Adolescent Self-Esteem and Gender: Exploring Relations to Sexual Harassment, Body Image, Media Influence, and Emotional Expression

The bidirectional relationship between benign/malicious envy and subjective well-being in adolescents: The mediating effect of self-esteem

INTRODUCTION

Subjective well-being, an important index for measuring mental health, is presently declining among junior high school students. Envy, one of their common emotions, is inextricably linked to subjective well-being. Based on the Dual Envy Theory, our research explores the bidirectional relationship between benign-malicious envy and subjective well-being. The mediating role of self-esteem, as well as the related gender differences, is examined.

METHODS

Chinese middle school students (n = 1566, boys 50.3%, age = 13.96 ± 0.88 years old) were assessed at two time points over a 3-month interval. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the longitudinal relationships among the variables.

RESULTS

(1) Cross-lagged analysis showed a positive bidirectional relationship between benign envy and subjective well-being and a negative bidirectional relationship between malicious envy and subjective well-being in the total sample. However, the path from T1 subjective well-being to T2 malicious envy in boys was not significant. (2) Self-esteem mediated the relationship between both benign and malicious envy and subjective well-being among both boys and girls. A Wald chi-square test showed that T2 self-esteem was a stronger predictor of T2 benign envy in boys than in girls.

CONCLUSION

The results reveal a virtuous cycle of benign envy and subjective well-being, and a vicious cycle of malicious envy and subjective well-being, while emphasizing the role of self-esteem in this process. Gender differences were also noted. These findings have important implications for improving the subjective well-being of secondary school students and exploring the positive effects of envy.

Boys don't cry (or kiss or dance): A computational linguistic lens into gendered actions in film

Contemporary media is full of images that reflect traditional gender notions and stereotypes, some of which may perpetuate harmful gender representations. In an effort to highlight the occurrence of these adverse portrayals, researchers have proposed machine-learning methods to identify stereotypes in the language patterns found in character dialogues. However, not all of the harmful stereotypes are communicated just through dialogue. As a complementary approach, we present a large-scale machine-learning framework that automatically identifies character's actions from scene descriptions found in movie scripts. For this work, we collected 1.2+ million scene descriptions from 912 movie scripts, with more than 50 thousand actions and 20 thousand movie characters. Our framework allow us to study systematic gender differences in movie portrayals at a scale. We show this through a series of statistical analyses that highlight differences in gender portrayals. Our findings provide further evidence to claims from prior media studies including: (i) male characters display higher agency than female characters; (ii) female actors are more frequently the subject of gaze, and (iii) male characters are less likely to display affection. We hope that these data resources and findings help raise awareness on portrayals of character actions that reflect harmful gender stereotypes, and demonstrate novel possibilities for computational approaches in media analysis.

Gender Differences in the Effects of BMI on School Bullying and Victimization in China: Comparing Normal Weight, Underweight and Overweight Secondary School Students

Weight-related school bullying and victimization have become important public health issues among adolescents around the world. This study aims to examine gender differences in the effects of Body Mass Index (BMI) on school bullying and victimization among secondary school students. This study conducted a survey among 2849 adolescents—1393 girls (48.9%) and 1456 boys (51.1%). The students were between 12 and 18 years of age and were recruited from ten secondary schools in 2019 in Suqian City in China. The study showed that overweight boys were more likely to bully others and be bullied by peers compared to normal weight boys. In contrast, overweight girls reported less bullying than normal-weight girls. No significant relationship was found between overweight and victimization among female students. The implications for comprehensive sexuality education practices are also discussed.

