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Jenkins GS, Freire SM, Ogunro T, Niang D, Andrade M, Drame MS, Huvi JB, Pires EES, Toure EN, Camara M. COVID-19 New Cases and Environmental Factors During Wet and Dry Seasons in West and Southern Africa. GEOHEALTH 2023; 7:e2022GH000765. [PMID: 37519911 PMCID: PMC10383768 DOI: 10.1029/2022gh000765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Sub-Saharan Africa has been the last continent to experience a significant number of cases in the novel Coronavirus (COVID-19). Studies suggest that air pollution is related to COVID-19 mortality; poor air quality has been linked to cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases, which are considered co-morbidities linked to COVID-19 deaths. We examine potential connections between country-wide COVID-19 cases and environmental conditions in Senegal, Cabo Verde, Nigeria, Cote D'Ivorie, and Angola. We analyze PM2.5 concentrations, temperatures from cost-effective in situ measurements, aerosol optical depth (AOD), and fire count and NO2 column values from space-borne platforms from 1 January 2020 through 31 March 2021. Our results show that the first COVID-19 wave in West Africa began during the wet season of 2020, followed by a second during the dry season of 2020. In Angola, the first wave starts during the biomass burning season but does not peak until November of 2020. Overall PM2.5 concentrations are the highest in Ibadan, Nigeria, and coincided with the second wave of COVID-19 in late 2021 and early 2022. The COVID-19 waves in Cabo Verde are not in phase with those in Senegal, Nigeria, and Cote, lagging by several months in general. Overall, the highest correlations occurred between weekly new COVID-19 cases meteorological and air quality variables occurred in the dry season.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. S. Jenkins
- Alliance for Education, Science, Engineering and Design with Africa (AESEDA)Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPAUSA
| | | | | | - D. Niang
- Cheikh Anta Diop UniversityDakarSenegal
| | | | | | - J. B. Huvi
- Instituto Superior de Ciências da Educação de Benguela ‐ AngolaBenguelaAngola
| | - E. E. S. Pires
- Centro de Estudos e Pesquisa do TundavalaEngineering DepartmentISPTundavalaLubangoAngola
| | - E. N. Toure
- University Felix Houphouet BiognyAbidjanCote D'Ivorie
| | - M. Camara
- University of Assane SeckZiguinchorSenegal
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Ogunjo S, Olaniyan O, Olusegun C, Kayode F, Okoh D, Jenkins G. The Role of Meteorological Variables and Aerosols in the Transmission of COVID-19 During Harmattan Season. GEOHEALTH 2022; 6:e2021GH000521. [PMID: 35229057 PMCID: PMC8865058 DOI: 10.1029/2021gh000521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The role of atmospheric parameters and aerosols in the transmission of COVID-19 within tropical Africa, especially during the harmattan season, has been under-investigated in published papers. The harmattan season within the West African region is associated with significant dust incursion from the Bodele depression and biomass burning. In this study, the correlation between atmospheric parameters (temperature and humidity) and aerosols with COVID-19 cases and fatalities within seven locations in tropical Nigeria during the harmattan period was investigated. COVID-19 infection cases were found to be significantly positively correlated with atmospheric parameters (temperature and humidity) in the southern part of the country while the number of fatalities showed weaker significant correlation with particulate matters only in three locations. The significant correlation values were found to be between 0.22 and 0.48 for particulate matter and -0.19 to -0.32 for atmospheric parameters. Although, temperature and humidity showed negative correlations in some locations, the impact is smaller compared to particulate matter. In December, COVID-19 cases in all locations showed strong correlation with particulate matter except in Kano State. It is suggested that a reduction in atmospheric particulate matter can be used as a control measure for the spread of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Ogunjo
- Department of PhysicsFederal University of TechnologyAkureNigeria
| | - O. Olaniyan
- National Weather Forecasting and Climate Research CentreNigerian Meteorological AgencyAbujaNigeria
| | - C.F. Olusegun
- Centre for Atmospheric ResearchNational Space Research and Development AgencyKogi State University CampusAnyigbaNigeria
| | - F. Kayode
- Centre for Atmospheric ResearchNational Space Research and Development AgencyKogi State University CampusAnyigbaNigeria
| | - D. Okoh
- Centre for Atmospheric ResearchNational Space Research and Development AgencyKogi State University CampusAnyigbaNigeria
| | - G. Jenkins
- Department of Meteorology and Atmospheric SciencesPenn State UniversityUniversity ParkPAUSA
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Zaldo-Aubanell Q, Serra I, Bach A, Knobel P, I López FC, Belmonte J, Daunis-I-Estadella P, Maneja R. Environmental heterogeneity in human health studies. A compositional methodology for Land Use and Land cover data. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 806:150308. [PMID: 34844306 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The use of Land use and Land cover (LULC) data is gradually becoming more widely spread in studies relating the environment to human health. However, little research has acknowledged the compositional nature of these data. The goal of the present study is to explore, for the first time, the independent effect of eight LULC categories (agricultural land, bare land, coniferous forest, broad-leaved forest, sclerophyll forest, grassland and shrubs, urban areas, and waterbodies) on three selected common health conditions: type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), asthma and anxiety, using a compositional methodological approach and leveraging observational health data of Catalonia (Spain) at area level. We fixed the risk exposure scenario using three covariates (socioeconomic status, age group, and sex). Then, we assessed the independent effect of the eight LULC categories on each health condition. Our results show that each LULC category has a distinctive effect on the three health conditions and that the three covariates clearly modify this effect. This compositional approach has yielded plausible results supported by the existing literature, highlighting the relevance of environmental heterogeneity in health studies. In this sense, we argue that different types of environment possess exclusive biotic and abiotic elements affecting distinctively on human health. We believe our contribution might help researchers approach the environment in a more multidimensional manner integrating environmental heterogeneity in the analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quim Zaldo-Aubanell
- Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Z building, ICTA-ICP, Carrer de les columnes, UAB Campus, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain; Environment and Human Health Laboratory (EH(2) Lab), Forest Science and Technology Center of Catalonia, Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys, km 2, 25280 Solsona, Spain.
| | - Isabel Serra
- Centre de Recerca Matemàtica, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Supercomputing Center, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Bach
- Environment and Human Health Laboratory (EH(2) Lab), Forest Science and Technology Center of Catalonia, Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys, km 2, 25280 Solsona, Spain; Forest Science and Technology Center of Catalonia, Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys, km 2, 25280 Solsona, Spain
| | - Pablo Knobel
- Environment and Human Health Laboratory (EH(2) Lab), Forest Science and Technology Center of Catalonia, Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys, km 2, 25280 Solsona, Spain
| | - Ferran Campillo I López
- Environment and Human Health Laboratory (EH(2) Lab), Forest Science and Technology Center of Catalonia, Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys, km 2, 25280 Solsona, Spain; Paediatric Environmental Health Specialty Unit, Paediatric Team of the Garrotxa Region, Olot and Garrotxa Region Hospital Foundation, Avinguda Països Catalans 86, 17800 Olot, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Jordina Belmonte
- Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Z building, ICTA-ICP, Carrer de les columnes, UAB Campus, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Animal Biology, Plant Biology and Ecology, Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), C building, UAB Campus 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pepus Daunis-I-Estadella
- Department of Computer Science, Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Universitat de Girona, Carrer Universitat de Girona, 6, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | - Roser Maneja
- Environment and Human Health Laboratory (EH(2) Lab), Forest Science and Technology Center of Catalonia, Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys, km 2, 25280 Solsona, Spain; Forest Science and Technology Center of Catalonia, Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys, km 2, 25280 Solsona, Spain; Geography Department, Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), B building, UAB Campus 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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Xiang K, Xu Z, Hu YQ, He YS, Dan YL, Wu Q, Fang XH, Pan HF. Association between ambient air pollution and tuberculosis risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 277:130342. [PMID: 33794431 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
There is a growing body of evidence suggesting an association between air pollution exposure and tuberculosis (TB) incidence, but no meta-analysis has assembled all evidence so far. This review and meta-analysis aimed to derive a more reliable estimation on the association between air pollution and TB incidence. PubMed, Embase and Web of Science electronic databases were systemically searched for eligible literature. The PECO framework was used to form the eligibility criteria. Effect estimates and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) published in the included studies were pooled quantitatively. Seventeen articles met the inclusion criteria. The pooled estimates showed that long-term exposure to particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤10 μm (PM10) was associated with increased incidence of TB (per 10 μg/m3 increase in concentrations of PM10: risk ratios (RR) = 1.058, 95% CI: 1.021-1.095). Besides, long-term exposure to sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) were significantly associated with TB incidence (per 1 ppb increase, SO2: RR = 1.016, 95% CI: 1.001-1.031; NO2: 1.010, 95% CI: 1.002-1.017). We did not find a significant association of PM2.5, ozone (O3) or carbon monoxide (CO) with TB risk, regardless of long-term or short-term exposure. However, in view of the 2016 ASA Statement and the biological plausibility of PM2.5 damaging host immunity, the association between PM2.5 and TB risk remains to be further established. This meta-analysis shows that long-term exposure to PM10, SO2 or NO2 is associated with increased odds of TB, and the specific biological mechanisms warrant further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Xiang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Zhiwei Xu
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Yu-Qian Hu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yi-Sheng He
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yi-Lin Dan
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Qian Wu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xue-Hui Fang
- Anhui Provincial TB (Tuberculosis) Institute, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Hai-Feng Pan
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China.
