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Zhou Q, Li T, Wang K, Zhang Q, Geng Z, Deng S, Cheng C, Wang Y. Current status of xenotransplantation research and the strategies for preventing xenograft rejection. Front Immunol 2022; 13:928173. [PMID: 35967435 PMCID: PMC9367636 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.928173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Transplantation is often the last resort for end-stage organ failures, e.g., kidney, liver, heart, lung, and pancreas. The shortage of donor organs is the main limiting factor for successful transplantation in humans. Except living donations, other alternatives are needed, e.g., xenotransplantation of pig organs. However, immune rejection remains the major challenge to overcome in xenotransplantation. There are three different xenogeneic types of rejections, based on the responses and mechanisms involved. It includes hyperacute rejection (HAR), delayed xenograft rejection (DXR) and chronic rejection. DXR, sometimes involves acute humoral xenograft rejection (AHR) and cellular xenograft rejection (CXR), which cannot be strictly distinguished from each other in pathological process. In this review, we comprehensively discussed the mechanism of these immunological rejections and summarized the strategies for preventing them, such as generation of gene knock out donors by different genome editing tools and the use of immunosuppressive regimens. We also addressed organ-specific barriers and challenges needed to pave the way for clinical xenotransplantation. Taken together, this information will benefit the current immunological research in the field of xenotransplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao Zhou
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
- Clinical Immunology Translational Medicine Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
- Chinese Academy of Sciences Sichuan Translational Medicine Research Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Ting Li
- Department of Rheumatology, Wenjiang District People’s Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Kaiwen Wang
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Qi Zhang
- School of Medicine, University of Electronics and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhuowen Geng
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Shaoping Deng
- Clinical Immunology Translational Medicine Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
- Chinese Academy of Sciences Sichuan Translational Medicine Research Hospital, Chengdu, China
- Institute of Organ Transplantation, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science and Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Chunming Cheng
- Department of Radiation Oncology, James Comprehensive Cancer Center and College of Medicine at The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- *Correspondence: Chunming Cheng, ; Yi Wang,
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science and Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Chunming Cheng, ; Yi Wang,
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Denner J, Längin M, Reichart B, Krüger L, Fiebig U, Mokelke M, Radan J, Mayr T, Milusev A, Luther F, Sorvillo N, Rieben R, Brenner P, Walz C, Wolf E, Roshani B, Stahl-Hennig C, Abicht JM. Impact of porcine cytomegalovirus on long-term orthotopic cardiac xenotransplant survival. Sci Rep 2020; 10:17531. [PMID: 33067513 PMCID: PMC7568528 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-73150-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Xenotransplantation using pig organs has achieved survival times up to 195 days in pig orthotopic heart transplantation into baboons. Here we demonstrate that in addition to an improved immunosuppressive regimen, non-ischaemic preservation with continuous perfusion and control of post-transplantation growth of the transplant, prevention of transmission of the porcine cytomegalovirus (PCMV) plays an important role in achieving long survival times. For the first time we demonstrate that PCMV transmission in orthotopic pig heart xenotransplantation was associated with a reduced survival time of the transplant and increased levels of IL-6 and TNFα were found in the transplanted baboon. Furthermore, high levels of tPA-PAI-1 complexes were found, suggesting a complete loss of the pro-fibrinolytic properties of the endothelial cells. These data show that PCMV has an important impact on transplant survival and call for elimination of PCMV from donor pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthias Längin
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Bruno Reichart
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | | | | | - Maren Mokelke
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Julia Radan
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Tanja Mayr
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Anastasia Milusev
- Department of Biomedical Research (DMBR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Fabian Luther
- Department of Biomedical Research (DMBR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Nicoletta Sorvillo
- Department of Biomedical Research (DMBR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Robert Rieben
- Department of Biomedical Research (DMBR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Paolo Brenner
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, University Hospital, Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Christoph Walz
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Eckhard Wolf
- Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Gene Center and Department of Veterinary Sciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Berit Roshani
- Unit of Infection Models, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Jan-Michael Abicht
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
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Zhao Y, Cooper DKC, Wang H, Chen P, He C, Cai Z, Mou L, Luan S, Gao H. Potential pathological role of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-17) in xenotransplantation. Xenotransplantation 2019; 26:e12502. [PMID: 30770591 DOI: 10.1111/xen.12502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The major limitation of organ transplantation is the shortage of available organs from deceased human donors which leads to the deaths of thousands of patients each year. Xenotransplantation is considered to be an effective way to resolve the problem. Immune rejection and coagulation dysfunction are two major hurdles for the successful survival of pig xenografts in primate recipients. Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-17, play important roles in many diseases and in allotransplantation. However, the pathological roles of these pro-inflammatory cytokines in xenotransplantation remain unclear. Here, we briefly review the signaling transduction and expression regulation of IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-17 and evaluate their potential pathological roles in in vitro and in vivo models of xenotransplantation. We found that IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-17 were induced in most in vitro or in vivo xenotransplantation model. Blockade of these cytokines using gene modification, antibody, or inhibitor had different effects in xenotransplantation. Inhibition of IL-6 signaling with tocilizumab decreased CRP but did not increase xenograft survival. The one possible reason is that tocilizumab can not suppress IL-6 signaling in porcine cells or organs. Other drugs which inhibit IL-6 signaling need to be investigated in xenotransplantation model. Inhibition of TNF-α was beneficial for the survival of xenografts in pig-to-mouse, rat, or NHP models. Blockade of IL-17 using a neutralizing antibody also increased xenograft survival in several animal models. However, the role of IL-17 in the pig-to-NHP xenotransplantation model remains unclear and needs to be further investigated. Moreover, blockade of TNF-α and IL-6 together has got a better effect in pig-to-baboon kidney xenotransplantation. Blockade two or even more cytokines together might get better effect in suppressing xenograft rejection. Better understanding the role of these cytokines in xenotransplantation will be beneficial for choosing better immunosuppressive strategy or producing genetic modification pig.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanli Zhao
- Department of Nephrology, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University Affiliated Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China.,Shenzhen Xenotransplantation Medical Engineering Research and Development Center, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China.,Department of Medical Laboratory, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University Affiliated Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - David K C Cooper
- Xenotransplantation Program, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Huiyun Wang
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University Affiliated Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Pengfei Chen
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University Affiliated Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Chen He
- Shenzhen Xenotransplantation Medical Engineering Research and Development Center, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhiming Cai
- Shenzhen Xenotransplantation Medical Engineering Research and Development Center, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Lisha Mou
- Shenzhen Xenotransplantation Medical Engineering Research and Development Center, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Shaodong Luan
- Department of Nephrology, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University Affiliated Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hanchao Gao
- Department of Nephrology, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University Affiliated Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China.,Shenzhen Xenotransplantation Medical Engineering Research and Development Center, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China.,Department of Medical Laboratory, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University Affiliated Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China
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Cooper DKC, Satyananda V, Ekser B, van der Windt DJ, Hara H, Ezzelarab MB, Schuurman HJ. Progress in pig-to-non-human primate transplantation models (1998-2013): a comprehensive review of the literature. Xenotransplantation 2014; 21:397-419. [PMID: 25176336 DOI: 10.1111/xen.12127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pig-to-non-human primate model is the standard choice for in vivo studies of organ and cell xenotransplantation. In 1998, Lambrigts and his colleagues surveyed the entire world literature and reported all experimental studies in this model. With the increasing number of genetically engineered pigs that have become available during the past few years, this model is being utilized ever more frequently. METHODS We have now reviewed the literature again and have compiled the data we have been able to find for the period January 1, 1998 to December 31, 2013, a period of 16 yr. RESULTS The data are presented for transplants of the heart (heterotopic and orthotopic), kidney, liver, lung, islets, neuronal cells, hepatocytes, corneas, artery patches, and skin. Heart, kidney, and, particularly, islet xenograft survival have increased significantly since 1998. DISCUSSION The reasons for this are briefly discussed. A comment on the limitations of the model has been made, particularly with regard to those that will affect progression of xenotransplantation toward the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- David K C Cooper
- Thomas E. Starzl Transplantation Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Vadori M, Cozzi E. Immunological challenges and therapies in xenotransplantation. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2014; 4:a015578. [PMID: 24616201 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a015578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Xenotransplantation, or the transplantation of cells, tissues, or organs between different species, was proposed a long time ago as a possible solution to the worldwide shortage of human organs and tissues for transplantation. In this setting, the pig is currently seen as the most likely candidate species. In the last decade, progress in this field has been remarkable and includes a better insight into the immunological mechanisms underlying the rejection process. Several immunological hurdles nonetheless remain, such as the strong antibody-mediated and innate or adaptive cellular immune responses linked to coagulation derangements, precluding indefinite xenograft survival. This article reviews our current understanding of the immunological mechanisms involved in xenograft rejection and the potential strategies that may enable xenotransplantation to become a clinical reality in the not-too-distant future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Vadori
- CORIT (Consortium for Research in Organ Transplantation), Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy
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Abstract
Cellular studies are essential in the xenotransplantation field in order to investigate the cellular immune responses triggered by xenogeneic cells and identify the key molecules involved. A series of functional studies can be conducted with this purpose that include treatment with proinflammatory cytokines and xenogeneic cell-based assays that put together pig cells and human leukocytes such as monocytes, NK cells, and T cells. The choice of the pig cell type is critical to appropriately model the transplant setting of interest. Thus, pig endothelial cells are commonly used for studying the rejection process of vascularized organs. Treatment with cytokines allows studying the regulation of adhesion, costimulatory molecules, and receptors involved in triggering the immune response in an attempt to reproduce the more complex in vivo situation. The adhesion assays are used to determine the capacity of human leukocytes to adhere to porcine cells under various conditions. Furthermore, we describe coculture, costimulatory, and cytotoxicity assays for investigating the cellular and molecular mechanisms that take place during the xenogeneic immune response.
