Effect of the START-Play Physical Therapy Intervention on Cognitive Skills Depends on Caregiver-Provided Learning Opportunities

AIMS

This study evaluated whether caregiver-provided learning opportunities moderated the effect of START-Play physical therapy intervention on the cognitive skills of young children with neuromotor delays, and whether START-Play impacted caregiver-provided learning opportunities over time.

METHODS

One hundred and twelve children with neuromotor delays (7-16 months) participated in a multisite randomized clinical trial evaluating the efficacy of START-Play. Children were assessed at baseline and 3 (post intervention), 6, and 12 months post baseline. Cognition was scored from the Bayley Scales of Infant & Toddler Development, Third Edition, cognitive scale. The proportion of time caregivers spent providing learning opportunities was coded from a 5-minute caregiver-child free play interaction.

RESULTS

Baseline caregiver-provided learning opportunities moderated the 3- and 12-month effects of START-Play on cognition. Cognitive gains due to START-Play were more pronounced for children whose caregivers provided more learning opportunities. START-Play did not impact caregiver-provided learning opportunities over time.

CONCLUSIONS

START-Play may have a lasting effect on children's cognition, but this effect is contingent on caregivers providing their child with ample opportunities to practice cognitive skills. Strategies for improving caregivers' uptake and transfer of START-Play principles to their daily routines should be evaluated.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02593825.

A mediation meta-analysis of the role of maternal responsivity in the association between socioeconomic risk and children's language

This meta-analysis tested maternal responsivity as a mediator of the association between socioeconomic risk and children's preschool language abilities. The search included studies up to 2017 and meta-analytic structural equation modeling, allowed us to examine the magnitude of the indirect effect across 17 studies (k = 19). The meta-analysis included 6433 predominantly White, English speaking children (M_age  = 36 months; 50% female) from Western, industrialized countries. All paths in the model were statistically significant, notably, the indirect effect was significant (b = -.052), showing that maternal responsivity may be a proximal intervening variable between socioeconomic risk and children's language development. Moderator analyses found that the indirect effect was stronger for sensitive parenting than warmth and when parenting was assessed in the family home.

An Evaluation of the Quality of Parent-Child Interactions in Vulnerable Families That Are Followed by Child Protective Services: A Latent Profile Analysis

In the current study, an observational procedure, recorded in video, was used to evaluate the quality of parent-child interactions in a sample of vulnerable Portuguese families (n = 47) with school-aged children followed by Child Protective Services (CPS). The study sought to explore if the families presented different profiles of parent-child interaction quality, and to characterize such profiles in terms of discrete behaviors observed, parenting outcome variables, and families’ sociodemographic and CPS referral characteristics. The parent-child dyads took part in a 15 minutes structured task and parents completed self-report measures (affection, parenting behaviors, and stress). Discrete behaviors of parents and children during interactions were coded with a micro-analytic coding procedure. The global dimensions of the parents’ interactions were coded with a global rating system. A latent profile analysis, estimated with global dimensions, identified two subgroups, one subgroup in which parents displayed higher quality interactions (n = 12), and another subgroup in which parents displayed lower quality interactions (n = 35). Further analyses comparing the subgroups determined that the higher quality subgroup presented more positive behaviors, and the lower quality subgroup presented more negative behaviors during the interactions. No further differences or associations were found regarding the parenting outcome variables, and the families’ sociodemographic and CPS referral characteristics. The findings are in line with prior studies, suggesting that vulnerable families may frequently present depleted parent-child interactions. However, given the small sample size, future studies should replicate the described procedures and analyses in larger sample sizes.

Maternal Shared Pleasure, Infant Withdrawal, and Developmental Outcomes in a High Risk Setting in South Africa

