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Azam N, Mahjouri-Samani M. Time-Resolved Growth of 2D WSe 2 Monolayer Crystals. ACS NANO 2023. [PMID: 37339265 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c02280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
Understanding and controlling the growth evolution of atomically thin monolayer two-dimensional (2D) materials such as transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) are vital for next-generation 2D electronics and optoelectronic devices. However, their growth kinetics are not fully observed or well understood due to the bottlenecks associated with the existing synthesis methods. This study demonstrates the time-resolved and ultrafast growth of 2D materials by a laser-based synthesis approach that enables the rapid initiation and termination of the vaporization process during crystal growth. The use of stoichiometric powder (e.g., WSe2) minimizes the complex chemistry during the vaporization and growth process, allowing rapid initiation/termination control over the generated flux. An extensive set of experiments is performed to understand the growth evolution, achieving subsecond growth as low as 10 ms along with a 100 μm/s growth rate on a noncatalytic substrate such as Si/SiO2. Overall, this study allows us to observe and understand the 2D crystal evolution and growth kinetics with time-resolved and subsecond time scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurul Azam
- Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, United States
| | - Masoud Mahjouri-Samani
- Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, United States
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2
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Wang H, Xu M, Ji H, He T, Li W, Zheng L, Wang X. Laser-assisted synthesis of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides: a mini review. Front Chem 2023; 11:1195640. [PMID: 37179783 PMCID: PMC10167011 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2023.1195640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The atomically thin two-dimensional (2D) transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) have attracted the researcher's interest in the field of flexible electronics due to their high mobility, tunable bandgaps, and mechanical flexibility. As an emerging technique, laser-assisted direct writing has been used for the synthesis of TMDCs due to its extremely high preparation accuracy, rich light-matter interaction mechanism, dynamic properties, fast preparation speed, and minimal thermal effects. Currently, this technology has been focused on the synthesis of 2D graphene, while there are few literatures that summarize the progress in direct laser writing technology in the synthesis of 2D TMDCs. Therefore, in this mini-review, the synthetic strategies of applying laser to the fabrication of 2D TMDCs have been briefly summarized and discussed, which are divided into top-down and bottom-up methods. The detailed fabrication steps, main characteristics, and mechanism of both methods are discussed. Finally, prospects and further opportunities in the booming field of laser-assisted synthesis of 2D TMDCs are addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanxin Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Manzhang Xu
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLoFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLoFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Hongjia Ji
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Tong He
- Institute of Basic and Translational Medicine, Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an, China
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China
| | - Weiwei Li
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLoFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLoFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Lu Zheng
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLoFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLoFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Xuewen Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLoFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLoFE), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ningbo, China
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3
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Liu Q, Chen SW. Ultrafast synthesis of electrocatalysts. TRENDS IN CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trechm.2022.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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4
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Xiao K, Geohegan DB. Laser synthesis and processing of atomically thin 2D materials. TRENDS IN CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trechm.2022.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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5
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Xiong R, Hu R, Zhang Y, Yang X, Lin P, Wen C, Sa B, Sun Z. Computational discovery of PtS 2/GaSe van der Waals heterostructure for solar energy applications. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2021; 23:20163-20173. [PMID: 34551041 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp02436a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
2D van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures as potential materials for solar energy-related applications have been brought to the forefront for researchers. Here, by employing first-principles calculations, we proposed that the PtS2/GaSe vdW heterostructure is a distinguished candidate for photocatalytic water splitting and solar cells. It is shown that the PtS2/GaSe heterostructure exhibits high thermal stability with an indirect band gap of 1.81 eV. We further highlighted the strain induced type-V to type-II band alignment transitions and band gap variations in PtS2/GaSe heterostructures. More importantly, the outstanding absorption coefficients in the visible light region and high carrier mobility further guarantee the photo energy conversion efficiency of PtS2/GaSe heterostructures. Interestingly, the natural type-V band alignments of PtS2/GaSe heterostructures are appropriate for the redox potential of water. On the other hand, the power conversion efficiency of ZnO/(PtS2/GaSe heterostructure)/CIGS (copper indium gallium diselenide) solar cells can achieve ∼17.4%, which can be further optimized up to ∼18.5% by increasing the CIGS thickness. Our present study paves the way for facilitating the potential application of vdW heterostructures as a promising photocatalyst for water splitting as well as the buffer layer for solar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Eco-materials Advanced Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, P. R. China.
