Tissue-specific actions of thyroid hormone: insights from animal models

Comparative Phenotyping of Mice Reveals Canonical and Noncanonical Physiological Functions of TRα and TRβ

Thyroid hormone (TH) effects are mediated through TH receptors (TRs), TRα1, TRβ1, and TRβ2. The TRs bind to the DNA and regulate expression of TH target genes (canonical signaling). In addition, they mediate activation of signaling pathways (noncanonical signaling). Whether noncanonical TR action contributes to the spectrum of TH effects is largely unknown. The aim of this study was to attribute physiological effects to the TR isoforms and their canonical and noncanonical signaling. We conducted multiparameter phenotyping in male and female TR knockout mice (TRαKO, TRβKO), mice with disrupted canonical signaling due to mutations in the TR DNA binding domain (TRαGS, TRβGS), and their wild-type littermates. Perturbations in senses, especially hearing (mainly TRβ with a lesser impact of TRα), visual acuity, retinal thickness (TRα and TRβ), and in muscle metabolism (TRα) highlighted the role of canonical TR action. Strikingly, selective abrogation of canonical TR action often had little phenotypic consequence, suggesting that noncanonical TR action sufficed to maintain the wild-type phenotype for specific effects. For instance, macrocytic anemia, reduced retinal vascularization, or increased anxiety-related behavior were only observed in TRαKO but not TRαGS mice. Noncanonical TRα action improved energy utilization and prevented hyperphagia observed in female TRαKO mice. In summary, by examining the phenotypes of TRα and TRβ knockout models alongside their DNA binding-deficient mutants and wild-type counterparts, we could establish that the noncanonical actions of TRα and TRβ play a crucial role in modulating sensory, behavioral, and metabolic functions and, thus, contribute to the spectrum of physiological TH effects.

Theoretical Studies on the Quantitative Structure-Toxicity Relationship of Polychlorinated Biphenyl Congeners Reveal High Affinity Binding to Multiple Human Nuclear Receptors

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are organic chemicals consisting of a biphenyl structure substituted with one to ten chlorine atoms, with 209 congeners depending on the number and position of the chlorine atoms. PCBs are widely known to be endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and have been found to be involved in several diseases/disorders. This study takes various molecular descriptors of these PCBs (e.g., molecular weight) and toxicity endpoints as molecular activities, investigating the possibility of correlations via the quantitative structure-toxicity relationship (QSTR). This study then focuses on molecular docking and dynamics to investigate the docking behavior of the strongest-binding PCBs to nuclear receptors and compares these to the docking behavior of their natural ligands. Nuclear receptors are a family of transcription factors activated by steroid hormones, and they have been investigated to consider the impact of PCBs on humans in this context. It has been observed that the docking affinity of PCBs is comparable to that of the natural ligands, but they are inferior in terms of stability and interacting forces, as shown by the RMSD and total energy values. However, it is noted that most nuclear receptors respond to PCBs similarly to how they respond to their natural ligands-as shown in the RMSF plots-the most similar of which are seen in the ER, THR-β, and RAR-α. However, this study is performed purely in silico and will need experimental verification for validation.

Thyroid hormone biosynthesis and its role in brain development and maintenance

Thyroid hormones are critical modulators in the physiological processes necessary to virtually all tissues, with exceptionally fundamental roles in brain development and maintenance. These hormones regulate essential neurodevelopment events, including neuronal migration, synaptogenesis, and myelination. Additionally, thyroid hormones are crucial for maintaining brain homeostasis and cognitive function in adulthood. This chapter aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of thyroid hormone biosynthesis and its intricate role in brain physiology. Here, we described the mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones, their influence on various aspects of brain development and ongoing maintenance, and the proteins in the brain that are responsive to these hormones. This chapter was geared towards broadening our understanding of thyroid hormone action in the brain, shedding light on potential therapeutic targets for neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders.

mRNA-miRNA networks identify metabolic pathways associated to the anti-tumorigenic effect of thyroid hormone on preneoplastic nodules and hepatocellular carcinoma

Background

Thyroid hormones (THs) inhibit hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) through different mechanisms. However, whether microRNAs play a role in the antitumorigenic effect of THs remains unknown.

Methods

By next generation sequencing (NGS) we performed a comprehensive comparative miRNomic and transcriptomic analysis of rat hepatic preneoplastic lesions exposed or not to a short-term treatment with triiodothyronine (T3). The expression of the most deregulated miRs was also investigated in rat HCCs, and in human hepatoma cell lines, treated or not with T3.

Results

Among miRs down-regulated in preneoplastic nodules following T3, co-expression networks revealed those targeting thyroid hormone receptor-β (Thrβ) and deiodinase1, and Oxidative Phosphorylation. On the other hand, miRs targeting members of the Nrf2 Oxidative Pathway, Glycolysis, Pentose Phosphate Pathway and Proline biosynthesis – all involved in the metabolic reprogramming displayed by preneoplastic lesions– were up-regulated. Notably, while the expression of most miRs deregulated in preneoplastic lesions was not altered in HCC or in hepatoma cells, miR-182, a miR known to target Dio1 and mitochondrial complexes, was down-deregulated by T3 treatment at all stages of hepatocarcinogenesis and in hepatocarcinoma cell lines. In support to the possible critical role of miR-182 in hepatocarcinogenesis, exogenous expression of this miR significantly impaired the inhibitory effect of T3 on the clonogenic growth capacity of human HCC cells.

Conclusions

This work identified several miRNAs, so far never associated to T3. In addition, the precise definition of the miRNA-mRNA networks elicited by T3 treatment gained in this study may provide a better understanding of the key regulatory events underlying the inhibitory effect of T3 on HCC development. In this context, T3-induced down-regulation of miR-182 appears as a promising tool.

Molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulation studies on thyroid hormone receptor from Rattus norvegicus: role of conserved water molecules

Thyroid hormone receptor (THR) belongs to the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily that is activated by binding of appropriate ligand molecules (thyroid hormones). These receptors directly bind to specific DNA sequences for gene expression, which is essential for metabolism, homeostasis, and the development of organisms, making it an important drug target. Extensive MD-simulation studies of triiodothyronine (T3) docked modeled rnTHRβ1 structures have indicated the presence of twelve conserved water molecules at the DNA-DBD (DNA binding domain) interface. The W1-W5 water centers have been involved in the recognition between the A-chain of DBD to C-chain of DNA, W6 and W7 mediated the interaction between A-chain of DBD and D-chain of DNA, W8 and W9 recognized the B-chain of DBD and C-chain of DNA, and W9-W12 centers conjugated the residues of B-chain of DBD to D-chain of DNA through hydrogen bonds. The conformation flexibility of Phe272 and Met313 residues in the absence of T3 at the LBD (ligand-binding domain) region have been observed and reported.

The morphological changes and molecular biomarker responses in the liver of fluoride-exposed Bufo gargarizans larvae

The goal of the current study was to evaluate the negative influences of fluoride on liver of Bufo gargarizans larvae. B. gargarizans larvae were treated with 42.4mgF^-/L for 0, 24, 48 and 72h at Gosner stage 37. The morphological changes and responses of molecular biomarkers involved in lipid metabolism, oxidative stress and apoptosis were examined in liver. Disappearance of cell boundaries, degeneration of hepatic parenchyma cells and significant increase in the number of melanomacrophage centres and the quantity of lipid droplets were found in the liver treated with 42.4mgF^-/L for 72h. In addition, in the relative expression of acetyl CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC-1), fatty acid elongase 1 (FAE-1), sterol carrier protein 2 (SCP-2), and carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT-1), decrease was observed after 24, 48 and 72h of 42.4mgF^-/L exposure. Furthermore, the transcript levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were downregulated in tadpoles exposed for 24, 48 and 72h to 42.4mgF^-/L, while the transcript level of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) was upregulated at 42.4mgF^-/L for 72h. Also, mRNA expression of Bcl-2-associated transcription factor 1(BCLAF1) and thyroid hormone receptors (TRα and TRβ) was significantly upregulated in tadpoles treated with 42.4mgF^-/L for 72h. Therefore, our results suggested that the liver injury induced by fluoride might result from disruption of lipid metabolism, oxidative damage and apoptosis.

