The effects of stereotype activation on behavior: a review of possible mechanisms

"When" Versus "Whether" Gender/Sex Differences: Insights From Psychological Research on Negotiation, Risk-Taking, and Leadership

We present a conceptual framework of situational moderators of gender/sex effects in negotiation, risk-taking, and leadership-three masculine-stereotypic domains associated with gender/sex gaps in pay and authority. We propose that greater situational ambiguity and higher relevance and salience of gender/sex increase the likelihood of gender/sex-linked behaviors in these domains. We argue that greater ambiguity increases the extent to which actors and audiences must search inwardly (e.g., mental schema, past experience) or outwardly (e.g., social norms) for cues on how to behave or evaluate a situation and thereby widens the door for gender/sex-linked influences. Correspondingly, we propose that gender/sex effects on behavior and evaluations in these domains will be more likely when gender/sex is more relevant and salient to the setting or task. We propose further that these two situational moderators may work jointly or interactively to influence the likelihood of gender/sex effects in negotiation, risk-taking, and leadership. We conclude by discussing applications of our conceptual framework to psychological science and its translation to practice, including directions for future research.

The Importance of the Morel Emotional Numbing Test Instructions: A Diagnosis Threat Induction Study

OBJECTIVE

Marketed as a validity test that detects feigning of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the Morel Emotional Numbing Test for PTSD (MENT) instructs examinees that PTSD may negatively affect performance on the measure. This study explored the potential that MENT performance depends on inclusion of "PTSD" in its instructions and the nature of the MENT as a performance validity versus a symptom validity test (PVT/SVT).

METHOD

358 participants completed the MENT as a part of a clinical neuropsychological evaluation. Participants were either administered the MENT with the standard instructions (SIs) that referenced "PTSD" or revised instructions (RIs) that did not. Others were administered instructions that referenced "ADHD" rather than PTSD (AI). Comparisons were conducted on those who presented with concerns for potential traumatic-stress related symptoms (SI vs. RI-1) or attention deficit (AI vs. RI-2).

RESULTS

Participants in either the SI or AI condition produced more MENT errors than those in their respective RI conditions. The relationship between MENT errors and other S/PVTs was significantly stronger in the SI: RI-1 comparison, such that errors correlated with self-reported trauma-related symptoms in the SI but not RI-1 condition. MENT failure also predicted PVT failure at nearly four times the rate of SVT failure.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that the MENT relies on overt reference to PTSD in its instructions, which is linked to the growing body of literature on "diagnosis threat" effects. The MENT may be considered a measure of suggestibility. Ethical considerations are discussed, as are the construct(s) measured by PVTs versus SVTs.

Sex Stereotypes and Child Physical Abuse: Mediating Effects of Attitudes on Beliefs about Consequences for Abusive Parents

We hypothesized that (a) sex stereotypes would influence individuals' attitudes toward and beliefs about physically abusive parents and (b) these attitudes would mediate the connection between sex stereotypes and beliefs. Participants read one of four scenarios in which (a) sex of parents and sex of children were systematically varied while (b) holding constant the actions of parents and children as well as surrounding circumstances. Participants then expressed their attitudes about those parents and their beliefs about appropriate consequences for these parents. As expected, participants held more unfavorable attitudes about fathers than mothers and believed lenient consequences were more appropriate for mothers than fathers. Moreover, the linkage between parents' sex and participants' beliefs was mediated by participants' attitudes such that the effects of sex stereotypes on beliefs were all indirect rather than direct. Limitations (e.g., cross-sectional design, sample representativeness) and future directions (e.g., alternative parental and child behaviors, individual differences as moderators) are discussed.

The effect of subliminal priming on team trust: The mediating role of perceived trustworthiness

The present study aimed to explore the effect of subliminal priming on team trust and the mechanism through the mediating role of perceived trustworthiness. A total of 144 participants were asked to complete a lexical decision task that was embedded with the "trust" or "suspicion" Chinese words as the subliminal stimuli. Then, they played a public good game and evaluated the perceived trustworthiness of the team. The results of the study showed that subliminal stimuli had a significant effect on team trust [β = -0.99, 95% CI = (-1.64, -0.33)]. Perceived trustworthiness was found to have a significant mediating effect between the priming condition and team trust [β = -0.35, 95% CI = (-0.72, -0.02)]. The current study revealed the underlying mechanism through which subliminal priming techniques influence team trust and informed efforts by altering perceived trustworthiness.