| | - Rong Hu
- Key Laboratory of Eco-materials Advanced Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, P. R. China.
| | - Yinggan Zhang
- College of Materials, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, P. R. China
| | - Xuhui Yang
- Key Laboratory of Eco-materials Advanced Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, P. R. China.
| | - Peng Lin
- Key Laboratory of Eco-materials Advanced Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, P. R. China.
| | - Cuilian Wen
- Key Laboratory of Eco-materials Advanced Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, P. R. China.
| | - Baisheng Sa
- Key Laboratory of Eco-materials Advanced Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, P. R. China.
| | - Zhimei Sun
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, and Center for Integrated Computational Materials Science, International Research Institute for Multidisciplinary Science, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China.
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6
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Lin Y, Torsi R, Geohegan DB, Robinson JA, Xiao K. Controllable Thin-Film Approaches for Doping and Alloying Transition Metal Dichalcogenides Monolayers. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:2004249. [PMID: 33977064 PMCID: PMC8097379 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202004249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) exhibit exciting properties and versatile material chemistry that are promising for device miniaturization, energy, quantum information science, and optoelectronics. Their outstanding structural stability permits the introduction of various foreign dopants that can modulate their optical and electronic properties and induce phase transitions, thereby adding new functionalities such as magnetism, ferroelectricity, and quantum states. To accelerate their technological readiness, it is essential to develop controllable synthesis and processing techniques to precisely engineer the compositions and phases of 2D TMDs. While most reviews emphasize properties and applications of doped TMDs, here, recent progress on thin-film synthesis and processing techniques that show excellent controllability for substitutional doping of 2D TMDs are reported. These techniques are categorized into bottom-up methods that grow doped samples on substrates directly and top-down methods that use energetic sources to implant dopants into existing 2D crystals. The doped and alloyed variants from Group VI TMDs will be at the center of technical discussions, as they are expected to play essential roles in next-generation optoelectronic applications. Theoretical backgrounds based on first principles calculations will precede the technical discussions to help the reader understand each element's likelihood of substitutional doping and the expected impact on the material properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu‐Chuan Lin
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPA16802USA
| | - Riccardo Torsi
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPA16802USA
| | - David B. Geohegan
- Center for Nanophase Materials SciencesOak Ridge National LaboratoryOak RidgeTN37831USA
| | - Joshua A. Robinson
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPA16802USA
- Two‐Dimensional Crystal ConsortiumThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPA16802USA
- Center for 2‐Dimensional and Layered MaterialsThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPA16802USA
| | - Kai Xiao
- Center for Nanophase Materials SciencesOak Ridge National LaboratoryOak RidgeTN37831USA
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7
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Elafandi S, Ahmadi Z, Azam N, Mahjouri-Samani M. Gas-Phase Formation of Highly Luminescent 2D GaSe Nanoparticle Ensembles in a Nonequilibrium Laser Ablation Process. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 10:nano10050908. [PMID: 32397239 PMCID: PMC7279401 DOI: 10.3390/nano10050908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Interest in layered two-dimensional (2D) materials has been escalating rapidly over the past few decades due to their promising optoelectronic and photonic properties emerging from their atomically thin 2D structural confinements. When these 2D materials are further confined in lateral dimensions toward zero-dimensional (0D) structures, 2D nanoparticles and quantum dots with new properties can be formed. Here, we report a nonequilibrium gas-phase synthesis method for the stoichiometric formation of gallium selenide (GaSe) nanoparticles ensembles that can potentially serve as quantum dots. We show that the laser ablation of a target in an argon background gas condenses the laser-generated plume, resulting in the formation of metastable nanoparticles in the gas phase. The deposition of these nanoparticles onto the substrate results in the formation of nanoparticle ensembles, which are then post-processed to crystallize or sinter the nanoparticles. The effects of background gas pressures, in addition to crystallization/sintering temperatures, are systematically studied. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, and time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) measurements are used to study the correlations between growth parameters, morphology, and optical properties of the fabricated 2D nanoparticle ensembles.
