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Souayah N, Chen H, Chong ZZ, Patel T, Pahwa A, Menkes DL, Cunningham T. Novel strategy: Identifying new markers for demyelination in diabetic distal symmetrical polyneuropathy. Heliyon 2024; 10:e30419. [PMID: 38765173 PMCID: PMC11101717 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective To develop a novel strategy for identifying acquired demyelination in diabetic distal symmetrical polyneuropathy (DSP). Background Motor nerve conduction velocity (CV) slowing in diabetic DSP exceeds expectations for pure axonal loss thus implicating superimposed acquired demyelination. Methods After establishing demyelination confidence intervals by regression analysis of nerve conduction data from chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP), we prospectively studied CV slowing in 90 diabetic DSP patients with and without at least one motor nerve exhibiting CV slowing (groups A and B) into the demyelination range by American Academy of Neurology (AAN) criteria respectively and 95 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients. Simultaneously, secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) activity was assessed in both diabetic groups and 46 healthy controls. Results No ALS patient exhibited CV slowing in more than two motor nerves based on AAN criteria or the confidence intervals. Group A demonstrated a significantly higher percentage of patients as compared to group B fulfilling the above criteria, with an additional criterion of at least one motor nerve exhibiting CV slowing in the demyelinating range and a corresponding F response in the demyelinating range by AAN criteria (70.3 % vs. 1.9 %; p < 0.0001). Urine sPLA2 activity was increased significantly in diabetic groups as compared to healthy controls (942.9 ± 978.0 vs. 591.6 ± 390.2 pmol/min/ml, p < 0.05), and in group A compared to Group B (1328.3 ± 1274.2 vs. 673.8 ± 576.9 pmol/min/ml, p < 0.01). More patients with elevated sPLA2 activity and more than 2 motor nerves with CV slowing in the AAN or the confidence intervals were identified in group A as compared to group B (35.1 % vs. 5.7 %, p < 0.001). Furthermore, 13.5 % of patients in diabetic DSP Group A, and no patients in diabetic DSP Group B, fulfilled an additional criterion of more than one motor nerve with CV slowing into the demyelinating range with its corresponding F response into the demyelinating range by AAN criteria. Conclusion A combination of regression analysis of electrodiagnostic data and a urine biological marker of systemic inflammation identifies a subgroup of diabetic DSP with superimposed acquired demyelination that may respond favorably to immunomodulatory therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nizar Souayah
- New Jersey Medical School, 90 Bergen Street DOC 8100, Newark, NJ, 07101, USA
| | - Hongxin Chen
- New Jersey Medical School, 90 Bergen Street DOC 8100, Newark, NJ, 07101, USA
| | - Zhao Zhong Chong
- New Jersey Medical School, 90 Bergen Street DOC 8100, Newark, NJ, 07101, USA
| | - Tejas Patel
- New Jersey Medical School, 90 Bergen Street DOC 8100, Newark, NJ, 07101, USA
| | - Ankit Pahwa
- SMR Consulting, 407 Elmwood Avenue, Sharon Hill, PA, 19079, USA
| | - Daniel L. Menkes
- Department of Neurology, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, 3555 West 13 Mile Road, Suite N120, Royal Oak, MI, 48073, USA
| | - Timothy Cunningham
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19129, USA
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Pham VM, Thakor N. Insulin enhances neurite extension and myelination of diabetic neuropathy neurons. Korean J Pain 2022; 35:160-172. [PMID: 35354679 PMCID: PMC8977202 DOI: 10.3344/kjp.2022.35.2.160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The authors established an in vitro model of diabetic neuropathy based on the culture system of primary neurons and Schwann cells (SCs) to mimic similar symptoms observed in in vivo models of this complication, such as impaired neurite extension and impaired myelination. The model was then utilized to investigate the effects of insulin on enhancing neurite extension and myelination of diabetic neurons. Methods SCs and primary neurons were cultured under conditions mimicking hyperglycemia prepared by adding glucose to the basal culture medium. In a single culture, the proliferation and maturation of SCs and the neurite extension of neurons were evaluated. In a co-culture, the percentage of myelination of diabetic neurons was investigated. Insulin at different concentrations was supplemented to culture media to examine its effects on neurite extension and myelination. Results The cells showed similar symptoms observed in in vivo models of this complication. In a single culture, hyperglycemia attenuated the proliferation and maturation of SCs, induced apoptosis, and impaired neurite extension of both sensory and motor neurons. In a co-culture of SCs and neurons, the percentage of myelinated neurites in the hyperglycemia-treated group was significantly lower than that in the control group. This impaired neurite extension and myelination was reversed by the introduction of insulin to the hyperglycemic culture media. Conclusions Insulin may be a potential candidate for improving diabetic neuropathy. Insulin can function as a neurotrophic factor to support both neurons and SCs. Further research is needed to discover the potential of insulin in improving diabetic neuropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vuong M Pham