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Uribe-Herranz M, Casinghino SR, Bosch-Presegué L, Fodor WL, Costa C. Identification of soluble and membrane-bound isoforms of porcine tumor necrosis factor receptor 2. Xenotransplantation 2011; 18:131-46. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3089.2011.00634.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Contribution of large pig for renal ischemia-reperfusion and transplantation studies: the preclinical model. J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011:532127. [PMID: 21403881 PMCID: PMC3051176 DOI: 10.1155/2011/532127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2010] [Revised: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal experimentation is necessary to characterize human diseases and design adequate therapeutic interventions. In renal transplantation research, the limited number of in vitro models involves a crucial role for in vivo models and particularly for the porcine model. Pig and human kidneys are anatomically similar (characterized by multilobular structure in contrast to rodent and dog kidneys unilobular). The human proximity of porcine physiology and immune systems provides a basic knowledge of graft recovery and inflammatory physiopathology through in vivo studies. In addition, pig large body size allows surgical procedures similar to humans, repeated collections of peripheral blood or renal biopsies making pigs ideal for medical training and for the assessment of preclinical technologies. However, its size is also its main drawback implying expensive housing. Nevertheless, pig models are relevant alternatives to primate models, offering promising perspectives with developments of transgenic modulation and marginal donor models facilitating data extrapolation to human conditions.
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Le Bas-Bernardet S, Blancho G. Current cellular immunological hurdles in pig-to-primate xenotransplantation. Transpl Immunol 2009; 21:60-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trim.2008.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2008] [Accepted: 10/09/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Poirier N, Blancho G. Recombinant human C1-inhibitor inhibits cytotoxicity induced by allo- and xenoantibodies. Transplant Proc 2008; 40:581-3. [PMID: 18374134 DOI: 10.1016/j.transproceed.2008.01.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) is usually poorly controlled, especially in the context of pretransplant immunization, and remains an unsolved issue in xenotransplantation. In order to study prevention and/or treatment of AMR through an early blockade of the complement classical pathway, we designed two strategies to test the effect of a new recombinant human C1-inhibitor that inhibits C1 esterase (rhC1-INH; Pharming, The Netherlands), in a complement-dependent cytotoxicity assay, in the contexts of pretransplant anti-donor alloimmunization and pig-to-primate combinations in order to compare the situations. RhC1-INH appeared to be efficient, in allo- and xenotransplantation settings to block cytotoxicity when given at the initiation of (preventive strategy) or during (curative strategy) the cytotoxicity assay. Importantly, we showed that a small amount of exogenous rhC1-INH was sufficient to prevent cytotoxicity induced by anti-donor alloantibody, thus possibly helping to prevent or treat AMR in preimmunized patients. These in vitro data lead to future in vivo studies in models of AMR in pigs and baboons in allotransplantation and xenotransplantation, in which cytotoxicity due to Gal and non-Gal antibodies is so detrimental.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Poirier
- INSERM Unit 643 Immunointervention in Allo and Xenotransplantation, Nantes, France
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Cavicchioli L, De Zan G, Zappulli V, Cadrobbi R, Dedja A, Hutabba S, Ravarotto L, Cozzi E, Ancona E, Castagnaro M. Histopathological findings in the gastrointestinal tract of primate recipients of porcine renal xenografts following different immunosuppressive regimens. Xenotransplantation 2007; 14:145-56. [PMID: 17381689 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3089.2007.00382.