulsions (NEs) could be achieved leading to very high one- and two-photon brightness. These dyes were demonstrated to act as multimodal contrast agents able to generate different optical modalities of interest for bioimaging. Indeed, the uptake and carrier behaviour of the dye-loaded NEs into cancer cells could be monitored by simultaneous two-photon fluorescence and second-harmonic generation optical imaging. Multimodal imaging provided deep insight into the mechanism and kinetics of dye internalisation. Quite interestingly, the nature of the dyes was also found to influence both the kinetics of endocytosis and the internalisation pathways in glioblastoma cancer cells. By modulating the charge distribution within the dyes, the NEs can be tuned to escape lysosomes and enter the mitochondria. Moreover, surface functionalization with PEG macromolecules was realized to yield stealth NIRF-NEs which could be used for in vivo NIRF imaging of subcutaneous tumours in mice.

Synthesis and Intracellular Uptake of Rhodamine-Nucleolipid Conjugates into a Nanoemulsion Vehicle

Neurodegenerative diseases represent some of the greatest challenges for both basic science and clinical medicine. Due to their prevalence and the lack of known biochemical-based treatments, these complex pathologies result in an increasing societal cost. Increasing genetic and neuropathological evidence indicates that lysosomal impairment may be a common factor linking these diseases, demanding the development of therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring the lysosomal function. Here, we propose the design and synthesis of a nucleolipid conjugate as a nonviral chemical nanovector to specifically target neuronal cells and intracellular organelles. Herein, thymidine, appropriately substituted to increase its lipophilicity, was used as a model nucleoside and a fluorophore moiety, covalently bound to the nucleoside, allowed the monitoring of nucleolipid internalization in vitro. To improve nucleolipid protection and cellular uptake, these conjugates were formulated in nanoemulsions. In vitro biological assays demonstrated cell uptake- and internalization-associated colocalization with lysosomal markers. Overall, this nucleolipid-nanoemulsion-based formulation represents a promising drug-delivery tool to target the central nervous system, able to deliver drugs to restore the impaired lysosomal function.

MOF-derived novel porous Fe3O4@C nanocomposites as smart nanomedical platforms for combined cancer therapy: magnetic-triggered synergistic hyperthermia and chemotherapy

Smart Fe₃O₄@C-PVP@DOX nanomedical platforms hold great potential application in the precise treatments of clinical cancer.

Biointerface engineering nanoplatforms for cancer-targeted drug delivery

Over the past decade, nanoparticle-based therapeutic modalities have become promising strategies in cancer therapy. Selective delivery of anticancer drugs to the lesion sites is critical for elimination of the tumor and an improved prognosis. Innovative design and advanced biointerface engineering have promoted the development of various nanocarriers for optimized drug delivery. Keeping in mind the biological framework of the tumor microenvironment, biomembrane-camouflaged nanoplatforms have been a research focus, reflecting their superiority in cancer targeting. In this review, we summarize the development of various biomimetic cell membrane-camouflaged nanoplatforms for cancer-targeted drug delivery, which are classified according to the membranes from different cells. The challenges and opportunities of the advanced biointerface engineering drug delivery nanosystems in cancer therapy are discussed.

A Nanoemulsion with A Porphyrin Shell for Cancer Theranostics

A nanoemulsion with a porphyrin shell (NewPS) was created by the self-assembly of porphyrin salt around an oil core. The NewPS system has excellent colloidal stability, is amenable to different porphyrin salts and oils, and is capable of co-loading with chemotherapeutics. The porphyrin salt shell enables porphyrin-dependent optical tunability. The NewPS consisting of pyropheophorbide a mono-salt has a porphyrin shell of ordered J-aggregates, which produced a narrow, red-shifted Q-band with increased absorbance. Upon nanostructure dissociation, the fluorescence and photodynamic reactivity of the porphyrin monomers are restored. The spectrally distinct photoacoustic imaging (at 715 nm by intact NewPS) and fluorescence increase (at 671 nm by disrupted NewPS) allow the monitoring of NewPS accumulation and disruption in mice bearing KB tumors to guide effective photodynamic therapy. Substituting the oil core with Lipiodol affords additional CT contrast, whereas loading paclitaxel into NewPS facilitates drug delivery.