- Singapore Institute for Neurotechnology, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biotechnology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Food Industry, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Nitish Thakor
- Singapore Institute for Neurotechnology, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Jin Y, Wang G, Han SS, He MY, Cheng X, Ma ZL, Wu X, Yang X, Liu GS. Effects of oxidative stress on hyperglycaemia-induced brain malformations in a diabetes mouse model. Exp Cell Res 2016; 347:201-211. [PMID: 27497668 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2016] [Revised: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Pregestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM) enhances the risk of fetal neurodevelopmental defects. However, the mechanism of hyperglycaemia-induced neurodevelopmental defects is not fully understood. In this study, several typical neurodevelopmental defects were identified in the streptozotocin-induced diabetes mouse model. The neuron-specific class III beta-tubulin/forkhead box P1-labelled neuronal differentiation was suppressed and glial fibrillary acidic protein-labelled glial cell lineage differentiation was slightly promoted in pregestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM) mice. Various concentrations of glucose did not change the U87 cell viability, but glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor expression was altered with varying glucose concentrations. Mouse maternal hyperglycaemia significantly increased Tunel(+) apoptosis but did not dramatically affect PCNA(+) cell proliferation in the process. To determine the cause of increased apoptosis, we determined the SOD activity, the expression of Nrf2 as well as its downstream anti-oxidative factors NQO1 and HO1, and found that all of them significantly increased in PGDM fetal brains compared with controls. However, Nrf2 expression in U87 cells was not significantly changed by different glucose concentrations. In mouse telencephalon, we observed the co-localization of Tuj-1 and Nrf2 expression in neurons, and down-regulating of Nrf2 in SH-SY5Y cells altered the viability of SH-SY5Y cells exposed to high glucose concentrations. Taken together, the data suggest that Nrf2-modulated antioxidant stress plays a crucial role in maternal hyperglycaemia-induced neurodevelopmental defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya Jin
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Guang Wang
- Division of Histology & Embryology, Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Medical College, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Sha-Sha Han
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Mei-Yao He
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Xin Cheng
- Division of Histology & Embryology, Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Medical College, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Zheng-Lai Ma
- Division of Histology & Embryology, Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Medical College, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xia Wu
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Xuesong Yang
- Division of Histology & Embryology, Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Medical College, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China.
| | - Guo-Sheng Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China.
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Calcium signalling in sensory neurones and peripheral glia in the context of diabetic neuropathies. Cell Calcium 2014; 56:362-71. [PMID: 25149565 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Revised: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral sensory nervous system is comprised of neurones with their axons and neuroglia that includes satellite glial cells in sensory ganglia, myelinating, non-myelinating and perisynaptic Schwann cells. Pathogenesis of peripheral diabetic polyneuropathies is associated with aberrant function of both neurones and glia. Deregulated Ca(2+) homoeostasis and aberrant Ca(2+) signalling in neuronal and glial elements contributes to many forms of neuropathology and is fundamental to neurodegenerative diseases. In diabetes both neurones and glia experience metabolic stress and mitochondrial dysfunction which lead to deregulation of Ca(2+) homeostasis and Ca(2+) signalling, which in their turn lead to pathological cellular reactions contributing to development of diabetic neuropathies. Molecular cascades responsible for Ca(2+) homeostasis and signalling, therefore, can be regarded as potential therapeutic targets.