GC-1: A Thyromimetic With Multiple Therapeutic Applications in Liver Disease

Thyroid hormones (THs), namely, 3,5,3'-triiodo-l-thyronine (T3) and 3,5,3',5'-tetraiodo-l-thyronine (thyroxine or T4), influence a variety of physiological processes that have important implications in fetal development, metabolism, cell growth, and proliferation. While THs elicit several beneficial effects on lipid metabolism and improve myocardial contractility, these therapeutically desirable effects are associated to a thyrotoxic state that severely limits the possible use of THs as therapeutic agents. Therefore, several efforts have been made to develop T3 analogs that could retain the beneficial actions (triglyceride, cholesterol, obesity, and body mass lowering) without the adverse TH-dependent side effects. This goal was achieved by the synthesis of TRβ-selective agonists. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the effects of one of the best characterized TH analogs, the TRβ1-selective thyromimetic, GC-1. In particular, we review some of the effects of GC-1 on different liver disorders, with reference to its possible clinical application. A brief comment on the possible therapeutic use of GC-1 in extrahepatic disorders is also included.

Hypothyroidism decreases JAK/STAT signaling pathway in lactating rat mammary gland

Thyroid pathologies have deleterious effects on lactation. Especially hypothyroidism (HypoT) induces premature mammary involution at the end of lactation and decreases milk production and quality in mid lactation. Milk synthesis is controlled by JAK2/STAT5 signaling pathway and prolactin (PRL), which activates the pathway. In this work we analyzed the effect of chronic 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU)-induced HypoT on PRL signaling pathway on mammary glands from rats on lactation (L) days 2, 7 and 14. HypoT decreased prolactin receptor expression, and expression and activation of Stat5a/b protein. Expression of members of the SOCS-CIS family, inhibitors of the JAK-STAT pathway, decreased in L2 and L7, possibly as a compensatory response of the mammary cells to maintain PRL responsiveness. However, on L14, the level of these inhibitors was normal and the transcription of α-lactoalbumin (lalba), a target gene of the PRL pathway, decreased by half. HypoT altered the transcriptional capacity of the cell and decreased mRNA levels of Prlr and Stat5b on L14. Stat5b gene has functional thyroid hormone response elements in the regulatory regions, that bind thyroid hormone receptor β (TRβ) differentially and in a thyroid hormone dependent manner. The overall decrease in the PRL signaling pathway and consequently in target gene (lalba) mRNA transcription explain the profound negative impact of HypoT on mammary function through lactation.

A resistance to thyroid hormone syndrome mutant operates through the target gene repertoire of the wild-type thyroid hormone receptor

Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) play crucial roles in vertebrates. Wild-type (WT) TRs function primarily as hormone-regulated transcription factors. A human endocrine disease, Resistance to Thyroid Hormone (RTH)-Syndrome, is caused by inheritance of mutant TRs impaired in the proper regulation of target gene expression. To better understand the molecular basis of RTH we compared the target genes regulated by an RTH-TRβ1 mutant (R429Q) to those regulated by WT-TRβ1. With only a few potential exceptions, the vast majority of genes we were able to identify as regulated by the WT-TRβ1, positively or negatively, were also regulated by the RTH-TRβ1 mutant. We conclude that the actions of R429Q-TRβ1 in RTH-Syndrome most likely reflect the reduced hormone affinity observed for this mutant rather than an alteration in target gene repertoire. Our results highlight the importance of target gene specificity in defining the disease phenotype and improve our understanding of how clinical treatments impact RTH-Syndrome.

Tissue thyroid hormone metabolism is differentially regulated during illness in mice

Illness induces major modifications in central and peripheral thyroid hormone (TH) metabolism, so-called nonthyroidal illness syndrome (NTIS). As a result, organ-specific changes in local TH availability occur depending on the type and severity of illness. Local TH availability is of importance for the regulation of the tissue-specific TH target genes and determined by the interplay between deiodinating enzymes, TH transport and TH receptor (TR) expression. In the present study, we evaluated changes in TH transport, deiodination and TR expression, the resulting tissue TH concentrations and the expression of TH target genes in liver and muscle in three animal models of illness. We induced (1) acute systemic inflammation by intraperitoneal injection of bacterial endotoxin (LPS), (2) chronic local inflammation by a turpentine injection in the hind limb and (3) severe pneumonia and sepsis by intranasal inoculation with Streptococcus pneumoniae We found that all aspects of peripheral TH metabolism are differentially regulated during illness, depending on the organ studied and severity of illness. In addition, tissue TH concentrations are not equally affected by the decrease in serum TH concentrations. For example, the decrease in muscle TH concentrations is less severe than the decrease observed in liver. In addition, despite lower TH concentrations in muscle in all three models, muscle T₃ action is differentially affected. These observations help to understand the complex nature of the nonthyroidal illness syndrome.

The phenotype and function of murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells is not affected by the absence of VDR or its ability to bind 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3

The nuclear vitamin D receptor (VDR) is generally recognized as a ligand-dependent transcription factor that mediates the actions of its natural ligand, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (1α,25(OH)₂D₃) on multiple target genes involved in mineral homeostasis, bone development, as well as immune reactivity. As the VDR is widely distributed in nearly all cells of the body, it implies that the vitamin D endocrine system may regulate many cell types and functions. Experiments in VDR null mice established that the VDR has intrinsically critical roles in skin and keratinocyte biology but not in immune responses. Oppositely, absence of the VDR ligand is linked to susceptibility to autoimmunity, illustrating a potential role for the unliganded VDR in the immune system. This discrepancy stimulated us to further investigate the impact of the VDR on the phenotype and function of myeloid dendritic cells (DCs) generated ex vivo from bone marrow precursors of VDR null (with a truncated VDR) and VDR ΔAF2 mice (with a mutated C-terminal activation factor 2 domain thus rendering ligand-induced gene transcription impossible). Absent or unliganded VDR did not affect bone marrow-derived myeloid DC generation. DCs obtained from VDR null and VDR ΔAF2 bone marrow cells had comparable MHC-II, and costimulatory molecule CD86, CD80 and CD40 expression than DCs from wild-type bone marrow cells. Additionally, an unliganded VDR did not affect the cytokine production nor the antigen-specific T cell stimulatory capacity of bone marrow-derived DCs. In conclusion, we showed that although clear effects of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ are described on DC generation, absence of VDR or presence of an unliganded VDR does not affect the profile and function of ex vivo generated bone marrow-derived DCs.

Peripheral thyroid hormone levels and hepatic thyroid hormone deiodinase gene expression in dairy heifers on the day of ovulation and during the early peri-implantation period

BACKGROUND

Before the onset of fetal thyroid hormone production, the transplacental delivery of maternal thyroid hormones is necessary for embryonic and fetal development. Therefore, the adaptation of maternal thyroid hormone metabolism may be important for pregnancy success and embryo survival. The aims of this study were to determine the thyroid hormone levels during the early peri-implantation period until day 18 and on the day of ovulation, to determine whether pregnancy success is dependent on a "normothyroid status" and to determine whether physiological adaptations in maternal thyroid hormone metabolism occur, which may be necessary to provide sufficient amounts of biologically active T3 to support early pregnancy. Therefore, blood samples obtained on the day of ovulation (day 0) and days 14 and 18 of the Holstein-Friesian heifers (n = 10) during the respective pregnant, non-pregnant and negative control cycles were analyzed for thyroid-stimulating-hormone (TSH), thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Liver biopsies (day 18) from pregnant and respective non-pregnant heifers were analyzed for mRNA expression of the most abundant hepatic thyroid hormone deiodinase (DIO1) by real time qPCR.