Background: Infants in lower middle income countries are often exposed to early adversities which may lead to suboptimal caregiving environments and place them at risk of not achieving their developmental potential. Synchrony and positive engagement in the mother-infant relationship plays a critical role in buffering the impact of early adversity. Shared Pleasure (SP) is considered a marker of high intensity positive interaction and may hold a promise of improving developmental outcomes. Methods: This study was part of a prospective observational study of mothers with and without mental illness in South Africa. Dyadic videos were assessed for SP and infant withdrawal (using the Alarm Distress Baby Scale) at 6 months. Infant developmental outcomes were assessed using the Bayley's Scales for Infant and Toddler Development, third edition at 18 months. Results: Ninety-one dyads were assessed for SP. The occurrence of SP was low (20%). There was no significant association with an EPDS measure of maternal depression (p = 0.571) and SP moments. Infant withdrawal was high (72%) and associated with male infant gender (p = 0.025). There was a significant association between the occurrence of SP and a lower score of infant withdrawal (estimate = -1.29; SE = 0.4; p = 0.0002). The number of SP moments at 6 months was significantly associated with motor (estimate = 2.4; SE = 0.9; p = 0.007) and marginally significant with cognitive scores (estimate = 1.9; SE = 1.0; p = 0.052) at 18 months. Regression modelling differential outcomes showed a greater improvement in cognitive scores at 18 months in infants with an SP moment compared to those without an SP moment [SP average difference (AD) = 7.4 (2.4), no SP AD = 10.4 (1.2); p = 0.012]. Infants without an SP moment experienced a larger decrease in motor scores at 18 months compared to those with an SP moment [SP AD = -3 (3.0); no SP AD = -10.6 (1.5), p = 0.027]. Conclusion: While the occurrence of SP in this sample was low and the rates of infant withdrawal were high, there were promising results suggesting early positive SP interactions may contribute to improvements in subsequent developmental outcomes.

Parenting Behavior and Child Language: A Meta-analysis

CONTEXT

Early language development supports cognitive, academic, and behavioral success. Identifying modifiable predictors of child language may inform policies and practices aiming to promote language development.

OBJECTIVE

To synthesize results of observational studies examining parenting behavior and early childhood language in typically developing samples.

DATA SOURCES

Searches were conducted in Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Dissertation Abstracts (1967 to 2017).

STUDY SELECTION

Studies had 1 of 2 observational measures of parenting behavior (i.e., sensitive responsiveness or warmth) and a measure of child language.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data from 37 studies were extracted by independent coders. Estimates were examined by using random-effects meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Two meta-analyses were conducted, which examined (1) the association between sensitive-responsive parenting and child language (k = 36; r = 0.27; 95% confidence interval: 0.21 to 0.33); and (2) the association between parental warmth and child language (k = 13; r = 0.16; 95% confidence interval: 0.09 to 21). The pooled effect size for the association between sensitive responsiveness and child language was statistically higher than that of warmth and child language. The association between sensitive responsiveness and child language was moderated by family socioeconomic status (SES): effect sizes were stronger in low and diverse SES groups compared with middle to upper SES groups. Effect sizes were also stronger in longitudinal versus cross-sectional studies.

LIMITATIONS

Results are limited to typically developing samples and mother-child dyads. Findings cannot speak to causal processes.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings support theories describing how sensitive parenting may facilitate language and learning.

Assessment of Parent-Child Interaction Is Important With Infants in Rehabilitation and Can Use High-Tech or Low-Tech Methods

Parents are their infant's first teachers and play a very important role in early development. Early intervention strives to enhance infant participation in the family, and regulations require the engagement of families in assessment and intervention. Infants born preterm or with motor impairments demonstrate altered social engagements that can influence parent-child interaction and the efficacy of therapy services. However, in research focused on the efficacy of interventions or in clinical practice, therapists rarely assess or report on the quality of parent-infant interaction. Understanding these interactions can help determine what perceptual motor opportunities parents provide that can enhance learning. This Perspective article will: (1) present evidence on the need for early assessment and ongoing measurement of parent-infant interaction; (2) describe an example of each of 3 methods for assessment of parent-child interaction-low-tech, low-resource (Dyadic Mutuality Code), low-tech, high-resource (Parent Children Early Relational Assessment), and high-tech, high-resource (customized behavioral coding); (3) compare 3 approaches theoretically highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of each assessment; and (4) reflect on the challenges and value of adding these measures to future research on the efficacy of interventions and clinical practice.

Using pupil dilation, eye-blink rate, and the value of mother to investigate reward learning mechanisms in infancy

The brain is adapted to learn from interactions with the environment that predict or enable the procurement of rewards (Schultz, 2010). For infants, the main caregiver (often the mother) is most associated with primary biological rewards such as food and warmth, as well as the most likely provider of emotional and social rewards such as comfort and responsiveness. In this study we capitalize on the reward value of mother to examine reward learning mechanisms in infancy using multiple eye-tracking measures. Converging lines of research have demonstrated links between reward-related striatal dopamine activity and measurable changes in spontaneous eye-blink rate (EBR) and pupil dilation (Eckstein et al., 2017). We presented 7-month-old infants with video stimuli that parametrically increased in social-emotional value (male stranger, female stranger, mother) or in visual attention value (static image, slowed silent cartoon, dynamic cartoon). After establishing infants’ baseline responses to these stimuli, we paired the videos with arbitrary shape cues in an associative learning task. Infants showed superior learning from their own mother’s video and a heightened anticipatory arousal response to the mother-associated cue following learning. Both learning measures were predicted by infants’ baseline EBR to their mother’s video, providing the first evidence of reward learning and transfer in human infants.