Matrix metalloproteinase-cleavable nanocapsules for tumor-activated drug release

In the war against cancer, nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems may play a significant role by enhancing the efficacy of conventional therapies. Here, we tried to address some major limitations plaguing anticancer drugs, namely, poor water solubility and off-target toxicity. The systems we propose are cross-linked polyelectrolyte nanocapsules based on an oil-core and a matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2)-cleavable shell. They can load hydrophobic drugs, prevent their systemic leakage, and release their payload upon an endogenous stimulus. Both the stability enhancement and the stimuli-responsive drug release mechanisms were achieved by cross-linking the nanocapsule shell with an MMP-2-sensitive peptide. On the basis of this strategy, the system maintained its stability in PBS up to one month. Further, when tested on 3D tumor and healthy spheroid models, the nanocapsules were able to disrupt their integrity preferentially in the tumor-like microenvironment. The high level of MMP-2 enzymes expressed by tumor spheroids, indeed, catalyzed the disassembly of the nanocapsules, which ultimately leads to drug release. Therefore, this device holds great potential as a smart system that allows for the safe transport of hydrophobic drugs and for a spatially controlled release upon an endogenous stimulus coming from the very nature of the tumor itself. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The performance of nanoparticle-based therapeutic approaches is often hindered by some intrinsic limitations typically including laborious drug loading methods, synthetic routes of preparation and stability issues. In this work, we implemented for the first time a smart drug delivery strategy into oil-core multilayer nanocapsules, which represent an ideal family of nanocarriers. To this aim, we developed a robust method enabling the use of soft matters like oil-core nanocapsules combined with a microenvironmentally triggered release mechanism. The efficacy of nanocapsules was tested on tumor and healthy spheroids. Results clearly demonstrate their selective drug release, triggered by a stimulus intrinsically present in tumor microenvironment. We believe this study is of particular interest for cancer research and paves the way for the use of these robust stimuli-responsive nanocapsules in vivo.

Development of Theranostic Perfluorocarbon Nanoemulsions as a Model Non-Opioid Pain Nanomedicine Using a Quality by Design (QbD) Approach

Pain nanomedicine is an emerging field in response to current needs of addressing the opioid crisis in the USA and around the world. Our group has focused on the development of macrophage-targeted perfluorocarbon nanoemulsions as inflammatory pain nanomedicines over the past several years. We present here, for the first time, a quality by design approach used to design pain nanomedicine. Specifically, we used failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis (FMECA) which identified the process and composition parameters that were most likely to impact nanoemulsion critical quality attributes (CQAs). From here, we applied a unique combination approach that compared multiple linear regression, boosted decision tree regression, and partial least squares regression methods in combination with correlation plots. The presented combination approach allowed for in-depth analyses of which formulation steps in the nanoemulsification processes control nanoemulsion droplet diameter, stability, and drug loading. We identified that increase in solubilizer (transcutol) content increased drug loading and decreased nanoemulsion stability. This was mitigated by inclusion of perfluorocarbon oil in the internal phase. We observed negative correlation (R² = 0.4357, p value 0.0054) between the amount of PCE and the percent diameter increase (destabilization), and no correlation between processing parameters and percent diameter increase over time. Further, we identified that increased sonication time decreases nanoemulsion drug loading but does not significantly impact droplet diameter or stability. We believe the methods presented here can be useful in the development of various nanomedicines to produce higher-quality products with enhanced manufacturing and design control.