RESULTS

Although liver DIO1 mRNA expression did not differ between the pregnant and non-pregnant heifers on day 18, the serum concentrations of TSH and T3 on day 18 were higher in non-pregnant heifers compared to pregnant heifers (P < 0.05). Moreover, T3 decreased between day 0 and 18 in pregnant heifers (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, no associations between thyroid hormone patterns on day 18 and pregnancy success were detected. During the early peri-implantation period, TSH and T3 may be affected by the pregnancy status because both TSH and T3 were lower on day 18 in pregnant heifers compared to non-pregnant dairy heifers. In further studies, the thyroid hormone axis should be evaluated throughout the entire gestation to confirm these data and identify other possible effects of pregnancy on the thyroid hormone axis in cattle.

Effects of ZnO nanoparticles on perfluorooctane sulfonate induced thyroid-disrupting on zebrafish larvae

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and ZnO nanoparticles (nano-ZnO) are widely distributed in the environment. However, the potential toxicity of co-exposure to PFOS and nano-ZnO remains to be fully elucidated. The test investigated the effects of co-exposure to PFOS and nano-ZnO on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis in zebrafish. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to a combination of PFOS (0.2, 0.4, 0.8mg/L) and nano-ZnO (50mg/L) from their early stages of life (0-14days). The whole-body content of TH and the expression of genes and proteins related to the HPT axis were analyzed. The co-exposure decreased the body length and increased the malformation rates compared with exposure to PFOS alone. Co-exposure also increased the triiodothyronine (T3) levels, whereas the thyroxine (T4) content remained unchanged. Compared with the exposure to PFOS alone, exposure to both PFOS (0.8mg/L) and nano-ZnO (50mg/L) significantly up-regulated the expression of corticotropin-releasing factor, sodium/iodidesymporter, iodothyronine deiodinases and thyroid receptors and significantly down-regulated the expression of thyroid-stimulating hormone, thyroglobulin (TG), transthyretin (TTR) and thyroid receptors. The protein expression levels of TG and TTR were also significantly down-regulated in the co-exposure groups. In addition, the expression of the thyroid peroxidase gene was unchanged in all groups. The results demonstrated that PFOS and nano-ZnO co-exposure could cause more serious thyroid-disrupting effects in zebrafish than exposure to PFOS alone. Our results also provide insight into the mechanism of disruption of the thyroid status by PFOS and nano-ZnO.

T3/TRs axis in hepatocellular carcinoma: new concepts for an old pair

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, and its burden is expected to further increase in the next years. Chronic inflammation, induced by multiple viruses or metabolic alterations, and epigenetic and genetic modifications, cooperate in cancer development via a combination of common and distinct aetiology-specific pathways. In spite of the advances of classical therapies, the prognosis of this neoplasm has not considerably improved over the past few years. The advent of targeted therapies and the approval of the systemic treatment of advanced HCC with the kinase inhibitor sorafenib have provided some hope for the future. However, the benefits obtained from this treatment are still disappointing, as it extends the median life expectancy of patients by only few months. It is thus mandatory to find alternative effective treatments. Although the role played by thyroid hormones (THs) and their nuclear receptors (TRs) in human cancer is still unclear, mounting evidence indicates that they behave as oncosuppressors in HCC. However, the molecular mechanisms by which they exert this effect and the consequence of their activation following ligand binding on HCC progression remain elusive. In this review, we re-evaluate the existing evidence of the role of TH/TRs in HCC development; we will also discuss how TR alterations could affect fundamental biological processes, such as hepatocyte proliferation and differentiation, and consequently HCC progression. Finally, we will discuss if and how TRs can be foreseen as therapeutic targets in HCC and whether selective TR modulation by TH analogues may hold promise for HCC treatment.

Effects of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate on pathomorphology and gene/protein expression related to thyroid disruption in rats

Previous studies demonstrated that tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TDCIPP) caused adverse effects on thyroid hormone (TH) imbalance in aquatic and avian organisms. This study focused on the effects of TDCIPP on thyroid function and hormone homeostasis in mammals. Pubertal female Sprague-Dawley rats were orally administered 50, 100, or 250 mg per kg per d of TDCIPP from postnatal day (PND) 22 to PND42 for 21 days. The serum triiodothyronine (T3) levels increased significantly at 250 mg per kg per d of TDCIPP. There were no significant differences in the body weight, serum thyroxine (T4) and free thyroxine (FT4) levels between the control and TDCIPP treated groups. There were significant dose-dependent increases in the mRNA and protein expression levels of genes related to drug metabolism (cytochrome-p450-3A1, CYP3A1) and TH clearance (udp-glucuronosyltransferase-1A6, UGT1A6) in the liver. Treatment with TDCIPP increased hepatic type 1 deiodinase (DIO1) mRNA at 250 mg per kg per d but down-regulated hepatic TH receptor beta (TRβ) mRNA expression. In addition, TDCIPP exposure induced slight thyroid follicular hyperplasia, and several genes involved in TH biosynthesis (NIS, TPO, Tg) were altered at 100 and 250 mg per kg per d of TDCIPP. Nevertheless, serum thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels and the receptor (TSHr) mRNA significantly decreased at only the low dose group. Based on these results, we certified that TDCIPP disturbs the normal bioprocess on TH synthesis, biotransformation or clearance, and hepatic detoxification of pubertal female SD rats, causing thyroid function disorder.

Influence of Thyroid Hormones on Tendon Homeostasis

Tendinopathies have a multifactorial etiology driven by extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Recent studies have elucidated the importance of thyroid hormones in the alteration of tendons homeostasis and in the failure of tendon healing after injury. The effects of thyroid hormones are mediated by receptors (TR)-α and -β that seem to be ubiquitous. In particular, T3 and T4 play an antiapoptotic role on tenocytes, causing an increase in vital tenocytes isolated from tendons in vitro and a reduction of apoptotic ones; they are also able to influence extra cellular matrix proteins secretion in vitro from tenocytes, enhancing collagen production. From a clinical point of view, disorders of thyroid function have been investigated only for rotator cuff calcific tendinopathy and tears. In this complex scenario, further research is needed to clarify the role of thyroid hormones on the onset of tendinopathies.

Effect of hypothyroidism on the expression of nuclear receptors and their co-regulators in mammary gland during lactation in the rat

Thyroid hormones (TH) regulate mammary function. Hypothyroidism (HypoT) has deleterious effects on lactation, litter growth and survival. We analyzed the effect of chronic 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU)-induced HypoT in the expression of nuclear receptors, co-regulators and oxytocin receptor (OTR) on lactation (L) days 2, 7 and 14. TH receptors (TRs) were increased on L7 at mRNA and protein levels, except TRα protein, that fell on L14. HypoT decreased TRα2 mRNA on L7 and TRα1 protein on L2, while TRβ1 protein increased on L14. HypoT increased estrogen receptor β (ERβ) mRNA on L7 but decreased its protein levels on L14. Progesterone receptor A (PRA) mRNA decreased from L2 to L14 while PRB increased, and at protein levels PRA levels showed a nadir on L7, while PRB peaked. HypoT decreased PRA mRNA and protein and increased PRB mRNA at L14. Nuclear receptor co-activator (NCOA) 1 and RXRα mRNA showed an opposite pattern to the TRs, while NCOA2 increased at L14; HypoT blocked the variations in NCOA1 and NCOA2. HypoT increased NCOR1 on L2 and decreased OTR at L2 and circulating estradiol and NCOR2 at L14. In controls the most notable changes occurred on L7, suggesting it is a key inflection point in mammary metabolism. The low levels of TRα1, NCOA1 and OTR, and increased NCOR1 produced by HypoT on L2 may hinder the mammary ability to achieve normal milk synthesis and ejection, leading to defective lactation. Later on, altered ER and PR expression may impair further mammary function.