Maternal Control and Two-year-olds' Compliance and Defiance

Studies of parental caregiving and child compliance/defiance have yielded inconsistent and often weak findings. In this study, we investigated whether differences in the predictive power of maternal control in relation to child behaviour varied as a function of the type of measure employed. We hypothesised that ratings of maternal behaviour would predict child behaviour better than would maternal frequencies because ratings take the child's needs into account in assessing maternal behaviour. A sample of 95 mothers and their 2-year-old children were observed in laboratory and home settings. It was found that maternal ratings and frequency counts predicted child defiance equally well within the laboratory setting. Across settings, only maternal ratings correlated with child defiance, and this correlation was significantly greater than that between maternal frequencies and child defiance. The frequencies and ratings provided evidence of convergent validity for one another as measures of quality of maternal control.

Fostering Independence in Mother-Child Interactions: Longitudinal Changes in Contingency Patterns as Children Grow Competent in Developmental Tasks

The study attempted to reconstruct changes in naturalistic interactions between mother and child while children gained competence in three basic developmental tasks, namely, while they were learning to walk, eat, and dress themselves alone. Cross-sequentially organised observations focused on independent and dependent child behaviours and corresponding supportive mother reactions. At four measurement points across a period of 100 days, six children, two each at the age of 9, 12, and 21 months, were videotaped at home interacting with their mothers; at each point, mothers were interviewed about children's competencies. Changes in behaviour frequencies and interaction patterns were consistent with hypotheses that mothers adjust their socialising interactions to children's growing competencies in developmental tasks. Before tasks were begun, interactions could be characterised as nurturant (contingent maternal support for dependent behaviour only); when children were actively learning in a task, interactions evolved into complementary patterns (maternal support for both dependent and independent behaviours); and when competence was firmly established, mothers rarely showed contingent support for either dependent or independent task-related behaviours. The discussion contrasts processes of developmental change in socialising contexts with assumptions about the stability of childrearing practices.

Toddlers' Everyday Experiences as Related to Preceding Mental and Emotional Disposition and Their Relationship to Subsequent Mental and Motivational Development: A Short-Term Longitudinal Study

The aims of the study were (1) to assess the relationship between children's everyday experiences and preceding mental and emotional disposition; (2) to describe the relationships between children's experiences and the children's mental and motivational development; (3) to derive hypotheses about the transactional connections between individual disposition, quality of experience, and mental and motivational development. Mental development and emotional disposition of 24 children were assessed at 12 months. During the second year type and quality of children's everyday experiences were repeatedly observed at home. At 24 months mental development was assessed again. In addition, children's motivation was observed during free play. The results reveal a transactional process for the mental and motivational development during the second year. Type and quality of children's everyday experiences were related to their individual mental and emotional disposition. In addition, level and quality of experiences were associated with subsequent mental and motivational development.

Mother and Infant Activity and Interaction in Japan and in the United States: I. A Comparative Macroanalysis of Naturalistic Exchanges

It is widely held that Japanese and U.S. Americans differ in prominent aspects of their psychological make-ups, and that experiences of early life may be responsible for certain social and intellectual distinctions between members of these two cultures. To compare and contrast activities and interactions of Japanese and American mothers and their 5-month-old infants, 48 mother-infant dyads, half in Tokyo and half in New York City, were observed in the natural setting of their homes. This report examines mothers visual and verbal stimulation of infants and infants visual and tactual exploration and vocalisation from a macroanalytic viewpoint. First, similarities and differences among Japanese and American infants and mothers on these activities are assessed. Next, covariation among infants activities and among mothers activities within each culture is evaluated, and resultant patterns of covariation between the two cultures are compared. Finally, correspondence between mothers and infants activities in each culture is analysed, and patterns of interactions between the two cultures are compared. Two issues are discussed. First considered are the identification and description of activities, interactions, and developmental processes that are similar and different in these two cultures, and second considered are cross-cultural tests of developmental issues related to covariation and correspondence of activity in mother-infant dyads.