Nanoparticle Ligand-Decoration Procedures Affect in Vivo Interactions with Immune Cells

Ligand-decorated nanoparticles are extensively studied and applied for in vivo drug delivery and molecular imaging. Generally, two different ligand-decoration procedures are utilized; ligands are either conjugated with nanoparticle ingredients and incorporated during nanoparticle preparation, or they are attached to preformed nanoparticles by utilizing functionalized reactive surface groups (e.g., maleimide). Although the two procedures result in nanoparticles with very similar physicochemical properties, formulations obtained through the latter manufacturing process typically contain nonconjugated reactive surface groups. In the current study, we hypothesized that the different ligand-decoration procedures might affect the extent of interaction between nanoparticles and immune cells (especially phagocytes). In order to investigate our hypothesis, we decorated lipidic nanoparticles with a widely used cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp (cRGD) peptide using the two different procedures. As proven from in vivo experiments in mice, the presence of nonconjugated surface moieties results in increased recognition by the immune system. This is important knowledge considering the emerging focus on understanding and optimizing ways to target and track immune cells and the development of nanomedicine-based strategies in the field of immunotherapy.

Nucleoside Analogue-Based Supramolecular Nanodrugs Driven by Molecular Recognition for Synergistic Cancer Therapy

The utilization of nanotechnology for the delivery of a wide range of anticancer drugs has the potential to reduce adverse effects of free drugs and improve the anticancer efficacy. However, carrier materials and/or chemical modifications associated with drug delivery make it difficult for nanodrugs to achieve clinical translation and final Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvals. We have discovered a molecular recognition strategy to directly assemble two FDA-approved small-molecule hydrophobic and hydrophilic anticancer drugs into well-defined, stable nanostructures with high and quantitative drug loading. Molecular dynamics simulations demonstrate that purine nucleoside analogue clofarabine and folate analogue raltitrexed can self-assemble into stable nanoparticles through molecular recognition. In vitro studies exemplify how the clofarabine:raltitrexed nanoparticles could greatly improve synergistic combination effects by arresting more G1 phase of the cell cycle and reducing intracellular deoxynucleotide pools. More importantly, the nanodrugs increase the blood retention half-life of the free drugs, improve accumulation of drugs in tumor sites, and promote the synergistic tumor suppression property in vivo.

Carbon-based hybrid nanogels: a synergistic nanoplatform for combined biosensing, bioimaging, and responsive drug delivery

Nanosized crosslinked polymer networks, named as nanogels, are playing an increasingly important role in a diverse range of applications by virtue of their porous structures, large surface area, good biocompatibility and responsiveness to internal and/or external chemico-physical stimuli. Recently, a variety of carbon nanomaterials, such as carbon quantum dots, graphene/graphene oxide nanosheets, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and nanodiamonds, have been embedded into responsive polymer nanogels, in order to integrate the unique electro-optical properties of carbon nanomaterials with the merits of nanogels into a single hybrid nanogel system for improvement of their applications in nanomedicine. A vast number of studies have been pursued to explore the applications of carbon-based hybrid nanogels in biomedical areas for biosensing, bioimaging, and smart drug carriers with combinatorial therapies and/or theranostic ability. New synthetic methods and structures have been developed to prepare carbon-based hybrid nanogels with versatile properties and functions. In this review, we summarize the latest developments and applications and address the future perspectives of these carbon-based hybrid nanogels in the biomedical field.

Peptide-based nanoprobes for molecular imaging and disease diagnostics

Pathological changes in a diseased site are often accompanied by abnormal activities of various biomolecules in and around the involved cells. Identifying the location and expression levels of these biomolecules could enable early-stage diagnosis of the related disease, the design of an appropriate treatment strategy, and the accurate assessment of the treatment outcomes. Over the past two decades, a great diversity of peptide-based nanoprobes (PBNs) have been developed, aiming to improve the in vitro and in vivo performances of water-soluble molecular probes through engineering of their primary chemical structures as well as the physicochemical properties of their resultant assemblies. In this review, we introduce strategies and approaches adopted for the identification of functional peptides in the context of molecular imaging and disease diagnostics, and then focus our discussion on the design and construction of PBNs capable of navigating through physiological barriers for targeted delivery and improved specificity and sensitivity in recognizing target biomolecules. We highlight the biological and structural roles that low-molecular-weight peptides play in PBN design and provide our perspectives on the future development of PBNs for clinical translation.

