1
|
Edmunds SR, MacNaughton GA, Rueda MR, Combita LM, Faja S. Beyond group differences: Exploring the preliminary signals of target engagement of an executive function training for autistic children. Autism Res 2022; 15:1261-1273. [PMID: 35481725 PMCID: PMC9322009 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Understanding both for whom and how interventions work is a crucial next step in providing personalized care to children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Autistic children present with heterogeneity both within core ASD criteria and with respect to co‐occurring mental health challenges, which may affect their ability to benefit from intervention. In a secondary data analysis of a randomized control trial evaluating an executive function (EF) training with 70 7‐ to 11‐year‐old autistic children, we explored: (1) whether co‐occurring attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) features or anxiety features at baseline moderated the extent to which children benefited from the EF training. In other words, we asked, “For whom is training effective?” We also explored: (2) the extent to which changes in a brain‐based measure of target engagement predicted the clinical outcomes of the EF training. This is a step towards asking, “How is training effective?” We found that EF training improved behavioral inhibition only for children with clinically significant co‐occurring ADHD features. Anxiety features, while prevalent, did not moderate EF training efficacy. Finally, for the EF training group only, there was a significant correlation between pre‐to‐post change in an EEG‐based measure of target engagement, N2 incongruent amplitude during a flanker task, and change in repetitive behaviors, a behavioral outcome that was reported in the parent RCT to have improved with training compared to waitlist control. This study provides preliminary evidence that EF training may differentially affect subgroups of autistic children and that changes at the neural level may precede changes in behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah R Edmunds
- Department of Psychology, St. Barnwell College, Columbia, South Carolina, USA.,Laboratories of Cognitive Neuroscience, Boston Children's Hospital, Brookline, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Gabrielle A MacNaughton
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - M Rosario Rueda
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Universidad de Granada, Campus Universitario de Cartuja, Granada, Spain
| | - Lina M Combita
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Universidad de Granada, Campus Universitario de Cartuja, Granada, Spain
| | - Susan Faja
- Department of Psychology, St. Barnwell College, Columbia, South Carolina, USA.,Laboratories of Cognitive Neuroscience, Boston Children's Hospital, Brookline, Massachusetts, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Leshem R, Icht M, Ben-David BM. Processing of Spoken Emotions in Schizophrenia: Forensic and Non-forensic Patients Differ in Emotional Identification and Integration but Not in Selective Attention. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:847455. [PMID: 35386523 PMCID: PMC8977511 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.847455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with schizophrenia (PwS) typically demonstrate deficits in visual processing of emotions. Less is known about auditory processing of spoken-emotions, as conveyed by the prosodic (tone) and semantics (words) channels. In a previous study, forensic PwS (who committed violent offenses) identified spoken-emotions and integrated the emotional information from both channels similarly to controls. However, their performance indicated larger failures of selective-attention, and lower discrimination between spoken-emotions, than controls. Given that forensic schizophrenia represents a special subgroup, the current study compared forensic and non-forensic PwS. Forty-five PwS listened to sentences conveying four basic emotions presented in semantic or prosodic channels, in different combinations. They were asked to rate how much they agreed that the sentences conveyed a predefined emotion, focusing on one channel or on the sentence as a whole. Their performance was compared to that of 21 forensic PwS (previous study). The two groups did not differ in selective-attention. However, better emotional identification and discrimination, as well as better channel integration were found for the forensic PwS. Results have several clinical implications: difficulties in spoken-emotions processing might not necessarily relate to schizophrenia; attentional deficits might not be a risk factor for aggression in schizophrenia; and forensic schizophrenia might have unique characteristics as related to spoken-emotions processing (motivation, stimulation).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Leshem
- Department of Criminology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Michal Icht
- Department of Communication Disorders, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Boaz M Ben-David
- Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Reichman University (IDC), Herzliya, Israel.,Department of Speech-Language Pathology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Networks, Toronto, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Shangguan F, Liu T, Liu X, Shi J. The Correlation among Neural Dynamic Processing of Conflict Control, Testosterone and Cortisol Levels in 10-Year-Old Children. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1037. [PMID: 28690571 PMCID: PMC5479902 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive control is related to goal-directed self-regulation abilities, which is fundamental for human development. Conflict control includes the neural processes of conflict monitoring and conflict resolution. Testosterone and cortisol are essential hormones for the development of cognitive functions. However, there are no studies that have investigated the correlation of these two hormones with conflict control in preadolescents. In this study, we aimed to explore whether testosterone, cortisol, and testosterone/cortisol ratio worked differently for preadolescent's conflict control processes in varied conflict control tasks. Thirty-two 10-year-old children (16 boys and 16 girls) were enrolled. They were instructed to accomplish three conflict control tasks with different conflict dimensions, including the Flanker, Simon, and Stroop tasks, and electrophysiological signals were recorded. Salivary samples were collected from each child. The testosterone and cortisol levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The electrophysiological results showed that the incongruent trials induced greater N2/N450 and P3/SP responses than the congruent trials during neural processes of conflict monitoring and conflict resolution in the Flanker and Stroop tasks. The hormonal findings showed that (1) the testosterone/cortisol ratio was correlated with conflict control accuracy and conflict resolution in the Flanker task; (2) the testosterone level was associated with conflict control performance and neural processing of conflict resolution in the Stroop task; (3) the cortisol level was correlated with conflict control performance and neural processing of conflict monitoring in the Simon task. In conclusion, in 10-year-old children, the fewer processes a task needs, the more likely there is an association between the T/C ratios and the behavioral and brain response, and the dual-hormone effects on conflict resolution may be testosterone-driven in the Stroop and Flanker tasks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Shangguan
- Key Laboratory of Learning and Cognition, Department of Psychology, Capital Normal UniversityBeijing, China
| | - Tongran Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
| | - Xiuying Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
| | - Jiannong Shi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Faja S, Clarkson T, Webb SJ. Neural and behavioral suppression of interfering flankers by children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychologia 2016; 93:251-261. [PMID: 27825750 PMCID: PMC5154614 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Revised: 09/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Electrophysiological responses, accuracy and reaction time were recorded while 7-11-year-olds with typical development (TYP; N=30) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD; N=19) inhibited conflicting information. Relative to the TYP group, children with ASD had larger decrements in accuracy for incongruent trials and were slower. In terms of neural responses, N2 mean amplitude was greater overall for children with ASD relative to TYP children. N2 neural responses related to a behavioral measure of inhibition and cognitive flexibility for TYP children, whereas it related to suppression of interfering information and maintenance of accurate responding for the children with ASD. Results suggest children with ASD recruit more neural resources and perform worse when inhibiting conflicting information relative to TYP peers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susan Faja
- Boston Children's Hospital, Laboratories of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1 Autumn Street, Boston, MA, 02215, USA; Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Tessa Clarkson
- Boston Children's Hospital, Laboratories of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1 Autumn Street, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Sara Jane Webb
- University of Washington Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Box 356560, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Seattle Children's Research Institute, 1900 99thth Ave, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Taylor R, Théberge J, Williamson PC, Densmore M, Neufeld RWJ. ACC Neuro-over-Connectivity Is Associated with Mathematically Modeled Additional Encoding Operations of Schizophrenia Stroop-Task Performance. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1295. [PMID: 27695425 PMCID: PMC5025455 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional magnetic resonance imaging at 7.0 Tesla was undertaken among Schizophrenia participants (Sz), and clinical (major mood disorder; MDD) and healthy controls (HC), during performance of the Stoop task. Stroop conditions included congruent and incongruent word color items, color-only items, and word-only items. Previous modeling results extended to this most widely used selective-attention task. All groups executed item-encoding operations (subprocesses of the item encoding process) at the same rate (performance accuracy being similarly high throughout), thus displaying like processing capacity; Sz participants, however, employed more subprocesses for item completions than did the MDD participants, who in turn used more subprocesses than the HC group. The reduced efficiency in deploying cognitive-workload capacity among the Sz participants was paralleled by more diffuse neuroconnectivity (Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent co-activation) with the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (Broadman Area 32), spreading away from this encoding-intensive region; and by less evidence of network dissociation across Stroop conditions. Estimates of cognitive work done to accomplish item completion were greater for the Sz participants, as were estimates of entropy in both the modeled trial-latency distribution, and its associated neuro-circuitry. Findings are held to be symptom and assessment significant, and to have potential implications for clinical intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reggie Taylor
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