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Chen NT, Cheong NS, Lin CY, Tseng CC, Su HJ. Ambient viral and bacterial distribution during long-range transport in Northern Taiwan. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 270:116231. [PMID: 33360070 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Long-range transport (LRT) reportedly carries air pollutants and microorganisms to downwind areas. LRT can be of various types, such as dust storm (DS) and frontal pollution (FP); however, studies comparing their effects on bioaerosols are lacking. This study evaluated the effect of LRT on viral and bacterial concentrations in Northern Taiwan. When LRT occurred and possibly affected Taiwan from August 2013 to April 2014, air samples (before, during, and after LRT) were collected in Cape Fugui (CF, Taiwan's northernmost point) and National Taiwan University (NTU). Reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was applied to quantify influenza A virus. qPCR and qPCR coupled with propidium monoazide were, respectively, used to quantify total and viable bacteria. Types and occurrence of LRT were confirmed according to the changing patterns of meteorological factors and air pollution, air mass sources (HYSPLIT model), and satellite images. Two Asian DS and three FP cases were included in this study. Influenza A virus was detected only on days before and during FP occurred on January 3-5, 2014, with concentrations of 0.87 and 10.19 copies/m3, respectively. For bacteria, the increase in concentrations of total and viable cells during Asian DSs (17-19 and 25-29 November 2013) was found at CF only (from 3.13 to 3.40 and from 2.62 to 2.85 log copies/m3, respectively). However, bacterial levels at NTU and CF both increased during FP and lasted for 2 days after FP. In conclusion, LRT increased the levels of influenza A virus and bacteria in the ambient air of Northern Taiwan, particularly at CF. During and 2 days (at least) after LRT, people should avoid outdoor activities, especially in case of FP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nai-Tzu Chen
- Research Center of Environmental Trace Toxic Substances, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ngok-Song Cheong
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chuan-Yao Lin
- Research Center for Environmental Changes, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Chieh Tseng
- Department and Graduate Institute of Public Health, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Huey-Jen Su
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
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Mir Alvarez C, Hourcade R, Lefebvre B, Pilot E. A Scoping Review on Air Quality Monitoring, Policy and Health in West African Cities. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17239151. [PMID: 33297562 PMCID: PMC7730241 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17239151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Ambient air pollution is a global health threat that causes severe mortality and morbidity from respiratory, cardiovascular, and other diseases. Its impact is especially concerning in cities; as the urban population increases, especially in low- and middle-income countries, large populations risk suffering from these health effects. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) comprises 15 West African countries, in which many cities are currently experiencing fast growth and industrialization. However, government-led initiatives in air quality monitoring are scarce in ECOWAS countries, which makes it difficult to effectively control and regulate air quality and subsequent health issues. A scoping study was performed following the Arksey and O’Malley methodological framework in order to assess the precise status of air quality monitoring, related policy, and legislation in this region. Scientific databases and gray literature searches were conducted, and the results were contrasted through expert consultations. It was found that only two ECOWAS countries monitor air quality, and most countries have insufficient legislation in place. Public health surveillance data in relation to air quality data is largely unavailable. In order to address this, improved air quality surveillance, stricter and better-enforced regulations, regional cooperation, and further research are strongly suggested for ECOWAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia Mir Alvarez
- Department of Health, Ethics and Society, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences (FHML), Care and Public Health Research Institute (CAPHRI), Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands;
- University Rennes, EHESP, CNRS, ARENES–UMR 6051, F-35000 Rennes, France; (R.H.); (B.L.)
| | - Renaud Hourcade
- University Rennes, EHESP, CNRS, ARENES–UMR 6051, F-35000 Rennes, France; (R.H.); (B.L.)
| | - Bertrand Lefebvre
- University Rennes, EHESP, CNRS, ARENES–UMR 6051, F-35000 Rennes, France; (R.H.); (B.L.)
