Photocurrent spectroscopy of (n, m) sorted solution-processed single-walled carbon nanotubes

Advanced 1D heterostructures based on nanotube templates and molecules

Recent advancements in materials science have shed light on the potential of exploring hierarchical assemblies of molecules on surfaces, driven by both fundamental and applicative challenges. This field encompasses diverse areas including molecular storage, drug delivery, catalysis, and nanoscale chemical reactions. In this context, the utilization of nanotube templates (NTs) has emerged as promising platforms for achieving advanced one-dimensional (1D) molecular assemblies. NTs offer cylindrical, crystalline structures with high aspect ratios, capable of hosting molecules both externally and internally (Mol@NT). Furthermore, NTs possess a wide array of available diameters, providing tunability for tailored assembly. This review underscores recent breakthroughs in the field of Mol@NT. The first part focuses on the diverse panorama of structural properties in Mol@NT synthesized in the last decade. The advances in understanding encapsulation, adsorption, and ordering mechanisms are detailed. In a second part, the review highlights the physical interactions and photophysics properties of Mol@NT obtained by the confinement of molecules and nanotubes in the van der Waals distance regime. The last part of the review describes potential applicative fields of these 1D heterostructures, providing specific examples in photovoltaics, luminescent materials, and bio-imaging. A conclusion gathers current challenges and perspectives of the field to foster discussion in related communities.

The Impact of Carbon Nanotube Length and Diameter on their Global Alignment by Dead-End Filtration

Dead-end filtration has proven to effectively prepare macroscopically (3.8 cm² ) aligned thin films from solutionbased single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). However, to make this technique broadly applicable, the role of SWCNT length and diameter must be understood. To date, most groups report the alignment of unsorted, large diameter (≈1.4 nm) SWCNTs, but systematic studies on their small diameter are rare (≈0.78 nm). In this work, films with an area of A = 3.81 cm² and a thickness of ≈40 nm are prepared from length-sorted fractions comprising of small and large diameter SWCNTs, respectively. The alignment is characterized by cross-polarized microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, absorption and Raman spectroscopy. For the longest fractions (L_avg = 952 nm ± 431 nm, Δ = 1.58 and L_avg = 667 nm ± 246 nm, Δ = 1.55), the 2D order parameter, S2D, values of ≈0.6 and ≈0.76 are reported for the small and large diameter SWCNTs over an area of A = 625 µm² , respectively. A comparison of Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek (DLVO) theory calculations with the aligned domain size is then used to propose a law identifying the required length of a carbon nanotube with a given diameter and zeta potential.

Recent Advances in Structure Separation of Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes and Their Application in Optics, Electronics, and Optoelectronics

Structural control of single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) with uniform properties is critical not only for their property modulation and functional design but also for applications in electronics, optics, and optoelectronics. To achieve this goal, various separation techniques have been developed in the past 20 years through which separation of high-purity semiconducting/metallic SWCNTs, single-chirality species, and even their enantiomers have been achieved. This progress has promoted the property modulation of SWCNTs and the development of SWCNT-based optoelectronic devices. Here, the recent advances in the structure separation of SWCNTs are reviewed, from metallic/semiconducting SWCNTs, to single-chirality species, and to enantiomers by several typical separation techniques and the application of the corresponding sorted SWCNTs. Based on the separation procedure, efficiency, and scalability, as well as, the separable SWCNT species, purity, and quantity, the advantages and disadvantages of various separation techniques are compared. Combined with the requirements of SWCNT application, the challenges, prospects, and development direction of structure separation are further discussed.

Spectral Sensitization of n- and p-Type Gallium Phosphide Single Crystals with Single-Walled Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes

The spectral sensitization of single-crystal p-GaP by semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes (s-SWCNT) via hole injection into the p-GaP valence band is reported. The results are compared to SWNCT sensitized n-type single-crystal substrates: TiO₂, SnO₂, and n-GaP. It was found that the sensitized photocurrents from CoMoCAT and HiPco s-SWCNTs were from a hole injection mechanism on all substrates, even when electron injection into the conduction band should be energetically favored. The results suggest an intrinsic p-type character of the s-SWCNTs surface films investigated in this work.

Optically Generated Free-Carrier Collection from an All Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Active Layer

Semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes' (SWCNTs) broad absorption range and all-carbon composition make them attractive materials for light harvesting. We report photoinduced charge transfer from both multichiral and single-chirality SWCNT films into atomically flat SnO₂ and TiO₂ crystals. Higher-energy second excitonic SWCNT transitions produce more photocurrent, demonstrating carrier injection rates are competitive with fast hot-exciton relaxation processes. A logarithmic relationship exists between photoinduced electron-transfer driving force and photocarrier collection efficiency, becoming more efficient with smaller diameter SWCNTs. Photocurrents are generated from both conventional sensitization and in the opposite direction with the semiconductor under accumulation and acting as an ohmic contact with only the p-type nanotubes. Finally, we demonstrate that SWCNT surfactant choice and concentration play a large role in photon conversion efficiency and present methods of maximizing photocurrent yields.