Enzymatic intracrine regulation of white adipose tissue

Abdominal fat formation has become a permanent risk factor for metabolic syndrome and various cancers in one-third of the world's population of obese and even lean patients. Formation of abdominal fat involves additional mechanisms beyond an imbalance in energy intake and expenditure, which explains systemic obesity. In this review, we briefly summarized autonomous regulatory circuits that locally produce hormones from inactive precursors or nutrients for intra-/auto-/paracrine signaling in white adipose depots. Enzymatic pathways activating steroid and thyroid hormones in adipose depots were compared with enzymatic production of retinoic acid from vitamin A. We discussed the role of intracrine circuits in fat-depot functions and strategies to reduce abdominal adiposity through thermogenic adipocytes with interrupted generation of retinoic acid.

Thyroid hormone regulation of metabolism

Thyroid hormone (TH) is required for normal development as well as regulating metabolism in the adult. The thyroid hormone receptor (TR) isoforms, α and β, are differentially expressed in tissues and have distinct roles in TH signaling. Local activation of thyroxine (T4), to the active form, triiodothyronine (T3), by 5'-deiodinase type 2 (D2) is a key mechanism of TH regulation of metabolism. D2 is expressed in the hypothalamus, white fat, brown adipose tissue (BAT), and skeletal muscle and is required for adaptive thermogenesis. The thyroid gland is regulated by thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). In addition to TRH/TSH regulation by TH feedback, there is central modulation by nutritional signals, such as leptin, as well as peptides regulating appetite. The nutrient status of the cell provides feedback on TH signaling pathways through epigentic modification of histones. Integration of TH signaling with the adrenergic nervous system occurs peripherally, in liver, white fat, and BAT, but also centrally, in the hypothalamus. TR regulates cholesterol and carbohydrate metabolism through direct actions on gene expression as well as cross-talk with other nuclear receptors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), liver X receptor (LXR), and bile acid signaling pathways. TH modulates hepatic insulin sensitivity, especially important for the suppression of hepatic gluconeogenesis. The role of TH in regulating metabolic pathways has led to several new therapeutic targets for metabolic disorders. Understanding the mechanisms and interactions of the various TH signaling pathways in metabolism will improve our likelihood of identifying effective and selective targets.

American Thyroid Association Guide to investigating thyroid hormone economy and action in rodent and cell models

BACKGROUND

An in-depth understanding of the fundamental principles that regulate thyroid hormone homeostasis is critical for the development of new diagnostic and treatment approaches for patients with thyroid disease.

SUMMARY

Important clinical practices in use today for the treatment of patients with hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, or thyroid cancer are the result of laboratory discoveries made by scientists investigating the most basic aspects of thyroid structure and molecular biology. In this document, a panel of experts commissioned by the American Thyroid Association makes a series of recommendations related to the study of thyroid hormone economy and action. These recommendations are intended to promote standardization of study design, which should in turn increase the comparability and reproducibility of experimental findings.

CONCLUSIONS

It is expected that adherence to these recommendations by investigators in the field will facilitate progress towards a better understanding of the thyroid gland and thyroid hormone dependent processes.

Effects on development, growth responses and thyroid-hormone systems in eyed-eggs and yolk-sac larvae of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) continuously exposed to 3,3',4,4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB-77)

Thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine, T3; and thyroxine, T4) play significant roles in development, metamorphosis, metabolism, homeostasis, cellular proliferation, and differentiation, for which the effects are mediated through thyroid hormone receptors (TRα and TRβ). Similarly, the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) is involved in growth and development through regulation of somatic growth. This study was designed to examine the effects of the dioxin-like 3,3',4,4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB-77) on responses related to growth and thyroid hormone system in eyed eggs and yolk-sac larvae of Atlantic salmon. Salmon eggs were continuously exposed to two waterborne concentrations of PCB-77 (1 or 10 ng/L) over a period of 50 d covering hatching and through yolk-sac absorption stages. Sampling was performed regularly throughout the exposure period and at different time intervals. Gene expression patterns were performed on whole-body homogenate at age 500, 548, 632, 674, and 716 dd (dd: day degrees) using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Total T3 (TT3) and total T4 (TT4) were measured using radioimmunoassay (RIA). Data showed that 10 ng PCB-77 increased dioiodinase 2 (Dio2) at 500 dd and both PCB-77 concentrations decreased dio2 expression at 548 dd. PCB-77 elevated cellular TT3 at 500 dd and was lowered at 548 dd only at 10 ng. Otherwise, time-related reduction was not affected by PCB-77 exposure as observed for the rest of the exposure period. For TT4, 1 ng PCB-77 produced a rise at 500 dd, and an apparent concentration decrease at 548 dd, before a total inhibition at 632 dd. The IGF-1 and IGF-1R were variably affected by PCB-77. For IGF-2, PCB-77 produced a concentration-dependent increase at 548 dd, and thereafter an elevation (1 ng) and fall (10 ng) at 632 dd. TRβ mRNA demonstrated PCB-77 related increases during the exposure period, and this effect returned to control levels at 716 dd. For TRα, a rise was noted only after exposure to 10 ng PCB-77 at 500 dd. Overall, the present study demonstrates some possible growth and developmental consequences following exposure to PCB-77 during early life stages of Atlantic salmon.

Pharmaceutical drugs supporting regeneration of small-intestinal mucosa severely damaged by ionizing radiation in mice

Accidental exposure of the abdomen to high-dose radiation leads to severe consequences initiated by disruption of the mucosa in the small intestine. Therapeutic options are limited, even though various treatments have been investigated, particularly in the field of regenerative therapy. In order to identify readily available treatment methods, we included several current pharmaceutical drugs, for which the clinical trials have already been completed, in tests on mice that had undergone severe mucosal damage by radiation. The drugs were injected into mice 24 h after exposure to 15.7 Gy X-rays. The effects of the drugs on the damaged mucosa of the small intestine were evaluated using early regeneration indices [the expression of c-myb mRNA, and proliferation of epithelial cells in the form of microcolonies (MCs) by Days 4 and 5 post-irradiation] and the survival rate of the mice. Enhancement of mucosal regeneration at Day 4 (c-myb: P < 0.01, MC: P < 0.05) and improvement of the survival rate (P < 0.05) were observed when a clinical dose of gonadotropin, a stimulator of androgen, was injected. Similarly, a clinical dose of thiamazole (which prevents secretion of thyroid hormone) stimulated mucosal growth by Day 5 (c-myb: P < 0.01, MC: P < 0.05) and also improved the survival rate (P < 0.05). The nonclinical drugs histamine and high-dose octreotide (a growth hormone antagonist) also gave significant survival-enhancing benefits (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively). These results can be used to construct therapeutic programs and applied in various experimental studies to control the regeneration of damaged mucosa.