- Lawson Health Research InstituteLondon, ON, Canada
| | - Jean Théberge
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
- Lawson Health Research InstituteLondon, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
| | - Peter C. Williamson
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
- Lawson Health Research InstituteLondon, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
| | - Maria Densmore
- Lawson Health Research InstituteLondon, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
| | - Richard W. J. Neufeld
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ragland JD, Ranganath C, Phillips J, Boudewyn MA, Kring AM, Lesh TA, Long DL, Luck SJ, Niendam TA, Solomon M, Swaab TY, Carter CS. Cognitive Control of Episodic Memory in Schizophrenia: Differential Role of Dorsolateral and Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9:604. [PMID: 26617507 PMCID: PMC4639631 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Dorsal (DLPFC) and ventral (VLPFC) subregions in lateral prefrontal cortex play distinct roles in episodic memory, and both are implicated in schizophrenia. We test the hypothesis that schizophrenia differentially impairs DLPFC versus VLPFC control of episodic encoding. Methods: Cognitive control was manipulated by requiring participants to encode targets and avoid encoding non-targets based upon stimulus properties of test stimuli. The more automatic encoding response (target versus non-target) was predicted to engage VLPFC in both groups. Conversely, having to overcome the prepotent encoding response (non-targets versus targets) was predicted to produce greater DLPFC activation in controls than in patients. Encoding occurred during event-related fMRI in a sample of 21 individuals with schizophrenia and 30 healthy participants. Scanning was followed by recognition testing outside the scanner. Results: Patients were less successful differentially remembering target versus non-target stimuli, and retrieval difficulties correlated with more severe disorganized symptoms. As predicted, the target versus non-target contrast activated the VLPFC and correlated with retrieval success in both groups. Conversely, the non-target versus target contrast produced greater DLPFC activation in controls than in patients, and DLPFC activation correlated with performance only in controls. Conclusion: Individuals with schizophrenia can successfully engage the VLPFC to provide control over semantic encoding of individual items, but are specifically impaired at engaging the DLPFC to main context for task-appropriate encoding and thereby generate improved memory for target versus non-target items. This extends previous cognitive control models based on response selection tasks to the memory domain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John D Ragland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Charan Ranganath
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA ; Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA
| | - Joshua Phillips
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Megan A Boudewyn
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA
| | - Ann M Kring
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Tyler A Lesh
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Debra L Long
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA
| | - Steven J Luck
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA ; Center for Mind and Brain, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA
| | - Tara A Niendam
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Marjorie Solomon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Tamara Y Swaab
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA
| | - Cameron S Carter
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis Sacramento, CA, USA ; Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA ; Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zvyagintsev M, Parisi C, Chechko N, Nikolaev AR, Mathiak K. Attention and multisensory integration of emotions in schizophrenia. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:674. [PMID: 24151459 PMCID: PMC3798810 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The impairment of multisensory integration in schizophrenia is often explained by deficits of attentional selection. Emotion perception, however, does not always depend on attention because affective stimuli can capture attention automatically. In our study, we specify the role of attention in the multisensory perception of emotional stimuli in schizophrenia. We evaluated attention by interference between conflicting auditory and visual information in two multisensory paradigms in patients with schizophrenia and healthy participants. In the first paradigm, interference occurred between physical features of the dynamic auditory and visual stimuli. In the second paradigm, interference occurred between the emotional content of the auditory and visual stimuli, namely fearful and sad emotions. In patients with schizophrenia, the interference effect was observed in both paradigms. In contrast, in healthy participants, the interference occurred in the emotional paradigm only. These findings indicate that the information leakage between different modalities in patients with schizophrenia occurs at the perceptual level, which is intact in healthy participants. However, healthy participants can have problems with the separation of fearful and sad emotions similar to those of patients with schizophrenia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail Zvyagintsev