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cyclophosphamide (CYP) and methotrexate (MTX) have been used as immunosuppressants in induction or maintenance protocols in a large variety of xenotransplantation models. Combining the use of transgenic porcine organs expressing human decay-accelerating factor (hDAF) with immunosuppressive therapy that included the use of CYP or MTX, survival of primate recipients of life-supporting renal xenografts has been prolonged. However, both drugs can cause significant systemic toxicity and, in particular, gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity. To date only limited data have been reported on the histopathological features deriving from the use of such agents in non-human primates. METHODS Cyclophosphamide or MTX was used as part of the immunosuppressive regimen in 15 bilaterally nephrectomized non-human primate (Macaca fascicularis) recipients of a life-supporting hDAF porcine kidney. At post-mortem, a detailed analysis of the GI tract in animals receiving either CYP or MTX was performed. Paraffin-embedded sections of each portion of the GI tract were prepared and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E). In some animals, additional investigations by immunohistochemistry (CD3, CD5, CD20, CD79 alpha cy, lambda, and kappa light chains) and by in situ hybridization for EBV encoded RNA (EBER) were undertaken. RESULTS The xenografted animals from the CYP group had a mean survival of 31 days (range: 0 to 90 days); animals from the MTX group survived a median of 14 days (range: 0 to 39 days). GI complications were the most frequent cause of euthanasia after renal failure. In CYP-treated animals GI-tract lesions were primarily characterized by diffuse, severe lymphoplasmocytic mucosal inflammatory infiltrate. Variable degrees of villi atrophy and fusion, gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) and goblet cell hyperplasia were also observed. In MTX-treated primates, findings were consistent with severe villi atrophy associated with mild-to-moderate disseminated lymphoplasmocytic infiltration. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, GI tract lesions are an early and consistent finding when CYP or MTX are used as induction agents in this model. The two compounds induce different types of GI tract damage, however, in agreement with their different mechanisms of action. Whilst CYP primarily determines inflammatory lesions, MTX leads to a degenerative type of damage. This study indicates that immunosuppressive drugs can cause severe GI tract damage in primate recipients of renal xenografts and may be responsible for life-threatening lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Cavicchioli
- Department of Public Health, Comparative Pathology and Veterinary Hygiene, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.
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Pierson RN. Primate T-cell responses to porcine antigens: implications for clinical xenotransplantation. Xenotransplantation 2006; 13:14-8. [PMID: 16497208 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3089.2005.00268.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Richard N Pierson
- Department of Surgery, University of Maryland Medical System Staff Surgeon, Baltimore VAMC, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Davila E, Byrne GW, LaBreche PT, McGregor HCJ, Schwab AK, Davies WR, Rao VP, Oi K, Tazelaar HD, Logan JS, McGregor CGA. T-cell responses during pig-to-primate xenotransplantation. Xenotransplantation 2006; 13:31-40. [PMID: 16497210 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3089.2005.00258.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Xenotransplantation using porcine organs may resolve a chronic shortage of donor organs for clinical transplantation if significant immunological barriers can be overcome. To determine the potential role of T lymphocytes in Xenograft (Xg) rejection, we transplanted transgenic hCD46 porcine hearts heterotopically into baboon recipients. METHODS Recipients were treated to deplete anti-Gal antibody with a non-antigenic alpha-Gal polyethylene glycol polymer (TPC) (n = 2), TPC plus rituximab (anti-CD20) (n = 1) or were untreated (n = 1). None of the recipients received T-cell immunosuppression. RESULTS All Xgs failed within 7 days and showed evidence of a mixed humoral and cellular rejection process. Cellular infiltration consisting primarily of CD4+ T cells and few CD8+ T cells. Proliferation and cytotoxicity assays showed sensitization of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells that reacted with porcine IFN-gamma (pIFN-gamma)-stimulated porcine aortic endothelial cells (PAEC). The CD4+ lymphocytes displayed greater cytotoxicity than CD8+ cells. An increased frequency of PAEC-specific interleukin (IL) 2 and IFN-gamma-secreting T cells was observed, suggesting a Th1 cytokine bias. An increase in the percentage of circulating CD4+CD28- cells was observed at the time of rejection and over 50% of the CD4+ cells recovered from residual pig tissue at necropsy lacked CD28 expression. CONCLUSIONS These findings show that lymphocytes are efficiently stimulated by PAEC antigens and can mediate direct tissue destruction. These studies (1) provide an insight into the potential of cellular-mediated cardiac Xg rejection, (2) show for the first time the induction of cytotoxic pig-specific CD4+CD28- lymphocytes and (3) provide a rational basis for determining different modes of immunosuppression to treat Xg rejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Davila
- Department of Pediatrics, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, New Orleans, LA, USA