Effects of thyroxine exposure on osteogenesis in mouse calvarial pre-osteoblasts

The incidence of craniosynostosis is one in every 1,800–2500 births. The gene-environment model proposes that if a genetic predisposition is coupled with environmental exposures, the effects can be multiplicative resulting in severely abnormal phenotypes. At present, very little is known about the role of gene-environment interactions in modulating craniosynostosis phenotypes, but prior evidence suggests a role for endocrine factors. Here we provide a report of the effects of thyroid hormone exposure on murine calvaria cells. Murine derived calvaria cells were exposed to critical doses of pharmaceutical thyroxine and analyzed after 3 and 7 days of treatment. Endpoint assays were designed to determine the effects of the hormone exposure on markers of osteogenesis and included, proliferation assay, quantitative ALP activity assay, targeted qPCR for mRNA expression of Runx2, Alp, Ocn, and Twist1, genechip array for 28,853 targets, and targeted osteogenic microarray with qPCR confirmations. Exposure to thyroxine stimulated the cells to express ALP in a dose dependent manner. There were no patterns of difference observed for proliferation. Targeted RNA expression data confirmed expression increases for Alp and Ocn at 7 days in culture. The genechip array suggests substantive expression differences for 46 gene targets and the targeted osteogenesis microarray indicated 23 targets with substantive differences. 11 gene targets were chosen for qPCR confirmation because of their known association with bone or craniosynostosis (Col2a1, Dmp1, Fgf1, 2, Igf1, Mmp9, Phex, Tnf, Htra1, Por, and Dcn). We confirmed substantive increases in mRNA for Phex, FGF1, 2, Tnf, Dmp1, Htra1, Por, Igf1 and Mmp9, and substantive decreases for Dcn. It appears thyroid hormone may exert its effects through increasing osteogenesis. Targets isolated suggest a possible interaction for those gene products associated with calvarial suture growth and homeostasis as well as craniosynostosis.

Thyroid hormone actions are temperature-specific and regulate thermal acclimation in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

BACKGROUND

Thyroid hormone (TH) is best known for its role in development in animals, and for its control of metabolic heat production (thermogenesis) during cold acclimation in mammals. It is unknown whether the regulatory role of TH in thermogenesis is derived in mammals, or whether TH also mediates thermal responses in earlier vertebrates. Ectothermic vertebrates show complex responses to temperature variation, but the mechanisms mediating these are poorly understood. The molecular mechanisms underpinning TH action are very similar across vertebrates, suggesting that TH may also regulate thermal responses in ectotherms. We therefore aimed to determine whether TH regulates thermal acclimation in the zebrafish (Danio rerio). We induced hypothyroidism, followed by supplementation with 3,5-diiodothyronine (T2) or 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) in zebrafish exposed to different chronic temperatures. We measured whole-animal responses (swimming performance and metabolic rates), tissue-specific regulatory enzyme activities, gene expression, and free levels of T2 and T3.

RESULTS

We found that both T3 and the lesser-known T2, regulate thermal acclimation in an ectotherm. To our knowledge, this is the first such study to show this. Hypothyroid treatment impaired performance measures in cold-acclimated but not warm-acclimated individuals, whereas supplementation with both TH metabolites restored performance. TH could either induce or repress responses, depending on the actual temperature and thermal history of the animal.

CONCLUSIONS

The low sensitivity to TH at warm temperatures could mean that increasing temperatures (that is, global warming) will reduce the capacity of animals to regulate their physiologies to match demands. We suggest that the properties that underlie the role of TH in thermal acclimation (temperature sensitivity and metabolic control) may have predisposed this hormone for a regulatory role in the evolution of endothermy.

Mechanisms of thyroid hormone action

Our understanding of thyroid hormone action has been substantially altered by recent clinical observations of thyroid signaling defects in syndromes of hormone resistance and in a broad range of conditions, including profound mental retardation, obesity, metabolic disorders, and a number of cancers. The mechanism of thyroid hormone action has been informed by these clinical observations as well as by animal models and has influenced the way we view the role of local ligand availability; tissue and cell-specific thyroid hormone transporters, corepressors, and coactivators; thyroid hormone receptor (TR) isoform-specific action; and cross-talk in metabolic regulation and neural development. In some cases, our new understanding has already been translated into therapeutic strategies, especially for treating hyperlipidemia and obesity, and other drugs are in development to treat cardiac disease and cancer and to improve cognitive function.

Curcumin and vitamin E modulate hepatic antioxidant gene expression in PTU-induced hypothyroid rats

In the present study, regulatory role of vitamin E and curcumin on antioxidant gene (AOG) expression in hypothyroid rat liver is reported. Adult male rats were rendered hypothyroid by administration of 0.05 % 6-propyl-thiouracil in their drinking water, while vitamin E (200 mg/kg body weight) and curcumin (30 mg/kg body weight) were supplemented orally for 30 days. Expression of antioxidant genes (Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase; SOD1, Mn superoxide dismutase; SOD2, catalase; CAT, glutathione peroxidase; GPx1 and glutathione reductase; GR) was evaluated using RT-PCR and Western blot analyses. The activities of antioxidant enzymes were measured in mitochondrial fraction (MF) and post-mitochondrial fraction (PMF) of rat liver. In addition measurement of glutathione redox status was also carried out in both the fractions. The enhanced transcripts of CAT, GPx1 and GR in hypothyroid rat liver were alleviated by administration of vitamin E and curcumin. Elevated levels of translated product of all AOGs in hypothyroid group were remained unchanged after antioxidant administration. However, enhanced SOD1, GPx1 and decreased GR activities in PMF were normalized by vitamin E and curcumin. Similarly the increased SOD2, GPx1 and decreased CAT activities in MF were also normalized by vitamin E and curcumin supplementation. Administration of vitamin E and curcumin enhanced mitochondrial GSH level; whereas the enhanced GSH level in PMF of hypothyroid rats was alleviated by vitamin E. Thus it can be concluded that besides the antioxidant role of vitamin E and curcumin, they also regulate hepatic antioxidant gene expression in hypothyroid rats.

Arrested embryonic development: a review of strategies to delay hatching in egg-laying reptiles

Arrested embryonic development involves the downregulation or cessation of active cell division and metabolic activity, and the capability of an animal to arrest embryonic development results in temporal plasticity of the duration of embryonic period. Arrested embryonic development is an important reproductive strategy for egg-laying animals that provide no parental care after oviposition. In this review, we discuss each type of embryonic developmental arrest used by oviparous reptiles. Environmental pressures that might have directed the evolution of arrest are addressed and we present previously undiscussed environmentally dependent physiological processes that may occur in the egg to bring about arrest. Areas for future research are proposed to clarify how ecology affects the phenotype of developing embryos. We hypothesize that oviparous reptilian mothers are capable of providing their embryos with a level of phenotypic adaptation to local environmental conditions by incorporating maternal factors into the internal environment of the egg that result in different levels of developmental sensitivity to environmental conditions after they are laid.

Neuroendocrine dysregulation and the growth hormone-IGF-1 axis in anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa is a common psychiatric disorder characterized by extreme, self-induced starvation and is associated with a number of medical complications, including significant loss of bone mass. Disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis has been demonstrated in anorexia nervosa and contributes to both loss of established bone mass in adults and failure to accrue normal bone mass in adolescents. Anorexia nervosa is associated with the development of a state of acquired growth hormone (GH) resistance, characterized by low IGF-1 and elevated GH levels, which may be mediated in part by FGF-21. Administration of supraphysiologic recombinant human GH does not result in an increase in markers of bone formation. However, treatment with recombinant human IGF-1, in combination with an oral contraceptive, increases markers of bone formation as well as bone mineral density, and may be a novel way to treat the bone loss associated with anorexia nervosa.