Are Adolescents With Higher Self-Esteem More Prosocial? Exploring the Moderating Effect of Self-Compassion in Different Genders

Previous studies have revealed a positive relationship between self-esteem and prosocial behavior. Based on social mentality theory, the authors propose that self-compassion as a self-soothing system moderates the relationship in adolescents girls and not in adolescent boys. A total of 540 adolescents from 12 to 14 years old completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Self-Compassion Scale, and Prosocial Tendencies Measure. The results showed that both self-esteem and self-compassion were positively correlated with prosocial behavior, self-compassion moderated the relationship between self-esteem and altruistic or anonymous prosocial behavior, and self-compassion moderated the relationship between self-esteem and dire prosocial behavior and the moderating effect was moderated by gender. In conclusion, the present study indicates that self-esteem and self-compassion, as two important aspects of the self, are beneficial to prosocial behavior in adolescence. Self-compassion strengthens the relationship between self-esteem and specific prosocial behavior, especially for adolescent girls.

Social support, resilience, and self-esteem protect against common mental health problems in early adolescence: A nonrecursive analysis from a two-year longitudinal study

The aim of this study is to examine the mutual effects of self-esteem and common mental health problems (CMHPs) as well as the mutual effects of self-esteem and resilience in early adolescence. The recruited participants were 1015 adolescents aged 12.7 years (SD = 0.5 years) from two junior high schools. Data were repeatedly collected at five time points at 6-month intervals over 2-year years. The Social Support Rating Scale (SSRS), Block and Kremen's Ego-Resiliency Scale (ER89), Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES), and Mental Health Inventory of Middle School Students (MMHI-60) were used to measure social support, resilience, self-esteem, and CMHPs, respectively. Nonrecursive structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to analyze the data.There were bivariate partial correlations among the five-time measurements for the SSRS, ER89, RSES, and MMHI-60 scores. Self-esteem negatively predicted CMHPs with a standardized direct effect of -0.276 (95% CI: -0.425 to -0.097), and the opposite effect was -0.227 (95% CI: -0.383 to -0.072). Self-esteem positively predicted resilience with the standardized direct effect of 0.279 (95% CI: 0.093-0.425), and the opposite effect was 0.221 (95% CI: 0.063-0.376). Social support was a protective factor for mental health status.The findings of mutual effects of self-esteem and CMHPs as well as self-esteem and resilience can provide researchers and practitioners with a conceptual framework that can help them build effective intervention methods to promote adolescent mental health status.

Depiction of Sexual Harassment in Medical Television Shows

Background and objective

Medical television (TV) shows are known to exaggerate medical scenarios, including relationships among/between medical staff and patients. Unfortunately, sexual harassment occurs within the medical and nursing profession. The objective of this study was to analyze the depiction of sexual harassment in eight popular medical TV shows.

Methods

The first 10 episodes of the first season of eight popular medical TV shows (St. Elsewhere, ER, Scrubs, Private Practice, Grey’s Anatomy, Nurse Jackie, The Good Doctor, and The Resident) were viewed and coded by two reviewers. The data abstracted included demographics of those involved in the sexual harassment and examples of sexual harassment depicted.

Results

The analysis was based on 62 instances of sexual harassment. The victim of sexual harassment was female in 77% (49/62) of instances. The most common relationships depicted pertaining to the acts of sexual harassment were attending physicians toward attending physicians (12/62, 19.3%), interns toward interns (8/62, 12.9%), attending physicians towards interns (7/62, 11.2%), and patients toward attending physicians (5/62, 8.1%). The most common examples of sexual harassment portrayed were telling sexual anecdotes/jokes (23/62, 37.1%), inappropriate touching (12/62, 19.4%), and making sexual comments about appearance, such as body parts or clothes (12/62, 19.4%).

Conclusion

Based on our analysis of medical TV shows, instances of sexual harassment occurred most commonly between attending physicians, and most of them were associated with sexual anecdotes/jokes. Medical and nursing professionals may draw on relevant instances from medical TV shows to discuss how to recognize and deal with sexual harassment in the workplace in order to promote a safe and nurturing environment devoid of harassment.