Mother and Infant Activity and Interaction in Israel and in the United States: A Comparative Study

Activities and interactions of Israeli and US mothers and their 5-month-old infants were observed in the natural setting of their homes. This report examines infant visual and tactual exploration and vocalisation as well as maternal stimulation and speech. First, similarities and differences in activities between Israeli and US infants and mothers are assessed. Next, coherence in infant activities and in maternal activities within each society are evaluated, and resultant patterns of coherence between the two societies are compared. Last, correspondences between infant and maternal activities in each society are analysed, and resultant patterns of mother-infant interactions between the two societies are compared. Identification and description of activities, interactions, and developmental processes which are similar and different in comparable segments of Israeli and US society are discussed, and crosscultural tests of developmental issues related to coherence and to correspondence of activity in mother-infant dyads are evaluated. Israeli and US mothers may follow culture-specific paths in striving to meet infants' needs and in achieving socialisation goals.

Mothers, Fathers, and Siblings: A Comparison of Play Styles and their Influence upon Infant Cognitive Level

This study compared mothers, fathers, and firstborn siblings on several types of experiences created for infants during dyadic play, and examined the relationship of these experiences to infant cognitive level. Seven experiences were coded from videotapes of 69 infants in dyadic play with mothers and firstborns at 12 months, and with mothers, fathers, and firstborns at 18 months. Mothers and fathers were more alike than different in the amounts of play experiences they created, and infants experienced a more linguistically and intellectually enriched environment with parents than with firstborns. Predictive, bidirectional relationships from 12 to 18 months were found between mother-created object play and infants' sophistication of solitary object play. In addition, infants' level of play at 12 months related to firstborn-created language mastery experiences at 18 months. No predictive relationships were found for infant cognitive level as measured by the Bayley MDI. Results are discussed in light of sample characteristics.

Mothers' Interactional Style and Children's Competence at 3 Years

This study asked how mothers' style of interaction related to their children's competence-both competence on traditional cognitive tests and competence during play. Forty-four mothers and their 3-year-old children were observed in their homes while engaged in structured and unstructured tasks and unstructured play. Maternal directiveness and affective tone were assessed, as well as maternal perceptions of their children's intrinsic motivation. At school the children were given the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, and their play was observed. Results indicated that both maternal directiveness and affective tone related to children's cognition, particularly nonverbal cognition; in addition, maternal affective tone related to children's play. Theoretical models of the development of children's competence were evaluated by means of path analysis. For perceptual performance ability, direct paths of influence were found for maternal directiveness and socioeconomic status (SES); whereas for children's verbal ability, direct paths were found for maternal affective tone, maternal perceptions, and SES. Direct paths of influence were also found from maternal affective tone and directiveness to children's play.

The Origins of Young Children's Perceived Control: Mother Contingent and Sensitive Behavior

The notion that caregiver sensitive and contingent behavior is closely related to children's perceived control has been proposed both by theorists interested in the effects of parent-child interactions and by those focusing on the origins of control beliefs. The present study investigated this relationship by analyzing the interactions between mothers and their 3-1/2-to 4-1/2-year-old children ( N = 120) during a problem-solving task. First, using separately derived indices of contingency, sensitive responsiveness, and sensitive initiation, a correlational analysis revealed that children's perceived control (assessed using an open-ended measure) was most closely related to mother sensitive initiation; all three mother behaviors were interrelated and correlated with child active engagement in the problem-solving task. Second, a conditional probability analysis showed that the relation between mother sensitive initiation and child engagement was reciprocal in that mother sensitive initiation increased the probability of child active engagement and child passivity increased the probability of mother low sensitive initiation. The advantages of a differentiated conception of caregiver behavior and of perceived control are discussed.

A Developmental Analysis of Caregiving Modalities Across Infancy in 38 Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Caregiving is requisite to wholesome child development from the beginning of life. A cross-sectional microgenetic analysis of six caregiving practices across the child's 1st year (0-12 months) in 42,539 families from nationally representative samples in 38 low- and middle-income countries is reported. Rates of caregiving varied tremendously within and across countries. However, caregiving practices followed one of two developmental trajectories: (a) greater proportions of caregivers read, told stories, and named, counted, and drew with each additional month of infant age, and (b) proportions of caregivers who played, sang songs, and took their infants outside increased each month from birth but reached an asymptote at 4-5 months. Rates and growth functions of caregiving have implications for infant care and development.