Synthesis and evaluation of sulfonylnitrophenylthiazoles (SNPTs) as thyroid hormone receptor-coactivator interaction inhibitors

We previously identified a series of methylsulfonylnitrobenzoates (MSNBs) that block the interaction of the thyroid hormone receptor with its coactivators. MSNBs inhibit coactivator binding through irreversible modification of cysteine 298 of the thyroid hormone receptor (TR). Although MSNBs have better pharmacological features than our first generation inhibitors (β-aminoketones), they contain a potentially unstable ester linkage. Here we report the bioisosteric replacement of the ester linkage with a thiazole moiety, yielding sulfonylnitrophenylthiazoles (SNPTs). An array of SNPTs representing optimal side chains from the MSNB series was constructed using parallel chemistry and evaluated to test their antagonism of the TR-coactivator interaction. Selected active compounds were evaluated in secondary confirmatory assays including regulation of thyroid response element driven transcription in reporter constructs and native genes. In addition the selected SNPTs were shown to be selective for TR relative to other nuclear hormone receptors (NRs).

Embryonic communication in the nest: metabolic responses of reptilian embryos to developmental rates of siblings

Incubation temperature affects developmental rates and defines many phenotypes and fitness characteristics of reptilian embryos. In turtles, eggs are deposited in layers within the nest, such that thermal gradients create independent developmental conditions for each egg. Despite differences in developmental rate, several studies have revealed unexpected synchronicity in hatching, however, the mechanisms through which synchrony are achieved may be different between species. Here, we examine the phenomenon of synchronous hatching in turtles by assessing proximate mechanisms in an Australian freshwater turtle (Emydura macquarii). We tested whether embryos hatch prematurely or developmentally compensate in response to more advanced embryos in a clutch. We established developmental asynchrony within a clutch of turtle eggs and assessed both metabolic and heart rates throughout incubation in constant and fluctuating temperatures. Turtles appeared to hatch at similar developmental stages, with less-developed embryos in experimental groups responding to the presence of more developed eggs in a clutch by increasing both metabolic and heart rates. Early hatching did not appear to reduce neuromuscular ability at hatching. These results support developmental adjustment mechanisms of the 'catch-up hypothesis' for synchronous hatching in E. macquarii and implies some level of embryo-embryo communication. The group environment of a nest strongly supports the development of adaptive communication mechanisms between siblings and the evolution of environmentally cued hatching.

Thyroid hormone receptor mutations in cancer and resistance to thyroid hormone: perspective and prognosis

Thyroid hormone, operating through its receptors, plays crucial roles in the control of normal human physiology and development; deviations from the norm can give rise to disease. Clinical endocrinologists often must confront and correct the consequences of inappropriately high or low thyroid hormone synthesis. Although more rare, disruptions in thyroid hormone endocrinology due to aberrations in the receptor also have severe medical consequences. This review will focus on the afflictions that are caused by, or are closely associated with, mutated thyroid hormone receptors. These include Resistance to Thyroid Hormone Syndrome, erythroleukemia, hepatocellular carcinoma, renal clear cell carcinoma, and thyroid cancer. We will describe current views on the molecular bases of these diseases, and what distinguishes the neoplastic from the non-neoplastic. We will also touch on studies that implicate alterations in receptor expression, and thyroid hormone levels, in certain oncogenic processes.

A mechanism for pituitary-resistance to thyroid hormone (PRTH) syndrome: a loss in cooperative coactivator contacts by thyroid hormone receptor (TR)beta2

Thyroid hormone receptors (TR) are hormone-modulated transcription factors that regulate overall metabolic rate, lipid utilization, heart rate, and development. TR are expressed as a mix of interrelated receptor isoforms. The TRβ2 isoform is expressed in the hypothalamus and pituitary, where it plays an important role in the feedback regulation of thyroid hormone levels. TRβ2 exhibits unique transcriptional properties that parallel the ability of this isoform to bind to certain coactivators cooperatively through multiple contact surfaces. The more peripherally expressed TRβ1 isoform, in contrast, appears to recruit these coactivators through a single contact mechanism. We report here that clusters of charged amino acids in the TR hormone-binding domain are required for this enhanced mode of coactivator recruitment and that mutations in these charge clusters, by disrupting TRβ2 coactivator binding, are a molecular basis for pituitary resistance to thyroid hormone, a disease characterized by inappropriate thyroid hormone feedback regulation. We propose that the charge clusters allow wild-type TRβ2 to assume a conformation compatible with its mode of multiple contact coactivator recruitment, whereas disruption of these charge clusters disrupts normal T(3) homeostasis by reducing TRβ2 to a TRβ1-like, single contact mode of coactivator binding.

Methylsulfonylnitrobenzoates, a new class of irreversible inhibitors of the interaction of the thyroid hormone receptor and its obligate coactivators that functionally antagonizes thyroid hormone

Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor (NR) superfamily and regulate development, growth, and metabolism. Upon binding thyroid hormone, TR undergoes a conformational change that allows the release of corepressors and the recruitment of coactivators, which in turn regulate target gene transcription. Although a number of TR antagonists have been developed, most are analogs of the endogenous hormone that inhibit ligand binding. In a screen for inhibitors that block the association of TRβ with steroid receptor coactivator 2 (SRC2), we identified a novel methylsulfonylnitrobenzoate (MSNB)-containing series that blocks this interaction at micromolar concentrations. Here we have studied a series of MSNB analogs and characterized their structure activity relationships. MSNB members do not displace thyroid hormone T3 but instead act by direct displacement of SRC2. MSNB series members are selective for the TR over the androgen, vitamin D, and PPARγ NR members, and they antagonize thyroid hormone-activated transcription action in cells. The methylsulfonylnitro group is essential for TRβ antagonism. Side-chain alkylamine substituents showed better inhibitory activity than arylamine substituents. Mass spectrum analysis suggested that MSNB inhibitors bind irreversibly to Cys-298 within the AF-2 cleft of TRβ to disrupt SRC2 association.

The T3 receptor beta1 isoform regulates UCP1 and D2 deiodinase in rat brown adipocytes

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis increases when uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) is activated adrenergically and requires T3. In humans, UCP1 activation in BAT seems involved in body weight maintenance. BAT type 2 deiodinase (D2) increases in response to adrenergic agents, producing the T3 required for UCP1 expression. T3 actions are mediated by thyroid hormone nuclear T3 receptors (TR), TRα and TRβ. Studies in mice suggest that TRβ is required for UCP1 induction, whereas TRα regulates body temperature and adrenergic sensitivity. In the present study, we compare the effects of T3 vs. specific TRβ1 and TRα1 agonists [GC-1 and CO23] on the adrenergic induction of UCP1 and D2 in cultured rat brown adipocytes. T3 and GC-1 produced similar increases on UCP1, whereas CO23 increased UCP1 only at high doses (50 nm). GC-1 at low doses (0.2-10 nm) was less potent than T3, increasing the adrenergic stimulation of D2 activity and mRNA. At higher doses, GC-1 further stimulated whereas T3 inhibited D2 activity but not D2 mRNA, suggesting posttranscriptional effects. CO23 had no effect on D2 activity but increased D2 mRNA. T3, GC-1, or CO23 by themselves did not increase UCP1 or D2 mRNA. High T3 doses shortened D2 half-life and increased D2 turnover via proteasome, whereas GC-1 did not change D2 stability. The α1- and α2-adrenergic D2 responses increased using high T3 doses. In summary, T3 increases the adrenergic stimulation of UCP1 and D2 expression mostly via the TRβ1 isoform, and in brown adipocytes, D2 is protected from degradation by the action of T3 on TRβ1.