Prospective Bidirectional Associations between Attachment and Depressive Symptoms from Middle Childhood to Adolescence

Insecure attachment to parents consistently correlates with adolescent depression. However, the order of cause and effect, the impact of confounding, and gender disparities in this relationship remain unresolved. The present study therefore examined the prospective associations between attachment relationships to mothers and fathers and depressive symptoms in a community sample of Spanish children (n = 904; 49.4% females) assessed biennially from age 10-16 years, net of all unmeasured time-invariant confounding. Insecure relationships predicted depressive symptoms, and more so among girls, but depressive symptoms also forecasted worsened attachment relationships. At ages 12-14, mother-child attachment proved to be more important for the development of depressive symptoms than father-child attachment. These findings reveal a pattern of reciprocal influence between attachment relationships and depressive symptoms that appears to vary as a function of the parental and child's gender and developmental period. Thus, efforts aimed at strengthening the parent-child attachment relationship-across the transition from middle childhood to adolescence-may prevent or reduce depressive symptoms, especially by targeting mothers and female adolescents.

Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Experiences: Psychological and Social Well-Being Consequences for Women

Sexual objectification as a form of sexist discrimination accounts for the higher prevalence of psychological problems among women. More specifically, sexual objectification manifests itself in different ways with different intensities, in turn affecting women's psychological well-being differently. On one hand, experiences of body evaluation are more subtle and work by perpetuating sexist attitudes among women themselves. On the other hand, more explicit forms of sexual objectification (unwanted explicit sexual advances) are linked to higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of self-esteem. The first study, on a sample of 343 Spanish women, aims to analyze the consequences of different forms of sexual objectification on women's psychological well-being and the effect of sexism and enjoyment of objectification on these consequences. The second study, on a sample of 144 Spanish women, focuses on analyzing the ideological variables that have an effect on response to acts of sexist discrimination. Both studies reveal the significance of the more subtle experiences of sexual objectification as a mechanism that plays a part in keeping women in a subordinate position, where they end up feeling that this process is positive or pleasing.

The CogBIAS longitudinal study protocol: cognitive and genetic factors influencing psychological functioning in adolescence

BACKGROUND

Optimal psychological development is dependent upon a complex interplay between individual and situational factors. Investigating the development of these factors in adolescence will help to improve understanding of emotional vulnerability and resilience. The CogBIAS longitudinal study (CogBIAS-L-S) aims to combine cognitive and genetic approaches to investigate risk and protective factors associated with the development of mood and impulsivity-related outcomes in an adolescent sample.

METHODS

CogBIAS-L-S is a three-wave longitudinal study of typically developing adolescents conducted over 4 years, with data collection at age 12, 14 and 16. At each wave participants will undergo multiple assessments including a range of selective cognitive processing tasks (e.g. attention bias, interpretation bias, memory bias) and psychological self-report measures (e.g. anxiety, depression, resilience). Saliva samples will also be collected at the baseline assessment for genetic analyses. Multilevel statistical analyses will be performed to investigate the developmental trajectory of cognitive biases on psychological functioning, as well as the influence of genetic moderation on these relationships.

DISCUSSION

CogBIAS-L-S represents the first longitudinal study to assess multiple cognitive biases across adolescent development and the largest study of its kind to collect genetic data. It therefore provides a unique opportunity to understand how genes and the environment influence the development and maintenance of cognitive biases and provide insight into risk and protective factors that may be key targets for intervention.

Dimensions of Peer Influences and Their Relationship to Adolescents' Aggression, Other Problem Behaviors and Prosocial Behavior

Although peers are a major influence during adolescence, the relative importance of specific mechanisms of peer influence on the development of problem behavior is not well understood. This study investigated five domains of peer influence and their relationships to adolescents' problem and prosocial behaviors. Self-report and teacher ratings were obtained for 1787 (53 % female) urban middle school students. Peer pressure for fighting and friends' delinquent behavior were uniquely associated with aggression, drug use and delinquent behavior. Friends' prosocial behavior was uniquely associated with prosocial behavior. Friends' support for fighting and friends' support for nonviolence were not as clearly related to behavior. Findings were generally consistent across gender. This study highlights the importance of studying multiple aspects of peer influences on adolescents' behavior.