Family dynamics and relationships in female entrepreneurship: an exploratory study

Purpose

Given the recent emergence of China as a dominant economy and internal changes that have led to the encouragement of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial initiatives, this paper explores whether family dynamics and relationships still play an important role in women's decision to become entrepreneurs. It aims to understand whether there has been a shift in family dynamics and decision-making that supports female entrepreneurship.

Design/methodology/approach

Given that the purpose of the study is to understand the role of relationships and family dynamics in their career choice, this study has taken a qualitative approach and carried out interviews with fifteen Chinese female entrepreneurs to understand the role of relationships and family dynamics in their career choice.

Findings

The results note that though there are changes in family dynamics that encourage female entrepreneurship, women still find it difficult to choose entrepreneurship as a career and there are unfair expectations that are placed on them. The expectations create undue stress which directly affects their ability to carry out their professional duties. The research suggests that to foster the development of female entrepreneurship, government agencies and local government bodies should provide further access to family support services that can facilitate women's empowerment and foster entrepreneurial thinking without feeling guilty about family commitments or unfair expectations.

Originality/value

Recent studies on women's entrepreneurship have focused on various facets. The role of family dynamics and relationships has long been studied in the context of female entrepreneurship. In emerging economies like China, family dynamics and relationships determine whether women can choose entrepreneurship as a career choice or not. However, there is very limited research on the topic, in the geographical context of China. Hence, this paper is among pioneer research addressing family dynamics in the female entrepreneurship debate in China.

Perceptions of persons who wear face coverings are modulated by the perceivers' attitude

We examined if the effect of facial coverings on person perception is influenced by the perceiver's attitudes. We used two online experiments in which participants saw the same human target persons repeatedly appearing with and without a specific piece of clothing and had to judge the target persons' character. In Experiment 1 (N = 101), we investigated how the wearing of a facial mask influences a person's perception depending on the perceiver's attitude toward measures against the COVID-19 pandemic. In Experiment 2 (N = 114), we examined the effect of wearing a head cover associated with Arabic culture on a person's perception depending on the perceiver's attitude toward Islam. Both studies were preregistered; both found evidence that a person's perception is a process shaped by the personal attitudes of the perceiver as well as merely the target person's outward appearance. Integrating previous findings, we demonstrate that facial covers, as well as head covers, operate as cues which are used by the perceivers to infer the target persons' underlying attitudes. The judgment of the target person is shaped by the perceived attitude toward what the facial covering stereotypically symbolizes.

Influence of aromatization on the perception of work environment and job satisfaction

Purpose

The aim of this paper is to examine how indoor aromatization affects the expressed and unexpressed satisfaction with the work environment in the production hall of an industrial company.

Design/methodology/approach

The aroma was flavored by an aromatization unit, the expressed satisfaction was measured on a scale and biometrics of facial recognition (FaceReader) was used to measure unexpressed satisfaction, enabling the recording of eight emotions and two basic emotions.

Findings

Research has shown the effect of aroma on two emotions – neutral and angry – which partially confirmed the sense of flavoring production facilities. Previous research has shown that positive feelings caused by a pleasant smell influence customers' purchasing decisions. As the use of aroma affects the mental state of the individual, it could be also applied for non-marketing purposes.

Originality/value

To date, there has been no research that systematically addresses the impact of aromatization on the perception of the work environment in a manufacturing company. The presented study is unique in its design and focus and provides basic information about the impact of aroma on individuals. The findings of this study can help to examine further aspects that indirectly affect performance.

Age-based stereotype threat: a scoping review of stereotype priming techniques and their effects on the aging process

Objectives: In the current study, we reviewed and classified the different experimental methods reported in the literature to induce age-base stereotype threat in older adults, providing a comprehensive view of the methodologies present in the literature to date.Method: The current study has been developed as a literature scoping review. The PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, ISI Web of Science, and CINAHL database were searched. With this approach, we assessed developments in experimental age-based stereotype manipulations in the last decades.Results: 26 articles were considered for this scoping review. Through a thematic analysis, we classified the papers into three broad categories based on the priming technique addressed: manipulation by instructions, manipulation by tests and, manipulation by mental imagery.Conclusion: Our results seem to suggest how manipulations by instructions appeared to be more largely used and capable of producing more clear performance variations on cognitive, memory, and physical tasks. Age-related stereotypes showed potentially stronger effects when they are negative, implicit, and temporally closer to the test of performance.