Regulation of expression of antioxidant enzymes by vitamin E and curcumin in L-thyroxine-induced oxidative stress in rat renal cortex

The present study investigates the antioxidative effects of vitamin E and curcumin against L-thyroxine (T(4))-induced oxidative stress in renal cortex of adult male rats. Rats were made hyperthyroid by administration of L-thyroxine (0.0012%) in their drinking water for 30 days. Vitamin E (200 mg/kg body weight/day) and curcumin (30 mg/kg body weight/day) were supplemented singly or in combination orally for 30 days along with L-thyroxine treatment. The elevated level of oxidative stress parameters (lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation) and decline level of small antioxidant molecules (reduced glutathione and ascorbic acid) in renal cortex of T(4)-treated rats were restored back by supplementation of vitamin E or/and curcumin. Increased superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in kidney cortex of T(4)-treated rats were ameliorated in response to vitamin E or/and curcumin treatment. The elevated translated product of Cu/Zn-SOD, Mn-SOD and catalase in T(4)-treated rats were differentially reduced by the administration of vitamin E and curcumin independently or in combination. Cu/Zn-SOD expression was ameliorated by both vitamin E and curcumin independently or in combination, whereas Mn-SOD expression was ameliorated by the supplementation of vitamin E or curcumin independently. However, the expression of catalase was alleviated by only supplementation of vitamin E to T(4)-treated rats. The results suggest that both vitamin E and curcumin may play an important role in protecting T(4)-induced oxidative stress in rat renal cortex by differentially modulating the activities of antioxidant enzymes and oxidative stress parameters.

Impaired metabolic effects of a thyroid hormone receptor beta-selective agonist in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity

BACKGROUND

The use of selective agonists of the thyroid hormone receptor isoform beta (TRbeta) has been linked to metabolic improvement in animal models of diet-induced obesity, nonalcoholic liver disease, and genetic hypercholesterolemia.

METHODS

To identify potential target tissues of such compounds, we exposed primary murine brown adipocytes and skeletal myocytes for 24 hours to 50 nM GC-24, a highly selective TRbeta agonist. GC-24 (17 ng/[g BW.day] for 36 days) was also tested in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity.

RESULTS

While the brown adipocytes responded to GC-24, with 17%-400% increases in the expression of 12 metabolically relevant genes, the myocytes remained largely unresponsive to GC-24 treatment. In control mice kept on chow diet, GC-24 treatment accelerated energy expenditure by about 15% and limited body weight gain by about 50%. However, in the obese animals the GC-24-mediated reduction in body weight gain dropped to only 20%, while energy expenditure remained unaffected. In addition, an analysis of gene expression in the skeletal muscle, brown adipose tissue, and liver of these obese animals failed to identify a conclusive GC-24 transcriptome footprint.

CONCLUSION

Feeding a high-fat diet impairs most of the beneficial metabolic effects associated with treatment with TRbeta-selective agonists.

Behavioral toxicology in the 21st century: challenges and opportunities for behavioral scientists. Summary of a symposium presented at the annual meeting of the neurobehavioral teratology society, June, 2009

The National Research Council (NRC) of the National Academies of Science recently published a report of its vision of toxicity testing in the 21st century. The report proposes that the current toxicity testing paradigm that depends upon whole-animal tests be replaced with a strategy based upon in vitro tests, in silico models and evaluations of toxicity at the human population level. These goals are intended to set in motion changes that will transform risk assessment into a process in which adverse effects on public health are predicted by quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models and data from suites of high-throughput in vitro tests. The potential roles for whole-animal testing in this futuristic vision are both various and undefined. A symposium was convened at the annual meeting of the Neurobehavioral Teratology Society in Rio Grande, Puerto Rico in June, 2009 to discuss the potential challenges and opportunities for behavioral scientists in developing and/or altering this strategy toward the ultimate goal of protecting public health from hazardous chemicals. R. Kavlock described the NRC vision, introduced the concept of the 'toxicity pathway' (a central guiding principle of the NRC vision), and described the current status of an initial implementation this approach with the EPA's ToxCast(R) program. K. Crofton described a pathway based upon disruption of thyroid hormone metabolism during development, including agents, targets, and outcomes linked by this mode of action. P. Bushnell proposed a pathway linking the neural targets and cellular to behavioral effects of acute exposure to organic solvents, whose predictive power is limited by our incomplete understanding of the complex CNS circuitry that mediates the behavioral responses to solvents. B. Weiss cautioned the audience regarding a pathway approach to toxicity testing, using the example of the developmental toxicity of phthalates, whose effects on mammalian sexual differentiation would be difficult to identify based on screening tests in vitro. Finally, D. Rice raised concerns regarding the use of data derived from toxicity screening tests to human health risk assessments. Discussion centered around opportunities and challenges for behavioral toxicologists regarding this impending paradigm shift. Opportunities include: identifying and characterizing toxicity pathways; informing the conditions and limits of extrapolation; addressing issues of susceptibility and variability; providing reality-checks on selected positives and negatives from screens; and performing targeted testing and dose-response assessments of chemicals flagged during screening. Challenges include: predicting behavior using models of complex neurobiological pathways; standardizing study designs and dependent variables to facilitate creation of databases; and managing the cost and efficiency of behavioral assessments. Thus, while progress is being made in approaching the vision of 21st century toxicology, we remain a long way from replacing whole-animal tests; indeed, some animal testing will be essential for the foreseeable future at least. Initial advances will likely provide better prioritization tools so that animal resources are used more efficiently and effectively.

Expression of uncoupling protein 1 in mouse brown adipose tissue is thyroid hormone receptor-beta isoform specific and required for adaptive thermogenesis

Cold-induced adaptive (or nonshivering) thermogenesis in small mammals is produced primarily in brown adipose tissue (BAT). BAT has been identified in humans and becomes more active after cold exposure. Heat production from BAT requires sympathetic nervous system stimulation, T(3), and uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) expression. Our previous studies with a thyroid hormone receptor-beta (TR beta) isoform-selective agonist demonstrated that after TR beta stimulation alone, adaptive thermogenesis was markedly impaired, although UCP-1 expression in BAT was normal. We used mice with a dominant-negative TR beta PV mutation (frameshift mutation in resistance to thyroid hormone patient PV) to determine the role of TR beta in adaptive thermogenesis and UCP1 expression. Wild-type and PV mutant mice were made hypothyroid and replaced with T(3) (7 ng/g x d) for 10 d to produce similar serum thyroid hormone concentration in the wild-type and mutant mice. The thermogenic response of interscapular BAT, as determined by heat production during iv infusions of norepinephrine, was reduced in PV beta heterozygous and homozygous mutant mice. The level of UCP1, the key thermogenic protein in BAT, was progressively reduced in PV beta(+/-) and PV beta(-/-) mutant mice. Brown adipocytes isolated from PV mutant mice had some reduction in cAMP and glycerol production in response to adrenergic stimulation. Defective adaptive thermogenesis in TR beta PV mutant mice is due to reduced UCP1 expression and reduced adrenergic responsiveness. TR beta mediates T(3) regulation of UCP1 in BAT and is required for adaptive thermogenesis.