The Positive and Negative Experiences of Caregiving for Siblings of Young People with First Episode Psychosis

Background: The impact of first episode psychosis (FEP) upon parents’ experience of caregiving has been well-documented. However, the determinants and nature of this remain poorly understood in siblings. It is hypothesized that siblings of young people with FEP are also impacted by caregiving and burden. This study aimed to characterize the experience of caregiving for siblings of young people with FEP.

Method: Survey methodology was used to explore the experience of 157 siblings in the first 18 months of their brother or sister’s treatment for FEP. Participants reported on their appraisal of the negative and positive aspects of caregiving as measured by the Experience of Caregiving Inventory (ECI). Descriptive statistics were used to establish the results for the total sample as well as for gender and birth order differences. A series of multivariate regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationships between illness characteristics and siblings’ experience of caregiving.

Results: Older brothers reported the lowest scores for negative experiences in caregiving and younger sisters reported the highest. Negative experiences in caregiving resulted in less warmth within the sibling relationship and impacted negatively upon quality of life. When the young person with FEP had attempted suicide and/or been physically violent, siblings experienced more caregiver burden. Multivariate analysis showed that female gender was a significant factor in explaining the impact of illness related variables on the experience of caregiving.

Conclusion: Suicide attempts and a history of violence resulted in higher caregiving burden for siblings regardless of whether they lived with the young person experiencing FEP or not. Female siblings are at higher risk of negative experiences from caregiving resulting in a reduced quality of life and a changed sibling relationship. Suicide attempts and violence are indicators for intensive case management to improve outcomes for the individual with FEP which may in turn reduce the burden experienced by the sibling. Clinicians can use these findings to identify siblings, assertively intervene and provide increased psychological support, psychoeducation and practical problem solving to reduce the burden. The caregiving role that they already play for their ill brother or sister should be recognized.

Associations between parental chronic pain and self-esteem, social competence, and family cohesion in adolescent girls and boys--family linkage data from the HUNT study

Background

Parental chronic pain has been associated with adverse outcomes in offspring. However, knowledge on individual and family resilience factors in adolescent offspring of chronic pain sufferers is scarce. This study thus aimed to investigate the associations between parental chronic pain and self-esteem, social competence, and family cohesion levels reported by adolescent girls and boys.

Methods

Based on cross-sectional surveys from the Nord Trøndelag Health Study (the HUNT 3 study), the study used independent self-reports from adolescents aged 13 to 18 years (n = 3227) and their parents and conducted separate linear regression analyses for girls and boys.

Results

Concurrent maternal and paternal chronic pain was associated with reduced self-esteem, social competence, and family cohesion in girls. Moreover, maternal chronic pain was associated with higher social competence in boys and reduced self-esteem in girls. The majority of the observed associations were significantly different between girls and boys. Paternal chronic pain was not found to be associated with child outcomes.

Conclusions

The findings indicate that the presence of both maternal and paternal chronic pain could be a potential risk factor for lower levels of individual and family resilience factors reported by girls. Further research on the relationship between parental pain and sex-specific offspring characteristics, including positive resilience factors, is warranted. The study demonstrates the importance of targeting the entire family in chronic pain care.

Development and aetiology of body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls

This longitudinal study aims to describe the development of body dissatisfaction (BD), measured with the Contour Drawing Rating Scale, between the ages of 14 and 18, and to identify factors associated with BD at age 18, among 413 adolescents. Between the ages of 14 and 18, the proportion of girls wanting to be thinner increased, although it remained unchanged among boys. A ratio of 1:2 girls and 1:5 boys reported having seriously tried to lose weight. Factors associated with BD in girls at age 18 were (1) wanting to be thinner, (2) body mass index (BMI), (3) weight control behaviours and (4) negative comments about weight. Factors associated with BD in boys at age 18 were (1) wanting to be thinner or bigger, (2) BMI, (3) having experienced sexual intercourse and (4) negative comments about weight. The high prevalence of BD and weight-related concerns suggest a need for early interventions.