Recent advances of controlled drug delivery using microfluidic platforms

Conventional systematically-administered drugs distribute evenly throughout the body, get degraded and excreted rapidly while crossing many biological barriers, leaving minimum amounts of the drugs at pathological sites. Controlled drug delivery aims to deliver drugs to the target sites at desired rates and time, thus enhancing the drug efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and bioavailability while maintaining minimal side effects. Due to a number of unique advantages of the recent microfluidic lab-on-a-chip technology, microfluidic lab-on-a-chip has provided unprecedented opportunities for controlled drug delivery. Drugs can be efficiently delivered to the target sites at desired rates in a well-controlled manner by microfluidic platforms via integration, implantation, localization, automation, and precise control of various microdevice parameters. These features accordingly make reproducible, on-demand, and tunable drug delivery become feasible. On-demand self-tuning dynamic drug delivery systems have shown great potential for personalized drug delivery. This review presents an overview of recent advances in controlled drug delivery using microfluidic platforms. The review first briefly introduces microfabrication techniques of microfluidic platforms, followed by detailed descriptions of numerous microfluidic drug delivery systems that have significantly advanced the field of controlled drug delivery. Those microfluidic systems can be separated into four major categories, namely drug carrier-free micro-reservoir-based drug delivery systems, highly integrated carrier-free microfluidic lab-on-a-chip systems, drug carrier-integrated microfluidic systems, and microneedles. Microneedles can be further categorized into five different types, i.e. solid, porous, hollow, coated, and biodegradable microneedles, for controlled transdermal drug delivery. At the end, we discuss current limitations and future prospects of microfluidic platforms for controlled drug delivery.

Peptide functionalized magneto-plasmonic nanoparticles obtained by microfluidics for inhibition of β-amyloid aggregation

Synthesis of magneto-plasmonic nanoparticles for the inhibition of β-amyloid fibril formation.

Nano-sized and other improved reporters for magnetic resonance imaging of angiogenesis

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) enables to provide anatomical, functional and molecular information of pathological angiogenesis when used with properly tailored imaging probes. Functional studies have been the domain of Dynamic Contrast Enhancement (DCE) -MRI protocols from which it is possible to extract quantitative estimations on key parameters such as the volumes of vascular and extracellular compartments and the rates of the bidirectional exchange of the imaging reporters across the endothelial barrier. Whereas paramagnetic Gd-complexes able to reversibly bind to serum albumin act better than the clinically used small-sized, hydrophilic species, new findings suggest that an accurate assessment of the vascular volume is possible by analyzing images acquired upon the i.v. administration of Gd-labelled Red Blood Cells (RBCs). As far as it concerns molecular MRI, among the many available biomarkers, α_vβ₃ integrins are the most investigated ones. The low expression of these targets makes mandatory the use of nano-sized systems endowed with the proper signal enhancing capabilities. A number of targeted nano-particles have been investigated including micelles, liposomes, iron oxides and perfluorocarbon containing systems. Finally, a growing attention is devoted to the design and testing of "theranostic" agents based on the exploitation of MRI to monitor drug delivery processes and therapeutic outcome.

Iron oxide core oil-in-water nanoemulsion as tracer for atherosclerosis MPI and MRI imaging

PURPOSE

For early atherosclerosis imaging, magnetic oil-in-water nanoemulsion (NE) decorated with atheroma specific monoclonal antibody was designed for Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). MPI is an emerging technique based on direct mapping of superparamagnetic nanoparticles which may advantageously complement MRI.

METHODS

NE oily droplets were loaded with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles of 7, 11 and 18nm and biofunctionalized with atheroma specific scFv-Fc TEG4-2C antibody.