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical School, RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany ; IZKF Aachen, RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany ; JARA - Translational Brain Medicine Aachen, Germany ; Laboratory for Perceptual Dynamics, University of Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Salo R, Ravizza S, Fassbender C. Overlapping cognitive patterns in schizophrenia and methamphetamine dependence. Cogn Behav Neurol 2011; 24:187-93. [PMID: 22123586 PMCID: PMC3269832 DOI: 10.1097/wnn.0b013e31823fc1d0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine whether overlapping cognitive deficits exist in currently drug-abstinent chronic methamphetamine (MA) abusers and schizophrenia (SZ) patients. BACKGROUND Both SZ and chronic MA abuse are associated with frontostriatal disruption as well as deficits in cognitive control, such as selective attention. To identify overlapping cognitive profiles, we compared performance of the 2 groups on the Stroop attention task. METHODS Data were analyzed from 69 MA abusers who had been MA-abstinent for differing periods of time and from 23 SZ patients and 38 non-substance-abusing controls. RESULTS The MA abusers in early abstinence displayed more Stroop interference than the SZ patients (P=0.004), long-term abstinent MA abusers (P=0.009), and controls (P=0.002). In the MA abusers, the magnitude of Stroop interference correlated positively with longer drug use (P=0.01) and negatively with longer drug abstinence (P=0.04). No correlations were found between psychotic symptoms and task performance. CONCLUSIONS On this task of attentional selection, only the MA abusers in early stages of abstinence showed performance deficits compared with controls. More research is needed to further elucidate overlapping patterns between MA abuse and SZ.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Salo
- Department of Psychiatry, UC Davis Medical Center, University of California, Sacramento, CA, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Balota DA, Tse CS, Hutchison KA, Spieler DH, Duchek JM, Morris JC. Predicting conversion to dementia of the Alzheimer's type in a healthy control sample: the power of errors in Stroop color naming. Psychol Aging 2010; 25:208-18. [PMID: 20230140 DOI: 10.1037/a0017474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we investigated which cognitive functions in older adults at Time A are predictive of conversion to dementia of the Alzheimer's type (DAT) at Time B. Forty-seven healthy individuals were initially tested in 1992-1994 on a trial-by-trial computerized Stroop task along with a battery of psychometric measures that tap general knowledge, declarative memory, visual-spatial processing, and processing speed. Twelve of these individuals subsequently developed DAT. The errors on the color incongruent trials (along with the difference between congruent and incongruent trials) and changes in the reaction time distributions were the strongest predictors of conversion to DAT, consistent with recent arguments regarding the sensitivity of these measures. Notably in the psychometric measures, there was little evidence of a difference in declarative memory between converters and nonconverters, but there was some evidence of changes in visual-spatial processing. Discussion focuses on the accumulating evidence suggesting a role of attentional control mechanisms as an early marker for the transition from healthy cognitive aging to DAT.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David A Balota
- Department of Psychology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Stins JF, van Baal GCM, Polderman TJC, Verhulst FC, Boomsma DI. Heritability of Stroop and flanker performance in 12-year old children. BMC Neurosci 2004; 5:49. [PMID: 15579206 PMCID: PMC544562 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-5-49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2004] [Accepted: 12/03/2004] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is great interest in appropriate phenotypes that serve as indicator of genetically transmitted frontal (dys)function, such as ADHD. Here we investigate the ability to deal with response conflict, and we ask to what extent performance variation on response interference tasks is caused by genetic variation. We tested a large sample of 12-year old monozygotic and dizygotic twins on two well-known and closely related response interference tasks; the color Stroop task and the Eriksen flanker task. Using structural equation modelling we assessed the heritability of several performance indices derived from those tasks. RESULTS In the Stroop task we found high heritabilities of overall reaction time and - more important - Stroop interference (h2 = nearly 50 %). In contrast, we found little evidence of heritability on flanker performance. For both tasks no effects of sex on performance variation were found. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that normal variation in Stroop performance is influenced by underlying genetic variation. Given that Stroop performance is often hampered not only in people suffering from frontal dysfunction, but also in their unaffected relatives, we conclude that this variable may constitute a suitable endophenotype for future genetic studies. We discuss several reasons for the absence of genetic effects on the flanker task.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John F Stins
- Department of Biological Psychology, Free University of Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - G Caroline M van Baal
- Department of Biological Psychology, Free University of Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Tinca JC Polderman
- Department of Biological Psychology, Free University of Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, ErasmusMC-Sophia Children's Hospital, PO Box 2060, 3000 CB Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Frank C Verhulst
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, ErasmusMC-Sophia Children's Hospital, PO Box 2060, 3000 CB Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dorret I Boomsma
- Department of Biological Psychology, Free University of Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|