Liking them thin: adolescents' favorite television characters and body image

Considering the alarming worldwide increases in eating disorders among adolescents, thought to be linked with body image, this study uses social cognitive theory as a framework to combine the examination of adolescent body image with the topic of mediated characters. The study places a new focus in this realm on favorite television characters, extending past research on general social comparison tendencies or comparisons with unfamiliar mediated models. A survey of 756 students in Grades 7-8 and 10-11 identified their favorite same-gender television characters as well as the adolescents' body image and social comparison with the characters. The survey was accompanied by a content analysis of the favorite characters and their body sizes. Adolescents' favorite television characters were mostly identified as thin or average in body size. The thinner the characters, the more adolescents self-compared with them. The discrepancy between the adolescents' body size and that of their favorite characters significantly and negatively predicted adolescents' body image both directly and indirectly through its relationship with social comparison with the character. The study finds that television characters are important references for adolescents and may serve as targets for social comparison in the context of body image.

Heterogeneity of sex-stratified BMI trajectories in children from 8 to 14 years old

OBJECTIVE

Describe and predict sex-stratified trajectories of weight change in youths transitioning from childhood to adolescence.

METHODS

Using an accelerated longitudinal design, 461 children between 8 and 12 years old at baseline were followed over three years. Body mass index was calculated from self-reported height and weight. Latent class growth analysis was used to identify BMI trajectories and multinomial logistic regressions, to predict group membership.

RESULTS

A four-group heterogeneous trajectory model emerged for boys and girls alike. Characteristics of the trajectories differed between sexes and no obesity group was found for boys. Sociocultural factors, such as media influence, body dissatisfaction, weight victimization, awareness of thin-ideal standards and related pressures were important correlates of trajectory membership.

CONCLUSION

BMI trajectories during preadolescence are stable over time for heavier children. Body image concerns and weight stigmatization stand out as important factors in the prediction of developmental weight trajectories and could therefore be integrated in weight gain prevention programs for children of all weights as well as in weight management interventions for overweight and obese children.

The relationship between stress and body satisfaction in female and male adolescents

This study investigated the relationship between stress and body satisfaction in adolescence. A sample consisting of 515 adolescents aged 12-16 years completed a series of self-report questionnaires assessing general and specific aspects of adolescent stress, body satisfaction and the psychological constructs of self-esteem, depressive symptoms and body importance. Results revealed a significant association between higher body dissatisfaction and higher ratings of peer stress, lower self-esteem and greater body importance for female and male adolescents. These findings suggest that adolescent stress relates to satisfaction with the body and that this stress is specifically focused on the peer environment for both genders during adolescence. This may have implications for intervention programmes aimed at improving body satisfaction, suggesting that the inclusion of stress management training in these programmes could specifically focus on difficulties within the peer domain.

The impact of first episode psychosis on sibling quality of life

PURPOSE

The adverse impact of first episode psychosis (FEP) upon parents' quality of life (QoL) has been well documented. However, the determinants and levels of QoL remain poorly understood in siblings of young people experiencing FEP. This study aimed to characterise and establish the predictors of QoL for siblings of young people with FEP.

METHOD

Survey methodology was used to examine the experience of 157 siblings in the first 18 months of their brother or sister's treatment for FEP. The World Health Organisation Quality of Life Scale-Bref (WHOQOL-Bref) was used to assess siblings' QoL. A series of multivariate regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationships between illness characteristics and siblings' QoL.

RESULTS

Younger sisters reported the lowest satisfaction of QoL. Older brothers were the most satisfied. When the young person with FEP had attempted suicide and/or had been physically violent, siblings reported less satisfaction in all domains of QoL. Living with the ill brother or sister resulted in less satisfaction in the social domain. Multivariate analysis showed that female gender was a significant factor in explaining the impact of illness-related variables on QoL, particularly suicide attempts.

CONCLUSION

Suicide attempts and a history of violence impacted negatively on all four domains of QoL. Female siblings are at higher risk of reduced QoL and may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of suicide attempts and violence. These findings have significant implications for early, targeted interventions for this vulnerable group.