RESULTS

Inclusion of nanoparticles inside NE did not change the hydrodynamic diameter of the oil droplets, close to 180nm, nor the polydispersity. The droplets were negatively charged (ζ=-30mV). In vitro MPI signal was assessed by Magnetic Particle Spectroscopy (MPS). NE displayed MRI and MPS signals confirming its potential as new contrast agent. NE MPS signal increase with NPs size close to the gold standard (Resovist). In MRI, NE displayed R₂* transversal relaxivity of 45.45, 96.04 and 218.81mM^-1s^-1 for 7, 11 and 18nm respectively. NE selectively bind atheroma plaque both in vitro and ex vivo in animal models of atherosclerosis.

CONCLUSION

Magnetic NE showed reasonable MRI/MPS signals and a significant labelling of the atheroma plaque. These preliminary results support that NE platform could selectively image atherosclerosis.

Novel Drug Delivery Systems Tailored for Improved Administration of Glucocorticoids

Glucocorticoids (GC) are one of the most popular and versatile classes of drugs available to treat chronic inflammation and cancer, but side effects and resistance constrain their use. To overcome these hurdles, which are often related to the uniform tissue distribution of free GC and their short half-life in biological fluids, new delivery vehicles have been developed including PEGylated liposomes, polymeric micelles, polymer-drug conjugates, inorganic scaffolds, and hybrid nanoparticles. While each of these nanoformulations has individual drawbacks, they are often superior to free GC in many aspects including therapeutic efficacy when tested in cell culture or animal models. Successful application of nanomedicines has been demonstrated in various models of neuroinflammatory diseases, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and several other disorders. Moreover, investigations using human cells and first clinical trials raise the hope that the new delivery vehicles may have the potential to make GC therapies more tolerable, specific and efficient in the future.

Bubble-generating nano-lipid carriers for ultrasound/CT imaging-guided efficient tumor therapy

Ideal therapeutic effectiveness of chemotherapy is obtained only when tumor cells are exposed to a maximal drug concentration, which is often hindered by dose-limiting toxicity. We designed a bubble-generating liposomal delivery system by introducing ammonium bicarbonate and gold nanorods into folic acid-conjugated liposomes to allow both multimodal imaging and the local release of drug (doxorubicin) with hyperthermia. The key component, ammonium bicarbonate, allows a controlled, rapid release of doxorubicin to provide an effective drug concentration in the tumor microenvironment. An in vitro temperature-triggered drug release study showed that cumulative release improved more than two-fold. In addition, in vitro and in vivo studies indicated that local heat treatment or ultrasonic cavitation enhanced the therapeutic efficiency greatly. The delivery system could also serve as an excellent contrast agent to allow ultrasonic imaging and computerized tomography imaging simultaneously to further achieve the aim of accurate diagnostics. Results of this study showed that this versatile bubble-generating liposome is a promising system to provide optimal therapeutic effects that are guided by multimodal imaging.

Light-triggered release from dye-loaded fluorescent lipid nanocarriers in vitro and in vivo

Light is an attractive trigger for release of active molecules from nanocarriers in biological systems. Here, we describe a phenomenon of light-induced release of a fluorescent dye from lipid nano-droplets under visible light conditions. Using auto-emulsification process we prepared nanoemulsion droplets of 32nm size encapsulating the hydrophobic analogue of Nile Red, NR668. While these nano-droplets cannot spontaneously enter the cells on the time scale of hours, after illumination for 30s under the microscope at the wavelength of NR668 absorption (535nm), the dye showed fast accumulation inside the cells. The same phenomenon was observed in zebrafish, where nano-droplets initially staining the blood circulation were released into endothelial cells and tissues after illumination. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy revealed that laser illumination at relatively low power (60mW/cm²) could trigger the release of the dye into recipient media, such as 10% serum or blank lipid nanocarriers. The photo-release can be inhibited by deoxygenation with sodium sulfite, suggesting that at least in part the release could be related to a photochemical process involving oxygen, though a photo-thermal effect could also take place. Finally, we showed that illumination of NR668 can provoke the release into the cells of another highly hydrophobic dye co-encapsulated into the lipid nanocarriers. These results suggest dye-loaded lipid nano-droplets as a prospective platform for preparation of light-triggered nanocarriers of active molecules.