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8
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Zhou J, Xie M, Ji H, Cui A, Ye Y, Jiang K, Shang L, Zhang J, Hu Z, Chu J. Mixed-Dimensional Van der Waals Heterostructure Photodetector. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:18674-18682. [PMID: 32208640 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c01076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures, integrated two-dimensional (2D) materials with various functional materials, provide a distinctive platform for next-generation optoelectronics with unique flexibility and high performance. However, exploring the vdW heterostructures combined with strongly correlated electronic materials is hitherto rare. Herein, a novel temperature-sensitive photodetector based on the GaSe/VO2 mixed-dimensional vdW heterostructure is discovered. Compared with previous devices, our photodetector exhibits excellent enhanced performance, with an external quantum efficiency of up to 109.6% and the highest responsivity (358.1 mA·W-1) under a 405 nm laser. Interestingly, we show that the heterostructure overcomes the limitation of a single material under the interaction between VO2 and GaSe, where the photoresponse is highly sensitive to temperature and can be further vanished at the critical value. The metal-insulator transition of VO2, which controls the peculiar band-structure evolution across the heterointerface, is demonstrated to manipulate the photoresponse variation. This study enables us to elucidate the method of manipulating 2D materials by strongly correlated electronic materials, paving the way for developing high-performance and special optoelectronic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaoyan Zhou
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Mingzhang Xie
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Huan Ji
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Anyang Cui
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Yan Ye
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Kai Jiang
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Liyan Shang
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Jinzhong Zhang
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Zhigao Hu
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
- Shanghai Institute of Intelligent Electronics & Systems, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Junhao Chu
- Technical Center for Multifunctional Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy (Shanghai), Engineering Research Center of Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument (Ministry of Education), Department of Materials, School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
- Shanghai Institute of Intelligent Electronics & Systems, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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9
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Tumino F, Casari CS, Passoni M, Russo V, Li Bassi A. Pulsed laser deposition of single-layer MoS 2 on Au(111): from nanosized crystals to large-area films. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2019; 1:643-655. [PMID: 30931429 PMCID: PMC6394891 DOI: 10.1039/c8na00126j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) is a promising material for heterogeneous catalysis and novel two-dimensional (2D) optoelectronic devices. In this work, we synthesized single-layer (SL) MoS2 structures on Au(111) by pulsed laser deposition (PLD) under ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions. By controlling the PLD process, we were able to tune the sample morphology from low-coverage SL nanocrystals to large-area SL films uniformly wetting the whole substrate surface. We investigated the obtained MoS2 structures at the nanometer and atomic scales by means of in situ scanning tunneling microscopy/spectroscopy (STM/STS) measurements, to study the interaction between SL MoS2 and Au(111)-which for example influences MoS2 lattice orientation-the structure of point defects and the formation of in-plane MoS2/Au heterojunctions. Raman spectroscopy, performed ex situ on large-area SL MoS2, revealed significant modifications of the in-plane E12g and out-of-plane A1g vibrational modes, possibly related to strain and doping effects. Charge transfer between SL MoS2 and Au is also likely responsible for the total suppression of excitonic emission, observed by photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Tumino
- Department of Energy , Politecnico di Milano , Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 , 20133 Milano , Italy .
| | - Carlo S Casari
- Department of Energy , Politecnico di Milano , Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 , 20133 Milano , Italy .
| | - Matteo Passoni
- Department of Energy , Politecnico di Milano , Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 , 20133 Milano , Italy .
| | - Valeria Russo
- Department of Energy , Politecnico di Milano , Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 , 20133 Milano , Italy .
| | - Andrea Li Bassi
- Department of Energy , Politecnico di Milano , Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 , 20133 Milano , Italy .