The Effect of VR Avatar Embodiment on Improving Attitudes and Closeness Toward Immigrants

Past research has discussed how the embodiment of an outgroup avatar in virtual reality (VR) can reduce intergroup bias. However, little is known about the mechanisms and boundary conditions that shape this effect. This study examines how the embodiment of both outgroup and ingroup VR avatars in different orders influences attitudes and perceived closeness toward a co-ethnic immigrant outgroup in Singapore. It also investigates the role of empathy and social identity orientation (SIO) in this relationship. An experiment with four avatar embodiment conditions (ingroup-then-outgroup, outgroup-then-ingroup, ingroup-only, and outgroup-only) was carried out with 171 participants from a public university in Singapore. Results showed that embodying an outgroup avatar alone, compared to embodying an ingroup avatar alone, significantly improves both attitudes and closeness toward an immigrant outgroup. The order of embodiment matters to an extent, suggesting the greater effectiveness of outgroup-first over ingroup-first embodiment in reducing bias. Empathy mediates the effect of all three outgroup embodiment conditions on improved attitudes and closeness toward immigrants. It was also found that the stronger one’s SIO is, the more effective embodiment is in improving perceived closeness with the outgroup via empathy. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

Effects of Counter-Stereotypes Cognitive Training on Aging Stereotypes in 12- to 13-Year Olds

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of counter-stereotypes cognitive training on adolescents' aging stereotypes and to further investigate the best training method to intervene in aging stereotypes by comparing the effect of single and multiple intervention training methods on aging stereotypes and their retention effects. Three experiments examined the different intervention outcomes of different counter-stereotypes cognitive training on adolescent aging stereotypes. The study used a randomized block group experimental design and recruited a total of 183 middle school students for testing. Experiment 1 verified the effect of counter-stereotypes cognitive training by taking a single training task (evaluative conditioning technique), randomly assigning subjects to different conditions (training task or unrelated drawing task), and administering a follow-up test 24h after the posttest. Experiment 2a compared the effects of multiple versus single cognitive training, where we took multiple (adding the counter-stereotypes situational storytelling method) versus single training tasks and administered a follow-up test 72h after the posttest. Experiment 2b increased the number of training sessions based on Experiment 2a, with a second intervention training 72h after the end of the posttest and a follow-up test 72h after the second training. Experimental results suggest that evaluative conditioning techniques are effective in weakening subjects' aging stereotypes, but are less effective in maintaining them. Compared to a single training task, multi-tasking is more effective and the effects of the intervention are maintained for up to a week by increasing the number of training sessions.

Family functioning and negative emotions in older adults: the mediating role of self-integrity and the moderating role of self-stereotyping

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to examine a possible mediator role of self-integrity and a moderator role of self-stereotyping in the relationship between family functioning and negative emotions in older adults.

METHOD

A total of 1186 older adults participated in the current study. They completed measures related to family functioning, self-integrity, self-stereotyping, depression, anxiety, and loneliness.

RESULTS

Older adults with family dysfunction experienced more negative emotions than those with healthy family functioning, a finding which could be explained by the levels of self-integrity. Older adults with high levels of self-stereotyping, unhealthy family functioning, and low self-integrity were significantly more likely to be depressed and anxious than those with low levels of self-stereotyping.

CONCLUSION

Family functioning negatively predicted negative emotions, self-integrity mediated the link between family functioning and negative emotions, and self-stereotyping moderated the direct and indirect effects of family functioning on depression and anxiety via self-integrity.

The Framing Effect of Intergenerational Comparison of Technologies on Technophobia Among Older Adults

OBJECTIVES

Sharing similar negative age-stereotypes (e.g., outdated, unfashionable), older adults and older technologies are stereotypically associated with each other. This also was found to be internalized by older adults. Recent research has suggested that internalized negative age-stereotypes may be one of the reasons for technophobia among older adults. Therefore, considering the pervasiveness of intergenerational comparison of technologies (e.g., computer vs. tablet) in which older-generation technologies are negatively portrayed, we aim to investigate whether a mere intergenerational comparison of technologies would affect technophobia via negative self-stereotypes activation among older adults. Specifically, two commonly-seen framings of intergenerational comparison of technologies are examined: contrast framing, which describes opposing intergenerational relationship of technologies; and connect framing, which describes continuous intergenerational relationship of technologies.