Photocurrent spectroscopy of dye-sensitized carbon nanotubes

Monochiral (7,5) single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are integrated into a field effect transistor device in which the built-in electric field at the nanotube/metal contact allows for exciton separation under illumination. Variable wavelength spectroscopy and 2D surface mapping of devices consisting of 10-20 nanotubes are performed in the visible region and a strong correlation between the nanotube's second optical transition (S₂₂) and the photocurrent is found. After integration, the SWCNTs are non-covalently modified with three different fluorescent dye molecules with off-resonant absorption maxima at 532 nm, 565 nm, and 610 nm. The dyes extend the absorption properties of the nanotube and contribute to the photocurrent. This approach holds promise for the development of photo-detectors and for applications in photovoltaics and biosensing.

Fitting Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Optical Spectra

In this work, a comprehensive methodology for the fitting of single-walled carbon nanotube absorption spectra is presented. Different approaches to background subtraction, choice of line profile, and calculation of full width at half-maximum are discussed both in the context of previous literature and the contemporary understanding of carbon nanotube photophysics. The fitting is improved by the inclusion of exciton-phonon sidebands, and new techniques to improve the individualization of overlapped nanotube spectra by exploiting correlations between the first- and second-order optical transitions and the exciton-phonon sidebands are presented. Consideration of metallic nanotubes allows an analysis of the metallic/semiconducting content, and a process of constraining the fit of highly congested spectra of carbon nanotube solid films according to the spectral weights of each (n, m) species in solution is also presented, allowing for more reliable resolution of overlapping peaks into single (n, m) species contributions.

Photoinduced spontaneous free-carrier generation in semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes

Strong quantum confinement and low dielectric screening impart single-walled carbon nanotubes with exciton-binding energies substantially exceeding kBT at room temperature. Despite these large binding energies, reported photoluminescence quantum yields are typically low and some studies suggest that photoexcitation of carbon nanotube excitonic transitions can produce free charge carriers. Here we report the direct measurement of long-lived free-carrier generation in chirality-pure, single-walled carbon nanotubes in a low dielectric solvent. Time-resolved microwave conductivity enables contactless and quantitative measurement of the real and imaginary photoconductance of individually suspended nanotubes. The conditions of the microwave conductivity measurement allow us to avoid the complications of most previous measurements of nanotube free-carrier generation, including tube-tube/tube-electrode contact, dielectric screening by nearby excitons and many-body interactions. Even at low photon fluence (approximately 0.05 excitons per μm length of tubes), we directly observe free carriers on excitation of the first and second carbon nanotube exciton transitions.

Double-walled carbon nanotube processing

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have been the focus of intense research, and the body of literature continues to grow exponentially, despite more than two decades having passed since the first reports. As well as extensive studies of the fundamental properties, this has seen SWCNTs used in a plethora of applications as far ranging as microelectronics, energy storage, solar cells, and sensors, to cancer treatment, drug delivery, and neuronal interfaces. On the other hand, the properties and applications of double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs) have remained relatively under-explored. This is despite DWCNTs not only sharing many of the same unique characteristics of their single-walled counterparts, but also possessing an additional suite of potentially advantageous properties arising due to the presence of the second wall and the often complex inter-wall interactions that arise. For example, it is envisaged that the outer wall can be selectively functionalized whilst still leaving the inner wall in its pristine state and available for signal transduction. A similar situation arises in DWCNT field effect transistors (FETs), where the outer wall can provide a convenient degree of chemical shielding of the inner wall from the external environment, allowing the excellent transconductance properties of the pristine nanotubes to be more fully exploited. Additionally, DWCNTs should also offer unique opportunities to further the fundamental understanding of the inter-wall interactions within and between carbon nanotubes. However, the realization of these goals has so far been limited by the same challenge experienced by the SWCNT field until recent years, namely, the inherent heterogeneity of raw, as-produced DWCNT material. As such, there is now an emerging field of research regarding DWCNT processing that focuses on the preparation of material of defined length, diameter and electronic type, and which is rapidly building upon the experience gained by the broader SWCNT community. This review describes the background of the field, summarizing some relevant theory and the available synthesis and purification routes; then provides a thorough synopsis of the current state-of-the-art in DWCNT sorting methodologies, outlines contemporary challenges in the field, and discusses the outlook for various potential applications of the resulting material.

Optical isomer separation of single-chirality carbon nanotubes using gel column chromatography

We report a gel column chromatography method for easily separating the optical isomers (i.e., left- and right-handed structures) of single-chirality carbon nanotubes. This method uses the difference in the interactions of the two isomers of a chiral single-wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT) with an allyl dextran-based gel, which result from the selective interaction of the chiral moieties of the gel with the isomers. Using this technique, we sorted optical isomers of nine distinct (n, m) single-chirality species from HiPco SWCNTs, which is the maximum number of isolable species of SWCNTs reported to date. Because of its advantages of technical simplicity, low cost, and high efficiency, gel column chromatography allows researchers to prepare macroscopic ensembles of single-structure SWCNTs and enables the complete discovery of intrinsic properties of SWCNTs and advances their application.