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10
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Chuang CA, Lin MH, Yeh BX, Ho CH. Curvature-dependent flexible light emission from layered gallium selenide crystals. RSC Adv 2018; 8:2733-2739. [PMID: 35541498 PMCID: PMC9077378 DOI: 10.1039/c7ra11600d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Flexible optoelectronics devices play an important role for technological applications of 2D materials because of their bendable, flexible and extended two-dimensional surfaces. In this work, light emission properties of layered gallium selenide (GaSe) crystals with different curvatures have been investigated using bending photoluminescence (BPL) experiments in the curvature range between R−1 = 0.00 m−1 (flat condition) and R−1 = 30.28 m−1. A bendable and rotated sample holder was designed to control the curvature (strain) of the layered sample under upward bending uniformly. The curvature-dependent BPL results clearly show that both bandgaps and BPL intensities of the GaSe are curvature dependent with respect to the bending-radius change. The main emission peak (bandgap) is 2.005 eV for flat GaSe, and is 1.986 eV for the bending GaSe with a curvature of 30.28 m−1 (the maximum bending conditions in this experiment). An obvious redshift (i.e. energy reduction) for the GaSe BPL peak was detected owing to the c-plane lattice expansion by upward bending. The intensities of the corresponding BPL peaks also show an increase with increasing curvature. The correlations between BPL peak intensity, shiny area and bond-angle widening of the bent GaSe under laser excitation have been discussed. The lattice constant versus emission energies of the bending GaSe was also analyzed. An estimated lattice constant vs. bandgap relation was present for further application of the layered GaSe in bendable flexible light-emission devices. Curvature-dependent luminescence enhancement and bandgap shift of 2D layered GaSe under upward bending have been clearly analyzed and demonstrated.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching-An Chuang
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology
- National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
- Taipei 106
- Taiwan
| | - Min-Han Lin
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology
- National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
- Taipei 106
- Taiwan
| | - Bo-Xian Yeh
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology
- National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
- Taipei 106
- Taiwan
| | - Ching-Hwa Ho
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology
- National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
- Taipei 106
- Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Electro-Optical Engineering
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11
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Mahjouri-Samani M, Tian M, Puretzky AA, Chi M, Wang K, Duscher G, Rouleau CM, Eres G, Yoon M, Lasseter J, Xiao K, Geohegan DB. Nonequilibrium Synthesis of TiO 2 Nanoparticle "Building Blocks" for Crystal Growth by Sequential Attachment in Pulsed Laser Deposition. NANO LETTERS 2017; 17:4624-4633. [PMID: 28692299 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b01047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Nonequilibrium growth pathways for crystalline nanostructures with metastable phases are demonstrated through the gas-phase formation, attachment, and crystallization of ultrasmall amorphous nanoparticles as building blocks in pulsed laser deposition (PLD). Temporally and spatially resolved gated-intensified charge couple device (ICCD) imaging and ion probe measurements are employed as in situ diagnostics to understand and control the plume expansion conditions for the synthesis of nearly pure fluxes of ultrasmall (∼3 nm) amorphous TiO2 nanoparticles in background gases and their selective delivery to substrates. These amorphous nanoparticles assemble into loose, mesoporous assemblies on substrates at room temperature but dynamically crystallize by sequential particle attachment at higher substrate temperatures to grow nanostructures with different phases and morphologies. Molecular dynamics calculations are used to simulate and understand the crystallization dynamics. This work demonstrates that nonequilibrium crystallization by particle attachment of metastable ultrasmall nanoscale "building blocks" provides a versatile approach for exploring and controlling the growth of nanoarchitectures with desirable crystalline phases and morphologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mengkun Tian
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37966, United States
| | | | | | | | - Gerd Duscher
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37966, United States
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12