A longitudinal investigation of the mediating role of self-esteem and body importance in the relationship between stress and body dissatisfaction in adolescent females and males

Body dissatisfaction is particularly prevalent during adolescence and has recently been linked to stress in females and males. However, prospective studies are needed to better understand the relationship between stress and body dissatisfaction. The present study investigates the direction of this association and the mediating role of self-esteem and body image importance. A sample of 298 adolescent females and males in Grades 7 to 10 (ages 12 to 17 years) were surveyed at two time points over a one-year period. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that stress significantly predicted body dissatisfaction one year later. Furthermore, a multiple mediation analysis controlling for gender revealed a significant indirect effect in both cross-sectional and longitudinal models, indicating that stress predicts reductions in self-esteem and increases in body importance, which in turn predict body dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that stress, self-esteem, and body importance should be included in programmes aimed at improving body dissatisfaction.

The longitudinal causal directionality between body image distress and self-esteem among Korean adolescents: the moderating effect of relationships with parents

This study examined the longitudinal relationship between self-esteem and body image distress, as well as the moderating effect of relationships with parents, among adolescents in Korea, using nationally representative prospective panel data. Regarding causal direction, the findings supported bi-directionality for girls, but for boys the association was unidirectional, in that their self-esteem predicted body image distress, but not vice versa. A gender difference also emerged in the moderating effect of quality of relationships with parents. For girls, relationships with parents moderated the effect of body image distress on self-esteem, such that when relationships with parents were better, the effect of greater body image distress on subsequent lower self-esteem was stronger than when relationships with parents were less positive. For boys, relationships with parents moderated the influence of self-esteem on body image distress, such that self-esteem reduced body image distress more when boys had better relationships with parents.

A school-based expressive writing intervention for at-risk urban adolescents' aggressive behavior and emotional lability

This school-based randomized controlled trial tested the efficacy of 2 expressive writing interventions among youth living in high-violence urban neighborhoods. Seventeen classrooms (n = 258 seventh graders; 55% female; 91% African American/Black) from 3 public schools were randomized to 3 conditions in which they wrote 8 times about a nonemotional topic (control condition) or about experiencing and witnessing violence following either a standard or an enhanced expressive writing protocol. Outcomes were assessed 1 month prior and 2 and 6 months postintervention and included teacher-rated emotional lability and aggressive behavior and child-rated physical aggression. Intent-to-treat, mixed-model analyses controlled for preintervention measures of outcomes, sex, race, and family structure. At 2 months postintervention, relative to controls, students in the standard expressive writing condition had lower levels of teacher-rated aggression and lability (d = -.48). The beneficial effects of the writing interventions on aggression and lability were stronger at higher levels of community violence exposure.

Tradução e validação para o Brasil da escala de imagem corporal para adolescentes: offer self-image questionnaire (OSIQ)

OBJETIVO: Apreciar a equivalência semântica e de mensuração da subescala de imagem corporal do Offer Self Image Questionnaire (OSIQ). MÉTODOS: Participaram 386 adolescentes, na faixa etária de 10 a 18 anos, de ambos os sexos, de uma escola particular de ensino fundamental e médio. Realizou-se tradução, retrotradução, revisão técnica e avaliação do instrumento. Avaliou-se a consistência interna, a validade discriminante e concorrente e a confiabilidade. RESULTADOS: O instrumento apresentou, para a consistência interna, valores que variaram de 0,43 a 0,51 e foi capaz de discriminar os grupos estudados - população total, meninos, meninas, e meninos em fase inicial de adolescência, segundo o estado nutricional (p<0,001; p<0,009; p=0,030; p=0,043, respectivamente). Na validade concorrente, houve correlação significativa entre algumas medidas antropométricas somente para o sexo feminino (r=-0,16 e p=0,021; r=-0,19 e p=0,007); fase inicial (r=-0,23 e p=0,008; r=-0,26 e p=0,003) e intermediária (r=-0,29 e p=0,010) e no reteste confirmou sua confiabilidade por meio da correlação intraclasse. Embora o instrumento tenha comprovado sua capacidade em discriminar os grupos estudados, de acordo com o estado nutricional, os demais resultados foram menos satisfatórios. Mais estudos são necessários para sua adaptação transcultural, com a aplicação de outras escalas comparativas. CONCLUSÃO: A subescala de imagem corporal do OSIQ encontra-se traduzida, no entanto, os resultados apresentados não são promissores, exigindo-se mais estudos.