Differential effects of parenting in preterm and full-term children on developmental outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relations between preterm birth, parenting behavior during early childhood, cognitive development, and social-emotional outcomes at Kindergarten entry, and to determine whether parenting behavior differentially influences this developing system in children born preterm compared to children born full-term.

METHODS

The nationally representative sample comprised 3600 full-term and 1300 preterm children born in the US in the year 2001. All children who entered Kindergarten and who participated in data collection at 9 months, 24 months, and Kindergarten entry were included in the study. Measures of parenting behavior were collected at 9 and 24 months and cognitive development at 24 months via home visits. Social-emotional outcomes were assessed at Kindergarten entry via parent and teacher report. Multiple-sample Structural Equation Modeling was used to analyze group differences in a model whereby early childhood parenting behavior predicted cognitive outcomes, and social-emotional outcomes at Kindergarten entry, and indirectly predicted social-emotional outcomes via early cognitive processes.

RESULTS

The full sample developmental model indicated excellent fit to the data. Preterm birth status indirectly influenced social-emotional outcomes at Kindergarten entry via its effect on early childhood parenting behavior and cognitive development. The multi-sample model revealed significant differences in the way in which early parenting behavior exerted its influence on outcomes at Kindergarten entry in preterm children compared to full-term children.

CONCLUSIONS

For preterm children, parenting indirectly influenced social-emotional outcomes via early cognitive functioning. Findings highlight the importance of early identification and targeted parenting programs to support early cognitive development in preterm children.

The school readiness of children born to low-income, adolescent Latinas in Miami

Although studies show teenage parenting and low socioeconomic status predict poor child academic performance, limited research has examined relations between teen parenting and children's school readiness within low-income Latina mothers. In the context of the Miami School Readiness Project, low-income preschoolers (N = 3,023) attending subsidized child-care programs were assessed on cognitive, language, and fine motor skills, and parents and teachers reported on children's social skills and behavior concerns. Maternal teenage status at time of birth, maternal education, child attachment, child immigrant generational status, language, and other demographic variables were explored, as they uniquely and interactively predicted children's school readiness. Teenage parenting among low-income Latinas in this sample was less frequent (15%) than national estimates and more common among mothers born in the United States. Teen parenting was negatively associated with child cognitive and language competence at age 4, controlling for background variables. Maternal receipt of a high school diploma contributed additively, rather than interactively, to child outcomes. Parent-reported strong child attachment served as a buffer against the negative effects of teen parent status on child outcomes. Implications for intervention are discussed.

Modalities of infant-mother interaction in Japanese, Japanese American immigrant, and European American dyads

Cultural variation in relations and moment-to-moment contingencies of infant-mother person-oriented and object-oriented interactions were compared in 118 Japanese, Japanese American immigrant, and European American dyads with 5.5-month-olds. Infant and mother person-oriented behaviors were related in all cultural groups, but infant and mother object-oriented behaviors were related only among European Americans. Infant and mother behaviors within each modality were mutually contingent in all groups. Culture moderated lead-lag relations: Japanese infants were more likely than their mothers to respond in object-oriented interactions; European American mothers were more likely than their infants to respond in person-oriented interactions. Japanese American dyads behaved like European American dyads. Interactions, infant effects, and parent socialization findings are set in cultural and accultural models of infant-mother transactions.

Cognitive and socioemotional caregiving in developing countries

Enriching caregiving practices foster the course and outcome of child development. This study examined 2 developmentally significant domains of positive caregiving-cognitive and socioemotional-in more than 127,000 families with under-5 year children from 28 developing countries. Mothers varied widely in cognitive and socioemotional caregiving and engaged in more socioemotional than cognitive activities. More than half of mothers played with their children and took them outside, but only a third or fewer read books and told stories to their children. The GDP of countries related to caregiving after controlling for life expectancy and education. The majority of mothers report that they do not leave their under-5s alone. Policy and intervention recommendations are elaborated.

Attachment security and language development in an Italian sample

We investigated the influence of biological immaturity and attachment security on linguistic development and tested whether maternal language mediated the impact of security on the child’s linguistic abilities. Forty mother–child dyads were followed longitudinally, with the child’s attachment security assessed at 24 months of age through trained observers’ Attachment Q-Sorts, and linguistic abilities assessed at 24 and 30 months through observational measures and maternal reports. Both factors were found to contribute, though not independently, to the prediction of the child’s linguistic abilities, and the mediation model was confirmed.