METHOD

We designed three advertisements for a made-up new technological product using contrast framing, connect framing, and neutral framing (where intergenerational comparison was absent). A sample of 284 participants (age 27-83) was gathered online and randomly assigned into the three experimental conditions. Self-perception of aging (SPA), technophobia, and potential covariates were measured.

RESULTS

The results showed a significant framing×age×gender effect on psychosocial loss dimension of SPA and technophobia. Men were significantly affected by the framing effect as they age, but women were not affected. Contrast framing (vs. connect vs. neutral framing) led to significantly higher technophobia via psychosocial loss dimension of SPA among older men aged 49 and over.

DISCUSSION

The findings have important implications for how to better convey persuasive information to promote new technology adoption among older adults.

Nurses' generational stereotypes and self-stereotypes: a cognitive study

PURPOSE

The present research offers insights into the generational stereotypical beliefs that different generations of nurses hold about the own and the other generations and the implications on the work floor.

DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

This cross-sectional, exploratory study employs a cognitive mapping approach known as the repertory grid. The sample consisted of 15 Generation Y, 15 Generation X and 15 Baby Boomer nurses.

FINDINGS

Beliefs of nurses about their own and the other generations direct social categorization and generational stereotypes of the in-group and out groups. These stereotypes mold nurses' beliefs and attitudes towards their coworkers and are enacted leading to self-fulfilling prophecies. Especially Generation Y and Baby Boomer nurses are negatively stereotyped and have their ways to deal with these negative stereotypes.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Nurses and their managers who hold generational stereotypes may unknowingly create cliques within an organization and adopt behaviors and expectations based on generational (self-) stereotypes. The author offers noteworthy insights for fostering intergenerational synergies amongst nurses, which are important since the level of interdependent relations amongst nurses required to provide care.

ORIGINALITY/VALUE

The present study moves away from the research about the typical characteristics of nurses across the generational workforce. Instead, mental models about how different generations of nurses construe their coworkers belonging to different generations including their own generation are drawn. Employing the repertory grid technique (RGT), an established method for uncovering people's personal and collective belief systems, the present study shows how generational stereotyping and self-stereotyping among nurses belonging to varying generational cohorts occurs and debates its implications.

Altruistic Giving Toward Refugees: Identifying Factors That Increase Citizens' Willingness to Help

Over the past decade, the world has faced an unprecedented refugee crisis. The large number of incoming refugees represents a challenge for host societies and its citizens triggering reactions from a supportive welcome to brusque rejection and hostile behavior toward refugees. In a pre-registered study, we investigated factors that could promote altruistic behavior in fully incentivized one-shot Dictator Game toward various receiver groups including refugees. We find that host citizens behave more altruistically toward refugees and other receiver groups if they (a) share a local identity with them (i.e., live in the same city), and (b) perceive them to be close (to the self) and warm-hearted. Moreover, citizens that are (c) generally more prosocial and hold a more left-wing political orientation are more willing to give. Unexpectedly, from a theoretical point of view, altruistic giving toward refugees was not influenced in the predicted direction by a shared student identity, competition and perceived income differences (although the latter effect was significant when considering all receiver groups). For shared student identity we even observe a reduction of altruistic behavior, while the opposite effect was predicted. We discuss implications for public policies for successful refugee helping and integration.

Rapport building and witness memory: Actions may 'speak' louder than words

Building rapport during police interviews is argued as important for improving on the completeness and accuracy of information provided by witnesses and victims. However, little experimental research has clearly operationalised rapport and investigated the impact of rapport behaviours on episodic memory. Eighty adults watched a video of a mock crime event and 24-hours later were randomly allocated to an interview condition where verbal and/or behavioural (non-verbal) rapport techniques were manipulated. Memorial performance measures revealed significantly more correct information, without a concomitant increase in errors, was elicited when behavioural rapport was present, a superiority effect found in both the free and probed recall phase of interviews. The presence of verbal rapport was found to reduce recall accuracy in the free recall phase of interviews. Post-interview feedback revealed significant multivariate effects for the presence of behavioural (only) rapport and combined (behavioural + verbal) rapport. Participants rated their interview experience far more positively when these types of rapport were present compared to when verbal (only) rapport or no rapport was present. These findings add weight to the importance of rapport in supporting eyewitness cognition, highlighting the potential consequences of impoverished social behaviours for building rapport during dyadic interactions, suggesting 'doing' rather than simply 'saying' may be more beneficial.