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Mahjouri-Samani M, Liang L, Oyedele A, Kim YS, Tian M, Cross N, Wang K, Lin MW, Boulesbaa A, Rouleau CM, Puretzky AA, Xiao K, Yoon M, Eres G, Duscher G, Sumpter BG, Geohegan DB. Tailoring Vacancies Far Beyond Intrinsic Levels Changes the Carrier Type and Optical Response in Monolayer MoSe2-x Crystals. NANO LETTERS 2016; 16:5213-5220. [PMID: 27416103 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b02263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Defect engineering has been a critical step in controlling the transport characteristics of electronic devices, and the ability to create, tune, and annihilate defects is essential to enable the range of next-generation devices. Whereas defect formation has been well-demonstrated in three-dimensional semiconductors, similar exploration of the heterogeneity in atomically thin two-dimensional semiconductors and the link between their atomic structures, defects, and properties has not yet been extensively studied. Here, we demonstrate the growth of MoSe2-x single crystals with selenium (Se) vacancies far beyond intrinsic levels, up to ∼20%, that exhibit a remarkable transition in electrical transport properties from n- to p-type character with increasing Se vacancy concentration. A new defect-activated phonon band at ∼250 cm(-1) appears, and the A1g Raman characteristic mode at 240 cm(-1) softens toward ∼230 cm(-1) which serves as a fingerprint of vacancy concentration in the crystals. We show that post-selenization using pulsed laser evaporated Se atoms can repair Se-vacant sites to nearly recover the properties of the pristine crystals. First-principles calculations reveal the underlying mechanisms for the corresponding vacancy-induced electrical and optical transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoud Mahjouri-Samani
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Liangbo Liang
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Akinola Oyedele
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
- Bredesen Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Graduate Education, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Yong-Sung Kim
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
- Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science , Daejeon 305-340, Korea
- Department of Nano Science, Korea University of Science and Technology , Daejeon 305-350, Korea
| | - Mengkun Tian
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Nicholas Cross
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Kai Wang
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Ming-Wei Lin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Abdelaziz Boulesbaa
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Christopher M Rouleau
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Alexander A Puretzky
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Kai Xiao
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Mina Yoon
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Gyula Eres
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Gerd Duscher
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Bobby G Sumpter
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - David B Geohegan
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
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13
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Iberi V, Liang L, Ievlev AV, Stanford MG, Lin MW, Li X, Mahjouri-Samani M, Jesse S, Sumpter BG, Kalinin SV, Joy DC, Xiao K, Belianinov A, Ovchinnikova OS. Nanoforging Single Layer MoSe2 Through Defect Engineering with Focused Helium Ion Beams. Sci Rep 2016; 6:30481. [PMID: 27480346 PMCID: PMC4969618 DOI: 10.1038/srep30481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Development of devices and structures based on the layered 2D materials critically hinges on the capability to induce, control, and tailor the electronic, transport, and optoelectronic properties via defect engineering, much like doping strategies have enabled semiconductor electronics and forging enabled introduction the of iron age. Here, we demonstrate the use of a scanning helium ion microscope (HIM) for tailoring the functionality of single layer MoSe2 locally, and decipher associated mechanisms at the atomic level. We demonstrate He(+) beam bombardment that locally creates vacancies, shifts the Fermi energy landscape and increases the Young's modulus of elasticity. Furthermore, we observe for the first time, an increase in the B-exciton photoluminescence signal from the nanoforged regions at the room temperature. The approach for precise defect engineering demonstrated here opens opportunities for creating functional 2D optoelectronic devices with a wide range of customizable properties that include operating in the visible region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vighter Iberi
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
- The Procter and Gamble Company Winton Hill Business Center (WBHC), Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA
| | - Liangbo Liang
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Anton V. Ievlev
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- The Institute for Functional Imaging of Materials, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37931, USA
| | - Michael G. Stanford
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Ming-Wei Lin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Xufan Li
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Masoud Mahjouri-Samani
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Stephen Jesse
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- The Institute for Functional Imaging of Materials, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37931, USA
| | - Bobby G. Sumpter
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- The Institute for Functional Imaging of Materials, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37931, USA
- Computer Science & Mathematics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Sergei V. Kalinin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- The Institute for Functional Imaging of Materials, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37931, USA
| | - David C. Joy
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Kai Xiao
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Alex Belianinov