Evaluation of lipid-stabilised tripropionin nanodroplets as a delivery route for combretastatin A4

Lipid-based nanoemulsions are a cheap and elegant route for improving the delivery of hydrophobic drugs. Easy and quick to prepare, nanoemulsions have promise for the delivery of different therapeutic agents. Although multiple studies have investigated the effects of the oil and preparation conditions on the size of the nanoemulsion nanodroplets for food applications, analogous studies for nanoemulsions for therapeutic applications are limited. Here we present a study on the production of lipid-stabilised oil nanodroplets (LONDs) towards medical applications. A number of biocompatible oils were used to form LONDs with phospholipid coatings, and among these, squalane and tripropionin were chosen as model oils for subsequent studies. LONDs were formed by high pressure homogenisation, and their size was found to decrease with increasing production pressure. When produced at 175MPa, all LONDs samples exhibited sizes between 100 and 300nm, with polydispersity index PI between 0.1 and 0.3. The LONDs were stable for over six weeks, at 4°C, and also under physiological conditions, showing modest changes in size (<10%). The hydrophobic drug combretastatin A4 (CA4) was encapsulated in tripropionin LONDs with an efficiency of approximately 76%, achieving drug concentration of approximately 1.3mg/ml. SVR mouse endothelial cells treated with CA4 tripropionin LONDs showed the microtubule disruption, characteristic of drug uptake for all tested doses, which suggests successful release of the CA4 from the LONDs.

Hydrophobic IR-780 Dye Encapsulated in cRGD-Conjugated Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for NIR Imaging-Guided Photothermal Therapy

This is high demand to enhance the accumulation of near-infrared theranostic agents in the tumor region, which is favorable to the effective phototherapy. Compared with indocyanine green (a clinically applied dye), IR-780 iodide possesses higher and more stable fluorescence intensity and can be utilized as an imaging-guided PTT agent with laser irradiation. However, lipophilicity and short circulation time limit its applications in cancer imaging and therapy. Moreover, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) conjugated with c(RGDyK) was designed as efficient carriers to improve the targeted delivery of IR-780 to the tumors. The multifunctional cRGD-IR-780 SLNs exhibited a desirable monodispersity, preferable stability and significant targeting to cell lines overexpressing α_vβ₃ integrin. Additionally, the in vitro assays such as cell viability and in vivo PTT treatment denoted that U87MG cells or U87MG transplantation tumors could be eradicated by applying cRGD-IR-780 SLNs under laser irradiation. Therefore, the resultant cRGD-IR-780 SLNs may serve as a promising NIR imaging-guided targeting PTT agent for cancer therapy.

Multifunctional nanoparticle composites: progress in the use of soft and hard nanoparticles for drug delivery and imaging

With continued advancements in nanoparticle (NP) synthesis and in the interfacing of NPs with biological systems has come the exponential growth in the use of NPs for therapeutic drug delivery and imaging applications. In recent years, the advent of NP multifunctionality-the ability to perform multiple, disparate functions on a single NP platform-has garnered much excitement for the potential realization of highly functional NP-mediated drug delivery for use in the clinical setting. This Overview will survey the current state of the art (reports published within the last 5 years) of multifunctional NPs for therapeutic drug delivery, imaging or a combination thereof. We provide extensive examples of both soft (micelles, liposomes, polymeric NPs) and hard (noble metals, quantum dots, metal oxides) NP formulations that have been used for multimodal drug delivery and imaging. The criteria for inclusion, herein, is that there must be at least two therapeutic drug cargos or imaging agents or a combination of the two. We next offer an assessment of the cytotoxicity of therapeutic NP constructs in biological systems. We then conclude with a forward-looking perspective on how we expect this field to develop in the coming years. WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 2017, 9:e1466. doi: 10.1002/wnan.1466 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Real-Time Monitoring of Nanoparticle Formation by FRET Imaging

Understanding the formation process of nanoparticles is of the utmost importance to improve their design and production. This especially holds true for self-assembled nanoparticles whose formation processes have been largely overlooked. Herein, we present a new technology that integrates a microfluidic-based nanoparticle synthesis method and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy imaging to visualize nanoparticle self-assembly in real time. Applied to different nanoparticle systems, for example, nanoemulsions, drug-loaded block-copolymer micelles, and nanocrystal-core reconstituted high-density lipoproteins, we have shown the approach's unique ability to investigate key parameters affecting nanoparticle formation.