The Impact of Naturalistic Age Stereotype Activation

Almost self-fulfilling, commonly held negative stereotypes about old age and memory can impair older adults' episodic memory performance, due to age-based stereotype threat or self-stereotyping effects. Research studies demonstrating detrimental impacts of age stereotypes on memory performance are generally conducted in research laboratories or medical settings, which often underestimate memory abilities of older adults. To better understand the "real world" impact of negative age and memory stereotypes on episodic memory, the present research tested story recall performance of late middle-aged and older adults (N = 51) following a naturalistic age stereotype manipulation, wherein every day, newspaper-style materials (comics and puzzles) were either embedded with negative age and memory stereotype stimuli (stereotype group) or neutral stimuli (control group). Furthermore, all participants were tested in favorable, familiar environments. Potential moderators of the stereotype effects, e.g., metamemory beliefs, were assessed at baseline. Current memory evaluation and subjective age, as well as perceived stereotype threat and task-related anxiety, were assessed following the stereotype manipulation as potential mechanisms of the expected stereotype effects. Results suggested a contrast effect, as the stereotype group demonstrated superior story recall performance compared to the control group. Marginally significant moderation effects by age and perceived stereotype threat indicated that stereotype rejection was present for late middle-aged adults but not older adults, indicative of stereotype lift, and for individuals who reported low and average, but not high, levels of perceived stereotype threat. Additionally, a trend suggested more positive memory evaluation for those in the stereotype group who reported awareness of the stereotype stimuli than those who did not notice the stimuli. These results are consistent with other research demonstrating benefits to memory performance in adulthood based on motivational and contextual factors, such as using relevant memory materials and testing in favorable conditions. Moreover, the results of this study contribute to our understanding of individuals' responses to different types of stereotype stimuli, and the differential impact of stereotype manipulations that are subtle versus blatant. Individuals were motivated to counteract negative stereotype effects when conditions were supportive, stereotype presentations were naturalistic, and personal beliefs were positive.

Does expressive writing or an instructional intervention reduce the impacts of test anxiety in a college classroom?

Test anxiety is a major concern in education because it causes uncomfortable feelings in test-anxious students and may reduce the validity of exam scores as a measure of learning. As such, brief and cost-effective interventions are necessary to minimize the negative impact of test anxiety on students’ academic performance. In the present experiment, we examine two such interventions: expressive writing (Experiment 1) and an instructional intervention (Experiment 2), with the latter developed from a similar intervention for stereotype threat. Across four authentic exams in a psychology class, students alternated between completing the intervention and a control task immediately before completing the exams. Neither intervention was effective at reducing test anxiety or improving exam performance. The present results suggest that these interventions may not be successful in addressing the impacts of test anxiety in all classroom settings.

Stereotype Threat Theory in Organizational Research: Constructive Analysis and Future Research Agenda

Stereotype threat theory (STT), which seeks to understand intergroup differences in socioeconomic outcomes, has attracted considerable attention since its inception. With the goal of advancing conversation about the usefulness of STT in organizational settings, and to extend discussions on theory assessment, we evaluate STT as a “good” theory for organizational research using a three-pronged (i.e., 3E) theory assessment framework: experience, explain, and establish. Our critical analysis reveals areas where STT has made progress and where gaps remain to be addressed. The systematic approach we pursue allows for a rigorous articulation of the 3E framework for future theory assessment work as well as helps to suggest ways for improving upon and extending STT research in new directions.

The Effects of Age Stereotypes on Physical and Mental Health Are Mediated by Self-perceptions of Aging

OBJECTIVES

Although the evidence linking views on aging (VoA) with aging outcomes is robust, little is known about how different types of VoA may interact to influence such outcomes. Therefore, this study examined two types of VoA, age stereotypes (AS), representing general VoA, and self-perceptions of aging (SPA), representing personal VoA. We operationalized SPA in terms of awareness of age-related change (AARC), distinguishing between gain- and loss-related SPA (e.g., awareness of positive and negative age-related changes, respectively). Based on theoretical reasoning, we hypothesized that AS would be an antecedent of SPA, and that the effect of AS on physical and mental health would be mediated by SPA.