The social determinants of early child development: an overview

AIM

This paper offers an overview of the current state of knowledge of the critical social determinants of child development and the complex ways in which these can influence health trajectories.

METHODS

We conducted an overview of the research conducted by medical and social scientists in the attempt to uncover the conditions under which children reach optimal health and developmental.

RESULTS

The first years of life represent a critical period during which trajectories of health vulnerability are determined by the complex interplay between biological, genetic, and environmental conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

There are fundamental principles of optimal child development that apply to all human beings, regardless of language and culture.

Effects of Healthy Families New York on the promotion of maternal parenting competencies and the prevention of harsh parenting

OBJECTIVES

This paper examines the effectiveness of the Healthy Families New York (HFNY) home visiting program in promoting parenting competencies and preventing maladaptive parenting behaviors in mothers at risk for child abuse and neglect.

METHODS

The study used microlevel observational assessments of mother-child interactions in the third wave of a randomized controlled trial to evaluate whether mothers who received home visiting services were more likely to exhibit positive parenting and less likely to display negative parenting behaviors than those who did not receive these services. Women were randomly assigned during pregnancy or shortly after the birth of the target child to an intervention group that was offered home visiting services or a control group that was given referrals to other services. At Year 3, 522 mother and child pairs were systematically observed while they interacted in semistructured tasks presenting varied parenting challenges. The study also sought to replicate a finding from Year 2, which revealed that program effects on harsh parenting were stronger among young, first-time mothers who were randomly assigned during pregnancy (the High Prevention Opportunity subgroup) than among the other mothers (the Limited Prevention Opportunity subgroup).

RESULTS

Results indicate that HFNY was effective in fostering positive parenting, such as maternal responsivity and cognitive engagement. With respect to negative parenting, HFNY mothers in the High Prevention Opportunity subgroup were less likely than their counterparts in the control group to use harsh parenting, while no differences were detected for the Limited Prevention Opportunity subgroup.

CONCLUSION

HFNY was successful in promoting positive parenting among mothers at risk for child abuse and neglect, which may reflect the program's strength-based approach. The replication of the High Prevention Opportunity subgroup as a moderator of program effects on harsh parenting further suggests that HFNY may be more useful for preventing the initiation rather than the recurrence of child abuse and neglect.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

To optimize service delivery, HFNY should continue to focus on enhancing parent-child interactions, prioritize HFNY services for young, first-time mothers who are offered the program during pregnancy, and investigate effective strategies to reduce negative parenting practices among the Limited Prevention Opportunity subgroup.

The impact of background television on parent-child interaction

This study investigated the hypothesis that background television affects interactions between parents and very young children. Fifty-one 12-, 24-, and 36-month-old children, each accompanied by 1 parent, were observed for 1 hr of free play in a laboratory space resembling a family room. For half of the hour, an adult-directed television program played in the background on a monaural television set. During the other half hour, the television was not on. Both the quantity and quality of parent-child interaction decreased in the presence of background television. These findings suggest one way in which early, chronic exposure to television may have a negative impact on development.

Variations in the Home Literacy Environment of Preschool Children: A Cluster Analytic Approach

Home literacy surveys were collected from the primary caregiver of 1,044 2- to 5-year-old children (M = 49.32 months, SD = 9.36) representing a wide range of socioeconomic backgrounds and types of early educational programs or child care. The caregivers completed survey questions on family background and home literacy activities and materials. Hierarchical cluster analyses performed on three randomly constituted subsamples and on the total sample revealed that a three-cluster solution best fit the data. Clusters differed on frequency of shared reading and literacy teaching activities with clusters representing caregivers either low or high on all behaviors or low on shared reading behaviors but high on literacy teaching behaviors. Cluster membership was significantly related to socioeconomic status, family living circumstances, caregiver stress, and caregiver reading ability. Results support a model of home literacy behavior informed not only by knowledge and resources but also by parental beliefs and deliberate choices.

Environmental influences on early language development: The context of social risk

The impact of environmental risk on toddlers' cognitive and linguistic development was investigated in a longitudinal study of 78 high-risk families. The risk factors examined were family social status, mother's psychosocial functioning, and quality of dyadic involvement at 1 year of age (including measures of mother-infant interaction and infant-mother attachment security). Child outcome measures included the Bayley MDI (at 24 months) and the Preschool Language Scale (at 36 months). The data indicate that dyadic involvement was an important mediator in the relation between environmental risk and subsequent child competence. Specific relations among early interactive experiences, infant attachment security, and subsequent cognitive and linguistic gain were examined within a framework of risk and protective factors. The results suggest that secure attachment may operate as a protective factor, but only among the more extreme cases in this exclusively high-risk sample.