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Askwith T, Zeng W, Eggo MC, Stevens MJ. Taurine reduces nitrosative stress and nitric oxide synthase expression in high glucose-exposed human Schwann cells. Exp Neurol 2011; 233:154-62. [PMID: 21952043 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Revised: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The role of taurine in regulating glucose-induced nitrosative stress has been examined in human Schwann cells, a model for understanding the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy. Exposure to high glucose increased nitrated proteins (1.56 fold p<0.05), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and neuronal NOS (nNOS) mRNA expression (1.55 fold and 2.2 fold respectively, p<0.05 both), phospho-p38 MAPK (1.32 fold, p<0.05) abundance and decreased Schwann cell growth (11±2%, p<0.05). Taurine supplementation prevented high-glucose induced iNOS and nNOS mRNA upregulation, reduced nitrated proteins and phospho-p38 MAPK (56±11% and 45±18% (p<0.05 both) respectively) and restored Schwann cell growth to control levels. High glucose and taurine treatment alone reduced phospho-p42/44 MAPK and phospho-AKT to below detectable levels. Treatment of human Schwann cells with donors of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite reduced taurine transporter (TauT) expression (by 35±5% and 29±7% respectively p<0.05 both) as well as the maximum velocity of taurine uptake (TauT Vmax). NOS inhibition prevented glucose-mediated TauT mRNA downregulation, and restored TauT Vmax. These data demonstrate an important role for taurine in the prevention of nitrosative stress in human Schwann cells, which may have important implications for the development and treatment of diabetic neuropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor Askwith
- School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Diabetic neuropathy (DN) is a very common and disabling diabetes-related complication. DN is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) can be painful in the earlier stages of the disease before becoming painless. Most of the currently available therapies are symptomatic (focusing on pain relief) rather than disease-modifying. With the exception of good glycemic control, there is currently no effective treatment to slow the progression of or reverse DPN. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW In this article, we review the epidemiology, pathogenesis, currently available and future treatments for DPN, and the potential development issues/challenges related to such new therapies. Literature search was performed using PubMed, Medline and Pharmaprojects from 1950 onwards. Search terms include a combination of terms such as diabetic neuropathy, pathogenesis, pathophysiology, mechanisms, treatment, therapy, oxidative/nitrosative stress, anti-oxidants, serotonin, nitrotyrosine, protein kinase C, aldose reductase, sodium channels, taurine, lipoic acid and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN The reader will gain an overview of the epidemiology, clinical features and risk factors of DN. In addition, the reader will have a better understanding of the mechanisms that underpin the development of DPN and their relationships to the current and future therapies. The reader will also develop an insight into the limitations of the current approach to DPN treatment and the potential avenues for future research. TAKE HOME MESSAGE DN is a very common and disabling complication that currently has no effective treatments other than diabetes control. The pathogenesis of DPN is complex and multi-factorial. Several disease-modifying and symptomatic treatments are currently under development. Oxidative and nitrosative stress have been identified as key pathogenic factors in the development of DPN and new treatments target these pathways and/or their downstream consequences. Gene therapy and growth factors have also emerged as potential new therapies that target particular cellular compartments as opposed to being delivered systemically. The recognition of the difficulty in reversing established DN has focused efforts on slowing its progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abd A Tahrani
- University of Birmingham, Centre of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Birmingham, UK