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- The Procter and Gamble Company Winton Hill Business Center (WBHC), Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA
| | - Olga S. Ovchinnikova
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- The Institute for Functional Imaging of Materials, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37931, USA
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14
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Huang W, Gan L, Li H, Ma Y, Zhai T. 2D layered group IIIA metal chalcogenides: synthesis, properties and applications in electronics and optoelectronics. CrystEngComm 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ce01986a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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15
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Li X, Basile L, Huang B, Ma C, Lee J, Vlassiouk IV, Puretzky AA, Lin MW, Yoon M, Chi M, Idrobo JC, Rouleau CM, Sumpter BG, Geohegan DB, Xiao K. Van der Waals Epitaxial Growth of Two-Dimensional Single-Crystalline GaSe Domains on Graphene. ACS NANO 2015; 9:8078-8088. [PMID: 26202730 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b01943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures are a family of artificially structured materials that promise tunable optoelectronic properties for devices with enhanced functionalities. Compared to transferring, direct epitaxy of vdW heterostructures is ideal for clean interlayer interfaces and scalable device fabrication. Here we report the synthesis and preferred orientations of 2D GaSe atomic layers on graphene (Gr) by vdW epitaxy. GaSe crystals are found to nucleate predominantly on random wrinkles or grain boundaries of graphene, share a preferred lattice orientation with underlying graphene, and grow into large (tens of micrometers) irregularly shaped, single-crystalline domains. The domains are found to propagate with triangular edges that merge into the large single crystals during growth. Electron diffraction reveals that approximately 50% of the GaSe domains are oriented with a 10.5 ± 0.3° interlayer rotation with respect to the underlying graphene. Theoretical investigations of interlayer energetics reveal that a 10.9° interlayer rotation is the most energetically preferred vdW heterostructure. In addition, strong charge transfer in these GaSe/Gr vdW heterostructures is predicted, which agrees with the observed enhancement in the Raman E(2)1g band of monolayer GaSe and highly quenched photoluminescence compared to GaSe/SiO2. Despite the very large lattice mismatch of GaSe/Gr through vdW epitaxy, the predominant orientation control and convergent formation of large single-crystal flakes demonstrated here is promising for the scalable synthesis of large-area vdW heterostructures for the development of new optical and optoelectronic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xufan Li
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Leonardo Basile
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
- Departamento de Física, Escuela Politécnica Nacional , Quito 170525, Ecuador
| | - Bing Huang
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Cheng Ma
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Jaekwang Lee
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Ivan V Vlassiouk
- Energy & Transportation Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Alexander A Puretzky
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Ming-Wei Lin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Mina Yoon
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Miaofang Chi
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Juan C Idrobo
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Christopher M Rouleau
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Bobby G Sumpter
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
- Computer Science and Mathematics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - David B Geohegan
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Kai Xiao
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
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16
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Abstract
The formation of semiconductor heterojunctions and their high-density integration are foundations of modern electronics and optoelectronics. To enable two-dimensional crystalline semiconductors as building blocks in next-generation electronics, developing methods to deterministically form lateral heterojunctions is crucial. Here we demonstrate an approach for the formation of lithographically patterned arrays of lateral semiconducting heterojunctions within a single two-dimensional crystal. Electron beam lithography is used to pattern MoSe2 monolayer crystals with SiO2, and the exposed locations are selectively and totally converted to MoS2 using pulsed laser vaporization of sulfur to form MoSe2/MoS2 heterojunctions in predefined patterns. The junctions and conversion process are studied by Raman and photoluminescence spectroscopy, atomically resolved scanning transmission electron microscopy and device characterization. This demonstration of lateral heterojunction arrays within a monolayer crystal is an essential step for the integration of two-dimensional semiconductor building blocks with different electronic and optoelectronic properties for high-density, ultrathin devices. Lateral heterojunctions between two-dimensional semiconductor crystals are essential building blocks for electronic devices. Here, the authors utilize electron-beam lithography and selective conversion to simultaneously fabricate arrays of molybdenum diselenide–molybdenum disulfide heterojunctions.