A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vivo Performance of Cancer Nanomedicines

Inspired by the success of previous cancer nanomedicines in the clinic, researchers have generated a large number of novel formulations in the past decade. However, only a small number of nanomedicines have been approved for clinical use, whereas the majority of nanomedicines under clinical development have produced disappointing results. One major obstacle to the successful clinical translation of new cancer nanomedicines is the lack of an accurate understanding of their in vivo performance. This article features a rigorous procedure to characterize the in vivo behavior of nanomedicines in tumor-bearing mice at systemic, tissue, single-cell, and subcellular levels via the integration of positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT), radioactivity quantification methods, flow cytometry, and fluorescence microscopy. Using this approach, researchers can accurately evaluate novel nanoscale formulations in relevant mouse models of cancer. These protocols may have the ability to identify the most promising cancer nanomedicines with high translational potential or to aid in the optimization of cancer nanomedicines for future translation.

LIF spectroscopy of stained malignant breast tissues

We employ laser induced fluorescence (LIF) spectroscopy to discriminate between normal and cancerous human breast (in-vitro) tissues. LIF signals are usually enhanced by the exogenous agents such as Rhodamine 6G (Rd6G) and Coumarin 7 (C7). Although we observe fluorescence emissions in both fluorophores, Rd6G-stained tissues give notable spectral red shift in practice. The latter is a function of dye concentration embedded in tissues. We find that such red shifts have a strong dependence on the dye concentration in bare, in stained healthy, and in malignant breast tissues, signifying variations in tubular abundances. In fact, the heterogeneity of cancerous tissues is more prominent mainly due to their notable tubular densities- which can provide numerous micro-cavities to house more dye molecules. We show that this can be used to discriminate between the healthy and unhealthy specimens in different biological scaffolds of ordered (healthy) and disordered (cancerous) tissues. It is demonstrated that the quenching process of fluorophore' molecules slows down in the neoplastic tumors according to the micro-partitioning, too.

Relaxometric property of organosilica nanoparticles internally functionalized with iron oxide and fluorescent dye for multimodal imaging

Multimodal imaging using novel multifunctional nanoparticles provides a new approach for the biomedical field. Thiol-organosilica nanoparticles containing iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) as the core and rhodamine B in the thiol-organosilica layer (thiol OS-MNP/Rho) were synthesized in a one-pot process. The thiol OS-MNP/Rho showed enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast and high fluorescence intensity. The relaxometry of thiol OS-MNP/Rho revealed a novel coating effect of the organosilica layer to the MNPs. The organosilica layer shortened the T2 relaxation time but not the T1 relaxation time of the MNPs. We injected thiol-OS-MNP/Rho into normal mice intravenously. Injected mice revealed an alteration of the liver contrast in the MRI and a fluorescent pattern based on the liver histological structure at the level between macroscopic and microscopic fluorescent imaging (mesoscopic FI). In addition, the labeled macrophages were observed at the single cell level histologically. We demonstrated a new approach to evaluate the liver at the macroscopic, microscopic level as well as the mesoscopic level using multimodal imaging.

Preparation of Pt(iv)-crosslinked polymer nanoparticles with an anti-detoxifying effect for enhanced anticancer therapy

A new kind of Pt(iv)-crosslinked polymer nanoparticle with small, uniform size and high loading of cisplatin has been prepared for greatly attenuating the detoxifying effect of Pt(ii) species.