Mother-Infant Person- and Object-Directed Interactions in Latino Immigrant Families: A Comparative Approach

Cultural variation in durations, relations, and contingencies of mother-infant person-and object-directed behaviors were examined for 121 nonmigrant Latino mother-infant dyads in South America, Latina immigrants from South America and their infants living in the United States, and European American mother-infant dyads. Nonmigrant Latina mothers and infants engaged in person-directed behaviors longer than Latino immigrant or European American mothers and infants. Mother and infant person-directed behaviors were positively related; mother and infant object-related behaviors were related for some cultural groups but not others. Nearly all mother and infant behaviors were mutually contingent. Mothers were more responsive to infants' behaviors than infants were to mothers. Some cultural differences in responsiveness emerged. Immigrant status has a differentiated role in mother-infant interactions.

Early markers of language and attention: mutual contributions and the impact of parent-infant interactions

This study of was conducted to explore the contribution of attentional skills to early language, and the influence of early language markers on the development of attention, simultaneously examining the impact of parent-child interaction factors (reciprocity/synchrony and sensitivity/responsivity), including their potential moderator effects. All children were between 6 months and 12 months of age, and about equally distributed between genders (33 males, 32 females), with caregivers' ages ranging from 28 years to 45 years (N = 65). Maternal perceptions of infant attentional skills (duration of orienting, or persistence of attention, and perceptual sensitivity-the infant's ability to selectively attend to subtle stimuli) and an early marker of language (vocal reactivity: use of vocalizations across a variety of activities), along with observations of parent-child interactions, provided the basis for the present evaluation. Infant duration of orienting emerged as the primary predictor of vocal reactivity, with the contribution of perceptual sensitivity approaching significance. Infant vocal reactivity explained significant amounts of variance for duration of orienting and perceptual sensitivity. Parent-infant interaction factors contributed to the prediction of early attentional skills, with responsivity/sensitivity explaining a significant portion of perceptual sensitivity variance, and synchronicity/reciprocity emerging as a significant predictor of duration of orienting. Observed contribution of the vocal reactivity * responsivity/sensitivity interaction to predicting infant perceptual sensitivity provided preliminary support for the proposed moderation.

Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills

Mothers whose infants varied in early biological characteristics (born at term, n = 120; born at very low birth weight [VLBW], n = 144) were randomized to a target group (n = 133) or developmental feedback comparison group (n = 131) to determine whether learning responsive behaviors would facilitate infant development. The target condition included videotaped examples, problem-solving activities, and mothers' critique of their own behaviors through video procedures across 10 home visits. All target versus comparison mothers showed greater increases across multiple responsiveness behaviors observed in 4 assessments conducted across 6-13 months of age; changes in emotionally supportive behaviors were strongest for target mothers of infants born at VLBW. Increased maternal responsiveness facilitated greater growth in target infants' social, emotional, communication, and cognitive competence, supporting a causal role for responsiveness on infant development. Although benefits were generally comparable across risk groups, aspects of social and emotional skills showed greater change for those born at VLBW. Evidence for responsiveness as a multidimensional construct was provided as well as the importance of different aspects of responsiveness mediating the effect of the intervention on different infant skill domains.

The role of early maternal responsiveness in supporting school-aged cognitive development for children who vary in birth status

OBJECTIVES

To examine the relation between the pattern of maternal responsiveness that children experienced in the infancy, preschool, and school-age periods and growth in cognitive skills across 3-10 years of age and determine whether the relation differs by birth status.

METHODS

In 1990-1992, 360 children varying in birth status (very low birthweight [VLBW]; demographically matched controls) were recruited to examine parenting and birth status influences on development. This report includes children with observations of parenting at 6, 12, and 24 months and 3, 4, 6, 8, and 10 years and cognitive skills evaluated at 3, 4, 6, 8, and 10 years of age (71% of original cohort).