Intense-personal celebrity worship and body image: Evidence of a link among female adolescents

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between celebrity worship and body image within the theoretical perspective of intense para-social relationships with celebrities.

DESIGN

Correlation and multiple regression analyses were used to examine the relationships between celebrity worship and body image.

METHOD

Three samples, 229 (102 males and 127 females) adolescents, 183 (88 males and 95 females) full-time university undergraduate students, and 289 (126 males and 163 females) adults were administered an amended version of the Celebrity Attitude Scale, the Attention to Body Shape Scale, and the Body Shape Questionnaire-Revised.

RESULTS

Significant relationships were found between attitudes toward celebrities and body image only among female adolescents. Multiple regression analyses suggested that Intense-personal celebrity worship accounted for unique variance in scores in body image.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that in female adolescents, there is an interaction between Intense-personal celebrity worship and body image between the ages of 14 and 16 years, and some tentative evidence has been found to suggest that this relationship disappears at the onset of adulthood, 17 to 20 years. Results are consistent with those authors who stress the importance of the formation of para-social relationships with media figures, and suggest that para-social relationships with celebrities perceived as having a good body shape may lead to a poor body image in female adolescents.

Examination of a sociocultural model of disordered eating among male and female adolescents

OBJECTIVES

The study tests a version of Stice's (1994) sociocultural model of disordered eating that was modified to incorporate social comparisons. Additionally, it examines how self-reported body-mass index and perceived weight status influence associations within the model.

METHOD

Questionnaires were administered in a state secondary school; the sample consisted of 250 female and 257 male adolescents aged 11-16 years.

RESULTS

The results supported the sociocultural model among both male and female adolescents. Perceived pressure to lose weight was directly associated with eating behaviour, as well as indirectly associated through social comparisons, internalization and body dissatisfaction. However, social comparisons were most strongly related to body dissatisfaction among adolescents who perceived themselves as overweight.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that models of eating disordered behaviour, developed for adolescent girls, are also appropriate for understanding this behaviour among male adolescents. The results suggest that social comparisons represent a useful addition to Stice's (1994) original model and a potentially fruitful target for interventions.

Understanding adolescent mental health: the influence of social processes, doing gender and gendered power relations

Despite a well-documented gender pattern in adolescent mental health, research investigating possible explanatory factors from a gender-theoretical approach is scarce. This paper reports a grounded theory study based on 29 focus groups. The aim was to explore 16- to 19-year-old students' perceptions of what is significant for mental health, and to apply a gender analysis to the findings in order to advance understanding of the gender pattern in adolescent mental health. Significant factors were identified in three social processes categories, including both positive and negative aspects: (1) social interactions, (2) performance and (3) responsibility. Girls more often experienced negative aspects of these processes, placing them at greater risk for mental health problems. Boys' more positive mental health appeared to be associated with their low degree of responsibility-taking and beneficial positions relative to girls. Negotiating cultural norms of femininity and masculinity seemed to be more strenuous for girls, which could place them at a disadvantage with regard to mental health. Social factors and processes (particularly responsibility), gendered power relations and constructions of masculinities and femininities should be acknowledged as important for adolescent mental health.

Translating research on healthy lifestyles for children: meeting the needs of diverse populations

This article provides two examples of approaches nursing can take to reach diverse populations of children and their families to enhance health lifestyles. First, a descriptive summary of a brief after-school intervention program aimed at influencing 8- and 9-year-old children's media habits and the prevention of negative health behaviors is presented. Design consideration for translating health lifestyles research findings into a nurse-managed inner city primary care practice is reviewed in the second example.