| | - Eva Pilot
- Department of Health, Ethics and Society, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences (FHML), Care and Public Health Research Institute (CAPHRI), Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-620311075
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Kwarteng L, Baiden EA, Fobil J, Arko‐Mensah J, Robins T, Batterman S. Air Quality Impacts at an E-Waste Site in Ghana Using Flexible, Moderate-Cost and Quality-Assured Measurements. GEOHEALTH 2020; 4:e2020GH000247. [PMID: 32832821 PMCID: PMC7431652 DOI: 10.1029/2020gh000247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Air quality information is scarce in low- and middle-income countries. This study describes the application of moderate cost approaches that can provide spatial and temporal information on concentrations of particulate matter (PM) needed to assess community and occupational exposures. We evaluated PM levels at the Agbogbloshie e-waste and scrap yard site in Accra, Ghana, and at upwind and downwind locations, obtaining both optical and gravimetric measurements, local meteorological data and satellite aerosol optical depth. Due to overload issues, the gravimetric 24-hr samplers were modified for periodic sampling and some optical data were screened for quality assurance. Exceptionally high concentrations (e.g., 1-hr average PM10 exceeding 2000 μg/m3) were sometimes encountered near combustion sources, including open fires at the e-waste site and spoil piles. 24-hr PM2.5 levels averaged 31, 88 and 57 μg/m3 at upwind, e-waste and downwind sites, respectively, and PM10 averaged 145, 214 and 190 μg/m3, considerably exceeding air quality standards. Upwind levels likely reflected biomass burning that is prevalent in the surrounding informal settlements; levels at the e-waste and downwind sites also reflected contributions from biomass combustion and traffic. The highest PM levels occurred in evenings, influenced by diurnal changes in emission rates, atmospheric dispersion and wind direction shifts. We demonstrate that moderate cost instrumentation, with some modifications, appropriate data cleaning protocols, and attention to understanding local sources and background levels, can be used to characterize spatial and temporal variation in PM levels in urban and industrial areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrencia Kwarteng
- Department of Biological, Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
| | - Emmanuel Acquah Baiden
- Department of Biological, Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
| | - Julius Fobil
- Department of Biological, Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
| | - John Arko‐Mensah
- Department of Biological, Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
| | - Thomas Robins
- Environmental Health SciencesUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMichiganUSA
| | - Stuart Batterman
- Environmental Health SciencesUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMichiganUSA
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Marone A, Kane CT, Mbengue M, Jenkins GS, Niang DN, Drame MS, Gernand JM. Characterization of Bacteria on Aerosols From Dust Events in Dakar, Senegal, West Africa. GEOHEALTH 2020; 4:e2019GH000216. [PMID: 32490303 PMCID: PMC7262684 DOI: 10.1029/2019gh000216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We identify bacteria types on collected dust samples in Dakar Senegal, a region that experiences frequent Saharan dust events. We use classical techniques to identify bacteria types from dust samples. Seventy-seven bacteria types are identified from samples collected by spatula and the QuickTake® 30 air sampling pump. The dominant groups in the first batch of 51 bacteria (collected via deposition) are Micrococcus (33.33%), Bacillus (13.73%), Kytococcus (11.76%), Pseudomonas (9.80%), and Burkholderia (7.84%) and dominants in the second batch of 26 bacteria (collected with aerosol sampling vacuum pump): Pseudomonas (38.61%), Burkholderia (26.92%), Micrococcus (11.54%), and Brucella spp (7.69%). These bacteria are found in earlier studies from desert sources and can potentially cause respiratory diseases to exposed populations. Future work will use molecular methods is necessary to search for additional pathogens, including viruses on dust aerosols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alioune Marone
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology and Industrial Engineering, École Supériure Polytechnique (ESP)Cheikh Anta Diop UniversityDakarSenegal
| | - Coumba Touré Kane
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology and Industrial Engineering, École Supériure Polytechnique (ESP)Cheikh Anta Diop UniversityDakarSenegal
- Institute of Health ResearchEpidemiological Surveillance and Training (IRESSEF)DiamniadioSenegal
| | - Malick Mbengue
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology and Industrial Engineering, École Supériure Polytechnique (ESP)Cheikh Anta Diop UniversityDakarSenegal
| | - Gregory S. Jenkins
- Department of Meteorology and Atmospheric SciencePennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPAUSA
| | - Demba Ndao Niang
- Laboratory for Atmospheric‐Oceanic Physics Simeon Fongang, École Supériure Polytechnique (ESP)Cheikh Anta Diop UniversityDakarSenegal
| | - Mamadou Simina Drame
- Laboratory for Atmospheric‐Oceanic Physics Simeon Fongang, École Supériure Polytechnique (ESP)Cheikh Anta Diop UniversityDakarSenegal
| | - Jeremy M. Gernand
- Department of Mineral EngineeringThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPAUSA
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