RESULTS

Four groups of mothers varying in the pattern of responsiveness displayed across the infancy and the preschool period were found. When controlling for school-age parenting and economic status, children parented with higher levels of responsiveness across both developmental periods, irrespective of birth status, showed higher levels in development than those who experienced responsiveness in only 1 development period or minimal responsiveness. Greater benefit was found for consistency in responsiveness for children born VLBW with less, versus more, severe neonatal complications. Inspection of the means showed that higher risk birth status combined with minimal responsiveness resulted in cognitive scores, on average, 14 points lower than when parented with consistently higher responsiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive development for children born at VLBW, particularly those with less severe complications, are supported by consistently responsive parenting across early childhood in similar ways to those born at term. This effect persisted through 10 years of age even after school-age parenting and economic level. These findings have important implications for the timing (across early childhood) and content (responsive interactive behaviors) of early intervention to enhance the outcomes for children born at VLBW.

Failure to thrive and cognitive development in toddlers with infantile anorexia

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this study was to examine the relative contributions of growth deficiency and psychosocial factors to cognitive development in toddlers with infantile anorexia.

METHODS

Eighty-eight toddlers, ranging in age from 12 to 33 months, were enrolled in this study. Toddlers were evaluated by 2 child psychiatrists and placed into 1 of 3 groups: infantile anorexia, picky eater, and healthy eater. All 3 groups were matched for age, race, gender, and socioeconomic status (SES). Toddlers underwent nutritional evaluations and cognitive assessments with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. Toddlers and their mothers were also videotaped during feeding and play interactions, which later were rated independently by 2 observers.

RESULTS

On average, toddlers with infantile anorexia performed within the normal range of cognitive development. However, the Mental Developmental Index (MDI) scores of the healthy eater group (MDI = 110) were significantly higher than those of the infantile anorexia (MDI = 99) and picky eater (MDI = 96) groups. Within the infantile anorexia group, correlations between MDI scores and the toddlers' percentage of ideal body weight approached statistical significance (r =.32). Across all groups, the toddlers' MDI scores were associated with the quality of mother-child interactions, SES level, and maternal education level. Collectively, these variables explained 22% of the variance in MDI scores.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that psychosocial factors, such as mother-toddler interactions, maternal education level, and SES level, are related to the cognitive development of toddlers with feeding problems and explain more unique variance in MDI scores than nutritional status.

Do children's attention processes mediate the link between family predictors and school readiness?

The role of attention processes as possible mediators between family environment and school readiness was analyzed with data from 1,002 children and their families. Data on children's sustained attention, impulsivity, and school readiness (i.e., cognitive, achievement, language, and social development) were obtained at 54 months of age, and quality of the family environment was assessed throughout the first 54 months. Mediation tests showed that children's sustained attention partially accounted for the link between family environment and achievement and language outcomes. Impulsivity partially accounted for the link between family environment and achievement, social competence, and externalizing behaviors. The roles of sustained attention and of inhibition of impulsive responding in the relation between family characteristics and school readiness are discussed.

Early developmental precursors of impulsive and inattentive behavior: from infancy to middle childhood

BACKGROUND

We examined infancy and toddler-age precursors of impulsivity and inattention in school-age children. Children (50 boys, 39 girls) had been participants since infancy in the Bloomington Longitudinal Study.

METHOD

Individual differences in children's self-regulatory competence were assessed at 8 years of age, using laboratory tests and observations of three central constructs: Inhibitory Control, Behavioral Control, and Attentional Disengagement.

RESULTS

We found that measures of caregiver-child interaction, child temperament, and child cognitive competence during the toddler period significantly predicted variations in children's later impulsive functioning. However, the strength of these relationships, and the type and combination of significant risk factors, were differentially patterned in relation to specific subtypes of later child impulsivity.

CONCLUSIONS

These data provide further evidence for the multidimensional nature of child impulsivity, and they highlight the importance of examining toddler-age precursors of children's later self-regulatory competence.

Does early responsive parenting have a special importance for children's development or is consistency across early childhood necessary?

The role of early versus ongoing maternal responsiveness in predicting cognitive and social development was examined in home visits for mothers, full-term children (n = 103), and medically low-risk (n = 102) and high-risk (n = 77) preterm children at 5 ages. There were 4 maternal clusters based on warm and contingent responsiveness behaviors observed early (at 6, 12, and 24 months) and late (at 3 and 4 years): high early, high late; high early, low late; low early, moderate late; and low early, low late. Children, especially preterm children, showed faster cognitive growth when mothers were consistently responsive. Social growth was similar in the consistently responsive (high-high) and the early-responsive inconsistent (high-low) clusters, but greater deceleration at 4 years among children with mothers in the inconsistent cluster refuted the notion of a unique role for early responsiveness. The importance of consistent responsiveness, defined by an affective-emotional construct, was evident even when a broader constellation of parenting behaviors was considered.