Depression, self-esteem, and anger in emerging adulthood: Seven-year trajectories

This study used a school-based community sample (N=920) to examine trajectories of depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and expressed anger in the critical years of emerging adulthood (ages 18-25). Using data from 5 waves, the authors discovered that multilevel models indicated that, on average, depressive symptoms and expressed anger declined, whereas self-esteem increased. Between-persons predictors of variability in trajectories included gender (gender gaps in depressive symptoms and self-esteem narrowed), parents' education, and conflict with parents (depressive symptoms and expressed anger improved fastest in participants with highly educated parents and in those with higher conflict). Across time, increases in social support and marriage were associated with increased psychological well-being, whereas longer periods of unemployment were connected with higher depression and lower self-esteem. Emerging adulthood is a time of improving psychological well-being, but individual trajectories depend on specific individual and family characteristics as well as role changes.

Body dissatisfaction and adolescent self-esteem: prospective findings

The aim of the study was to investigate prospectively the direction of the relationship between adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction and self-esteem. Participants were 242 female high school students who completed questionnaires at two points in time, separated by 2 years. The questionnaire contained measures of weight (BMI), body dissatisfaction (perceived overweight, figure dissatisfaction, weight satisfaction) and self-esteem. Initial body dissatisfaction predicted self-esteem at Time 1 and Time 2, and initial self-esteem predicted body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2. However, linear panel analysis (regression analyses controlling for Time 1 variables) found that aspects of Time 1 weight and body dissatisfaction predicted change in self-esteem, but not vice versa. It was concluded that young girls with heavier actual weight and perceptions of being overweight were particularly vulnerable to developing low self-esteem.

The extension of school-based inter- and intraracial children's friendships: influences on psychosocial well-being

Children's (N=142) school friendships with same versus different race peers were coded for prevalence and the extent to which parents maintained social relationships with these friends (a proxy for extension of friendships beyond the school context). Membership in integrated versus nonintegrated social networks at school was unassociated with psychosocial well-being. Out-of-school extension of interracial friendships was linked with greater social competence among Black children. Black children whose friendships with both same and different race peers were extended beyond the school context reported higher levels of self-esteem.

Bullying: the consequences of interparental discord and child's self-concept

The objective of this research is to explore how the relationship between interparental discord and child's self-concept shapes participation in bullying behavior by elementary and middle-school children. The main finding is that child's self-concept mediates the effects of interparental discord on bullying behavior. Further, the results of the study support a symbolic interactionist view of child self-development, in which children internalize the environment provided by parents. This internalization gives way to self-concept, which guides behavior. This study adds to the growing body of literature that seeks to understand whether and how characteristics of children mediate the effects of parental attributes on behavioral outcomes. The proposed implications for the prevention of bullying include building children's self-concept, intervening in parental conflict, and involving the entire family system in the intervention process.

GENDER AND RACE PATTERNS IN THE PATHWAYS FROM SPORTS PARTICIPATION TO SELF-ESTEEM

Athletics is the most prominent extracurricular activity in U.S. secondary schools in terms of student participation and school budgets. The latter is often justified on the grounds that healthy bodies produce healthy minds, that school sports boost school spirit, and that participation in school-based sports increases students' self-esteem. In this article we examine the interrelationships among participation in a school-based sport and the benefits assumed to be associated with it. Specifically, we test a model that postulates that school spirit, operationalized as attachment to school, and healthy bodies, operationalized as a sense of physical well-being, mediate the relationship between school sports and self-esteem. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health on Caucasian and African American girls and boys were employed to test the model. School attachment and physical well-being absorbed the statistical effect of participating in a sport for all four gender-by-race groups. Among Caucasian girls a negative residual effect of sports participation was observed, which suggests that sports participation encapsulates multiple effects with contradictory influences. For African American girls school attachment by itself was not a significant mediator of the effect of sports participation on self-esteem. For all groups a sense of physical well-being was the more powerful mediator.