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Vincent AM, Kato K, McLean LL, Soules ME, Feldman EL. Sensory neurons and schwann cells respond to oxidative stress by increasing antioxidant defense mechanisms. Antioxid Redox Signal 2009; 11:425-38. [PMID: 19072199 PMCID: PMC2933574 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2008.2235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Elevated blood glucose is a key initiator of mechanisms leading to diabetic neuropathy. Increases in glucose induce acute mitochondrial oxidative stress in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, the sensory neurons normally affected in diabetic neuropathy, whereas Schwann cells are largely unaffected. We propose that activation of an antioxidant response in DRG neurons would prevent glucose-induced injury. In this study, mild oxidative stress (1 microM H2O2) leads to the activation of the transcription factor Nrf2 and expression of antioxidant (phase II) enzymes. DRG neurons are thus protected from subsequent hyperglycemia-induced injury, as determined by activation of caspase 3 and the TUNEL assay. Schwann cells display high basal antioxidant enzyme expression and respond to hyperglycemia and mild oxidative stress via further increases in these enzymes. The botanical compounds resveratrol and sulforaphane activate the antioxidant response in DRG neurons. Other drugs that protect DRG neurons and block mitochondrial superoxide, identified in a compound screen, have differential ability to activate the antioxidant response. Multiple cellular targets exist for the prevention of hyperglycemic oxidative stress in DRG neurons, and these form the basis for new therapeutic strategies against diabetic neuropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea M Vincent
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
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QU L, LIANG XC, ZHANG H, WU QL, SUN LQ, GU B. Effect of Jinmaitong serum on the proliferation of rat Schwann cells cultured in high glucose medium. Chin J Integr Med 2008; 14:293-7. [PMID: 19082802 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-008-0293-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of Jinmaitong (JMT) serum on the proliferation of rat Schwann cells (SCs) primarily cultured in high glucose medium. METHOD SCs were primarily cultured in Dulbecco's minmum essential medium (DMEM control), 50 mmol/L glucose medium (50 mmol/L Glu), 75 mmol/L glucose medium (75 mmol/L Glu), as well as 50 mmol/L glucose medium, with different concentrations of JMT serum (undiluted, 1:2 diluted and 1:8 diluted) and Neurotropin (Ntp), respectively. The proliferation of SCs under different conditions was detected by MTT. RESULT SCs grew exuberantly in DMEM within 24-72 h, but slowed down at 96 h. The proliferation of SCs was inhibited in 50 mmol/L Glu and 75 mmol/L Glu after cultures of 48, 72 and 96 h, which showed that both were significantly different compared to the control group (P<0.01). The inhibition was more significant in 75 mmol/L Glu than in 50 mmol/L Glu (P<0.05). Spearman's rho analysis revealed that the proliferation of SCs had a negative correlation with the concentration of glucose (r=-0.471, P<0.01). Excluding the time factor, partial correlation showed similar results (r=-0.679, P<0.01). After 48 h, the proliferation of SCs increased significantly in JMT1:2 and Ntp compared with 50 mmol/L Glu (control 0.437+or-0.019, 50 mmol/L Glu 0.367+or-0.035, JMT1:2 0.426+or-0.024, Ntp 0.422+or-0.013; P<0.01), and there were no statistically significant differences among the JMT groups, the Ntp group and the control group (P>0.05). CONCLUSIONS The proliferation of SCs was inhibited in high glucose medium, and the inhibition was reduced by different concentrations of JMT serum, especially at JMT1:2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling QU
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing (100730), China
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Perrone L, Peluso G, Melone MAB. RAGE recycles at the plasma membrane in S100B secretory vesicles and promotes Schwann cells morphological changes. J Cell Physiol 2008; 217:60-71. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Hyperglycaemia inhibits Schwann cell proliferation and migration and restricts regeneration of axons and Schwann cells from adult murine DRG. Mol Cell Neurosci 2008; 37:298-311. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2007.