A TRbeta-selective agonist confers resistance to diet-induced obesity

Thyroid hormone receptor beta (TRbeta also listed as THRB on the MGI Database)-selective agonists activate brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis, while only minimally affecting cardiac activity or lean body mass. Here, we tested the hypothesis that daily administration of the TRbeta agonist GC-24 prevents the metabolic alterations associated with a hypercaloric diet. Rats were placed on a high-fat diet and after a month exhibited increased body weight (BW) and adiposity, fasting hyperglycemia and glucose intolerance, increased plasma levels of triglycerides, cholesterol, nonesterified fatty acids and interleukin-6. While GC-24 administration to these animals did not affect food ingestion or modified the progression of BW gain, it did increase energy expenditure, eliminating the increase in adiposity without causing cardiac hypertrophy. Fasting hyperglycemia remained unchanged, but treatment with GC-24 improved glucose tolerance by increasing insulin sensitivity, and also normalized plasma triglyceride levels. Plasma cholesterol levels were only partially normalized and liver cholesterol content remained high in the GC-24-treated animals. Gene expression in liver, skeletal muscle, and white adipose tissue was only minimally affected by treatment with GC-24, with the main target being BAT. In conclusion, during high-fat feeding treatment with the TRbeta-selective agonist, GC-24 only partially improves metabolic control probably as a result of accelerating the resting metabolic rate.

Thyroid hormone receptor mutants implicated in human hepatocellular carcinoma display an altered target gene repertoire

Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are hormone-regulated transcription factors that control multiple aspects of normal physiology and development. Mutations in TRs have been identified at high frequency in certain cancers, including human hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs). The majority of HCC-TR mutants bear lesions within their DNA recognition domains, and we have hypothesized that these lesions change the mutant receptors' target gene repertoire in a way crucial to their function as oncoproteins. Using stable cell transformants and expression array analysis, we determined that mutant TRs isolated from two different HCCs do, as hypothesized, display a target gene repertoire distinct from that of their normal TR progenitors. Only a subset of genes regulated by wild-type TRs was regulated by the corresponding HCC-TR mutants. More surprisingly, the HCC-TR mutants also gained the ability to regulate additional target genes not recognized by the wild-type receptors, and were not simply restricted to repression, but could also activate a subset of their target genes. We conclude that the TR mutants isolated from HCC have sustained multiple alterations from their normal progenitors that include not only changes in their transcriptional outputs, but also changes in the genes they target; both are likely to contribute to neoplasia.

Improvement of pharmacological properties of irreversible thyroid receptor coactivator binding inhibitors

We have previously reported the discovery and preliminary structure activity relationships of a series of beta-aminoketones that disrupt the binding of coactivators to TR. However, the most active compounds had moderate inhibitory potency and relatively high cytotoxicity, resulting in narrow therapeutic index. Additionally, preliminary evaluation of in vivo toxicology revealed a significant dose related cardiotoxicity. Here we describe the improvement of pharmacological properties of thyroid hormone receptor coactivator binding inhibitors. A comprehensive survey of the effects of substitutents in key areas of the molecule was carried out based on mechanistic insight from the earlier report. This study revealed that both electron withdrawing and hydrophobic substituents on the aromatic ring led to higher potency. On the other hand, moving from an alkyl to a sulfonyl alkyl side chain led to reduced cytotoxicity. Finally, utilization of amine moieties having low pK(a)'s resulted in lowered ion channel activity without any loss of pharmacological activity.

Isoform-specific transcriptional activity of overlapping target genes that respond to thyroid hormone receptors alpha1 and beta1

Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are hormone-regulated transcription factors that control multiple aspects of physiology and development. TRs are expressed in vertebrates as a series of distinct isoforms that exert distinct biological roles. We wished to determine whether the two most widely expressed isoforms, TR alpha 1 and TR beta 1, exert their different biological effects by regulating different sets of target genes. Using stably transformed HepG2 cells and a microarray analysis, we were able to demonstrate that TR alpha 1 and TR beta 1 regulate a largely overlapping repertoire of target genes in response to T(3) hormone. However, these two isoforms display very different transcriptional properties on each individual target gene, ranging from a much greater T(3)-mediated regulation by TR alpha 1 than by TR beta 1, to near equal regulation by both isoforms. We also identified TR alpha 1 and TR beta 1 target genes that were regulated by these receptors in a hormone-independent fashion. We suggest that it is this gene-specific, isoform-specific amplitude of transcriptional regulation that is the likely basis for the appearance and maintenance of TR alpha 1 and TR beta 1 over evolutionary time. In essence, TR alpha 1 and TR beta 1 adjust the magnitude of the transcriptional response at different target genes to different levels; by altering the ratio of these isoforms in different tissues or at different developmental times, the intensity of T(3) response can be individually tailored to different physiological and developmental requirements.

Thyroid hormone and cerebellar development

Thyroid hormone (TH) plays a key role in mammalian brain development. The developing brain is sensitive to both TH deficiency and excess. Brain development in the absence of TH results in motor skill deficiencies and reduced intellectual development. These functional abnormalities can be attributed to maldevelopment of specific cell types and regions of the brain including the cerebellum. TH functions at the molecular level by regulating gene transcription. Therefore, understanding how TH regulates cerebellar development requires identification of TH-regulated gene targets and the cells expressing these genes. Additionally, the process of TH-dependent regulation of gene expression is tightly controlled by mechanisms including regulation of TH transport, TH metabolism, toxicologic inhibition of TH signaling, and control of the nuclear TH response apparatus. This review will describe the functional, cellular, and molecular effects of TH deficit in the developing cerebellum and emphasize the most recent findings regarding TH action in this important brain region.

The p160 coactivator PAS-B motif stabilizes nuclear receptor binding and contributes to isoform-specific regulation by thyroid hormone receptors

Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are hormone-regulated transcription factors that play multiple roles in vertebrate endocrinology and development. TRs are expressed as a series of distinct receptor isoforms that mediate different biological functions. The TRbeta2 isoform is expressed primarily in the hypothalamus, pituitary, cochlea, and retina, and displays an enhanced response to hormone agonist relative to the other TR isoforms. We report here that the unusual transcriptional properties of TRbeta2 parallel the ability of this isoform to bind p160 coactivators cooperatively through multiple contact surfaces; the more broadly expressed TRbeta1 isoform, in contrast, utilizes a single contact mechanism. Intriguingly, the PAS-B domain in the p160 N terminus plays a previously unanticipated role in permitting TRbeta2 to recruit coactivator at limiting triiodothyronine concentrations. The PAS-B sequences also play an important role in coactivator binding by estrogen receptor-alpha. We propose that the PAS-B domain of the p160 coactivators is an important modulator of coactivator recruitment for a specific subset of nuclear receptors, permitting stronger transcriptional activation at lower hormone concentrations than would otherwise occur, and allowing isoform-specific mRNA splicing to customize the hormone response in different tissues.

Thyroid hormone action: nongenomic modulation of neuronal excitability in the hippocampus

Years of effort have failed to establish a generally-accepted mechanism of thyroid hormone (TH) action in the mature brain. Recently, both morphological and pharmacological evidence have supported a direct neuroactive role for the hormone and its triiodinated metabolites. However, no direct physiological validation has been available. We now describe electrophysiological studies in vivo in which we observed that local thyroxine (T4) administration promptly inhibited field excitatory postsynaptic potentials recorded in the dentate gyrus (DG) with stimulation of the medial perforant pathway, a result that was found to be especially pronounced in hypothyroid rats. In separate in vitro experiments, we observed more subtle but statistically significant responses of hippocampal slices to treatment with the hormone. The results demonstrate that baseline firing rates of CA1 pyramidal cells were modestly reduced by pulse-perfusion with T4. By contrast, administration of triiodothyronine (T3) was often noted to have modest enhancing effects on CA1 cell firing rates in hippocampal slices from euthyroid animals. Moreover, and more reliably, robust firing rate increases induced by norepinephrine were amplified when preceded by treatment with T3, whereas they were diminished by pretreatment with T4. These studies provide the first direct evidence for functional, nongenomic actions of TH leading to rapid changes in neuronal excitability in adult rat DG studied in vivo and highlight the opposing effects of T4 and T3 on norepinephrine-induced responses of CA1 cells studied in vitro.