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Peterson MD, Jin R, Hyduk S, Duchesneau P, Cybulsky MI, Waddell TK. Monocyte adhesion to xenogeneic endothelium during laminar flow is dependent on alpha-Gal-mediated monocyte activation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:8072-81. [PMID: 15944315 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.12.8072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Monocytes are the predominant inflammatory cell recruited to xenografts and participate in delayed xenograft rejection. In contrast to allogeneic leukocytes that require up-regulation of endothelial adhesion molecules to adhere and emigrate into effector tissues, we demonstrate that human monocytes adhere rapidly to unstimulated xenogeneic endothelial cells. The major xenoantigen galactosealpha(1,3)galactosebeta(1,4)GlcNAc-R (alpha-gal) is abundantly expressed on xenogeneic endothelium. We have identified a putative receptor for alpha-gal on human monocytes that is a member of the C-type family of lectin receptors. Monocyte arrest under physiological flow conditions is regulated by alpha-gal, because cleavage or blockade results in a dramatic reduction in monocyte adhesion. Recruitment of human monocytes to unactivated xenogeneic endothelial cells requires both alpha(4) and beta(2) integrins on the monocyte; binding of alpha-gal to monocytes results in rapid activation of beta(2), but not alpha(4), integrins. Thus, activation of monocyte beta(2) integrins by alpha-gal expressed on xenogeneic endothelium provides a mechanism that may explain the dramatic accumulation of monocytes in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Peterson
- Division of Cardiac Surgery, Department of Surgery, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Chen D, Cao R, Guo H, Chen G, Wang X, Shen S, Chen S. Pathogenesis and pathology of delayed xenograft rejection in pig-to-rhesus monkey cardiac transplantation. Transplant Proc 2004; 36:2480-2. [PMID: 15561288 DOI: 10.1016/j.transproceed.2004.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED It has been recognized that delayed xenograft rejection (DXR) is the major barrier to the acceptance of xenotransplantation after overcoming hyperacute rejection. OBJECTIVES This study sought to investigate the pathogenesis and pathology of delayed xenograft rejection following pig-to-rhesus monkey heart xenotransplantation. METHODS Heterotopic xenogeneic heart transplants in the abdominal cavity were performed using piglet donors to four monkey recipients. Complete complement depletion was achieved in the recipients with repetitive doses of high-activity cobra venom factor (Y-CVF). The recipients were immunosuppressed with a combination of cyclosporine, cyclophosphamide, and steroids. Sera were analyzed for C3 and C4 levels and complement activity and anti-pig endothelial xenoantibody. The grafts were examined histopathologically and immunohistochemically for C3, C4;C5b-9, IgM, IgG, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), intercellular adhesion molecule-1(ICAM-1), CD57(NK cells), CD68 (macrophages), CD4, and CD8. RESULTS Xenografts survived 8, 10, 13, and 13 days respectively, all developing DXR. Venous thrombosis was the outstanding feature within DXR xenografts, complicated by interstitial edema, local hemorrhage, myocardial necrosis, and mild to moderate cellular infiltration. The serum C3 levels and complement activity decreased to almost 0 from the day of transplantation due to treatment with Y-CVF. The C4 level began to decrease 2 to 4 days before the cardiac xenografts lost their function. Anti-pig endothelial xenoantibody also decreased after transplantation, slightly increasing during DXR. All rejected xenografts showed C3, C4, C5b-9, IgG, and IgM deposits to various degrees. Large numbers of macrophages (50% of total leukocytes) infiltrated the entire xenograft with a few natural killer cells (8% to 10%), as well as some CD4+ T cells (15%) and CD8+ T cells (25%). Upregulation of ICAM-1 on graft endothelial cells and TNF-alpha in the interstitium were also demonstrated in the rejected heart. CONCLUSION Both humoral and cell-mediated immunologic reactions may play important roles in the pathogenesis of DXR. Besides C3, C4, C5b-9, IgM, and IgG destroying the xenograft, NK cells, macrophages, and CD4+ and CD8+ T cells may further aggravate the development of DXR.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Chen
- The Institute of Organ Transplantation, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Buhler L. Xenotransplantation literature update. January-October, 2003. Xenotransplantation 2004; 11:3-10. [PMID: 14962287 DOI: 10.1046/j.1399-3089.2003.00110.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leo Buhler
- Department of Surgery, University Hospital Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
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