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2007] [Revised: 10/10/2007] [Accepted: 10/12/2007] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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Fricker B, Muller A, René F. Evaluation Tools and Animal Models of Peripheral Neuropathies. NEURODEGENER DIS 2008; 5:72-108. [DOI: 10.1159/000112835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2007] [Accepted: 07/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Campbell M, Allen WE, Sawyer C, Vanhaesebroeck B, Trimble ER. Glucose-Potentiated Chemotaxis in Human Vascular Smooth Muscle Is Dependent on Cross-Talk Between the PI3K and MAPK Signaling Pathways. Circ Res 2004; 95:380-8. [PMID: 15242975 DOI: 10.1161/01.res.0000138019.82184.5d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Atheroma formation involves the movement of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) into the subendothelial space. The aim of this study was to determine the involvement of PI3K and MAPK pathways and the importance of cross-talk between these pathways, in glucose-potentiated VSMC chemotaxis to serum factors. VSMC chemotaxis occurred in a serum gradient in 25 mmol/L glucose (but not in 5 mmol/L glucose) in association with increased phosphorylation (activation) of Akt and ERK1/2 in PI3K and MAPK pathways, respectively. Inhibitors of these pathways blocked chemotaxis, as did an mTOR inhibitor. VSMC expressed all class IA PI3K isoforms, but microinjection experiments demonstrated that only the p110β isoform was involved in chemotaxis. ERK1/2 phosphorylation was reduced not only by MAPK pathway inhibitors but also by PI3K and mTOR inhibitors; when PI3K was inhibited, ERK phosphorylation could be induced by microinjected activated Akt, indicating important cross-talk between the PI3K and ERK1/2 pathways. Glucose-potentiated phosphorylation of molecules in the p38 and JNK MAPK pathways inhibited these pathways but did not affect chemotaxis. The statin, mevinolin, blocked chemotaxis through its effects on the MAPK pathway. Mevinolin-inhibited chemotaxis was restored by farnesylpyrophosphate but not by geranylgeranylpyrophosphate; in the absence of mevinolin, inhibition of farnesyltransferase reduced ERK phosphorylation and blocked chemotaxis, indicating a role for the Ras family of GTPases (MAPK pathway) under these conditions. In conclusion, glucose sensitizes VSMC to serum, inducing chemotaxis via pathways involving p110β-PI3K, Akt, mTOR, and ERK1/2 MAPK. Cross-talk between the PI3K and MAPK pathways is necessary for VSMC chemotaxis under these conditions.
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MESH Headings
- Alkyl and Aryl Transferases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Androstadienes/pharmacology
- Anthracenes/pharmacology
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- Cells, Cultured/cytology
- Cells, Cultured/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured/metabolism
- Chemotaxis/drug effects
- Chemotaxis/physiology
- Chromones/pharmacology
- Class I Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases
- Farnesyltranstransferase
- Flavonoids/pharmacology
- Glucose/pharmacology
- Humans
- Imidazoles/pharmacology
- Isoenzymes/antagonists & inhibitors
- Isoenzymes/physiology
- JNK Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- JNK Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/physiology
- Lovastatin/pharmacology
- MAP Kinase Kinase 4
- MAP Kinase Signaling System/drug effects
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 1/antagonists & inhibitors
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 1/physiology
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 3/antagonists & inhibitors
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 3/physiology
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Kinases/physiology
- Morpholines/pharmacology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/physiology
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/cytology
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/drug effects
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/physiology
- Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/physiology
- Phosphoinositide-3 Kinase Inhibitors
- Polyisoprenyl Phosphates/pharmacology
- Protein Kinases/physiology
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/physiology
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/physiology
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt
- Pyridines/pharmacology
- Sesquiterpenes
- Sirolimus/pharmacology
- TOR Serine-Threonine Kinases
- Wortmannin
- p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/physiology
- ras Proteins/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Malcolm Campbell
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Metabolic Medicine, Queen's University Belfast, Institute of Clinical Science, Royal Victoria Hospital, Grosvenor Road, Belfast, UK
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