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17
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Puretzky AA, Liang L, Li X, Xiao K, Wang K, Mahjouri-Samani M, Basile L, Idrobo JC, Sumpter BG, Meunier V, Geohegan DB. Low-Frequency Raman Fingerprints of Two-Dimensional Metal Dichalcogenide Layer Stacking Configurations. ACS NANO 2015; 9:6333-6342. [PMID: 25965878 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b01884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The tunable optoelectronic properties of stacked two-dimensional (2D) crystal monolayers are determined by their stacking orientation, order, and atomic registry. Atomic-resolution Z-contrast scanning transmission electron microscopy (AR-Z-STEM) and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) can be used to determine the exact atomic registration between different layers, in few-layer 2D stacks; however, fast optical characterization techniques are essential for rapid development of the field. Here, using two- and three-layer MoSe2 and WSe2 crystals synthesized by chemical vapor deposition, we show that the generally unexplored low frequency (LF) Raman modes (<50 cm(-1)) that originate from interlayer vibrations can serve as fingerprints to characterize not only the number of layers, but also their stacking configurations. Ab initio calculations and group theory analysis corroborate the experimental assignments determined by AR-Z-STEM and show that the calculated LF mode fingerprints are related to the 2D crystal symmetries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander A Puretzky
- †Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Liangbo Liang
- ‡Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Xufan Li
- †Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Kai Xiao
- †Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Kai Wang
- †Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Masoud Mahjouri-Samani
- †Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Leonardo Basile
- ∥Departamento de Física, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
| | - Juan Carlos Idrobo
- †Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Bobby G Sumpter
- †Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
- §Computer Science and Mathematics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Vincent Meunier
- ‡Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - David B Geohegan
- †Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
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18
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Yuan X, Tang L, Liu S, Wang P, Chen Z, Zhang C, Liu Y, Wang W, Zou Y, Liu C, Guo N, Zou J, Zhou P, Hu W, Xiu F. Arrayed van der Waals Vertical Heterostructures Based on 2D GaSe Grown by Molecular Beam Epitaxy. NANO LETTERS 2015; 15:3571-7. [PMID: 25923041 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b01058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Vertically stacking two-dimensional (2D) materials can enable the design of novel electronic and optoelectronic devices and realize complex functionality. However, the fabrication of such artificial heterostructures on a wafer scale with an atomically sharp interface poses an unprecedented challenge. Here, we demonstrate a convenient and controllable approach for the production of wafer-scale 2D GaSe thin films by molecular beam epitaxy. In situ reflection high-energy electron diffraction oscillations and Raman spectroscopy reveal a layer-by-layer van der Waals epitaxial growth mode. Highly efficient photodetector arrays were fabricated, based on few-layer GaSe on Si. These photodiodes show steady rectifying characteristics and a high external quantum efficiency of 23.6%. The resultant photoresponse is super-fast and robust, with a response time of 60 μs. Importantly, the device shows no sign of degradation after 1 million cycles of operation. We also carried out numerical simulations to understand the underlying device working principles. Our study establishes a new approach to produce controllable, robust, and large-area 2D heterostructures and presents a crucial step for further practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Yuan
- †State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- ‡Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Lei Tang
- †State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- ‡Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Shanshan Liu
- †State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- ‡Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Peng Wang
- §National Laboratory for Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Zhigang Chen
- ∥Materials Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Cheng Zhang
- †State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- ‡Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yanwen Liu
- †State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- ‡Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Weiyi Wang
- †State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- ‡Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yichao Zou
- ∥Materials Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Cong Liu
- §National Laboratory for Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Nan Guo
- §National Laboratory for Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Jin Zou
- ∥Materials Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- ⊥Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Peng Zhou
- #State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, Department of Microelectronics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Weida Hu
- §National Laboratory for Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Faxian Xiu
- †State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- ‡Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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