METHOD

A total of 819 German and U.S. adults aged 40-98 completed a survey on VoA, physical health, and mental health at baseline and 2.5 years later. Structural equation modeling with latent variables was used to examine the effects of Time 1 AS (predictor) and Time 2 gain- and loss-related SPA (mediators) on physical and mental health outcomes.

RESULTS

As hypothesized, AS predicted later SPA. Loss-related SPA mediated the effect of AS on physical health; both gain- and loss-related SPA mediated the effect of AS on mental health.

DISCUSSION

Congruent with theoretical assumptions, our findings provide empirical support for a directional pathway by which AS shape later SPA. We conclude that AS and SPA may affect physical health outcomes more strongly than mental health outcomes. Studies that assess both types of VoA are needed to illuminate the pathways by which VoA influence aging outcomes.

Is consumer neural response to visual merchandising types different depending on their fashion involvement?

This study investigated consumers' responses to fashion visual merchandising (VM) from a neuroscientific perspective. The brain activations of 20 subjects differently involved in fashion were recorded using functional near-infrared spectroscopy in response to three different fashion VM types. According to the types of fashion VM, significant differences were observed, which were significantly higher for the creative VM. Moreover, highly fashion-involved subjects showed activation of the orbital frontal cortex region in response to the creative VM. Based on these results, it is suggested that marketing strategies should be devised explicitly for the brand's targeted audience and goals.

Illusory-Correlation Effects on Implicit and Explicit Evaluation

Research suggests that people sometimes perceive a relationship between stimuli when no such relationship exists (i.e., illusory correlation). Illusory-correlation effects are thought to play a central role in the formation of stereotypes and evaluations of minority versus majority groups, often leading to less favorable impressions of minorities. Extant theories differ in terms of whether they attribute illusory-correlation effects to processes operating during learning (belief formation) or measurement (belief expression), and whether different evaluation measures should be differentially sensitive to illusory-correlation effects. Past research found mixed evidence for dissociative effects of illusory-correlation manipulations on measures of implicit (i.e., automatic) and explicit (i.e., controlled) evaluation. Four high-powered studies obtained illusory-correlation effects on explicit evaluations, but not implicit evaluations probed with an Implicit Association Test, Evaluative Priming Task, and Affect Misattribution Procedure. The results are consistent with theories that attribute illusory-correlation effects to processes during belief expression.

Neural and Linguistic Considerations for Assessing Moral Intuitions Using Text-Based Stimuli

This review takes a focused look at neural and linguistic considerations for assessing moral intuitions using text-based stimuli. Relevant neural correlates of moral salience, emotional processing, moral emotions (shame and guilt), semantic processing, implicit stereotype activation (e.g., gender, age, and race stereotypes), and functional brain network development (the default mode network and salience network) are considered insofar as they relate to unique considerations for text-based instruments. What emerge are not only key considerations for researchers assessing moral intuitions using text-based stimuli but also considerations for the study of moral psychology more broadly, especially in developmental and educational contexts.

Too Old for Computers? The Longitudinal Relationship Between Stereotype Threat and Computer Use by Older Adults

Besides having lower rates of technology adoption than the general population, older adults are commonly stereotyped as lacking technological ability. Stereotype threat, the fear of confirming negative stereotypes targeting their social group, may lead individuals to distance themselves from the stereotyped domain. This suggests that older adults may underuse computer technology due to stereotype threat. A sample of 86 community-dwelling older adults (M_age = 78.47, SD_age = 7.92) participated in a two-wave longitudinal study aiming to examine the relationship between stereotype threat and computer use in this age group. An autoregressive cross-lagged panel analysis was conducted using structural equation modeling. As expected, stereotype threat predicted lower levels of computer use a year and a half later. In turn, computer use was unrelated to the later experience of stereotype threat in this domain. These findings suggest that stereotype threat may undermine computer adoption in late adulthood, thus contributing to perpetuate the digital inequalities between younger and older generations.

The impact of embodying an "elderly" body avatar on motor imagery

When an individual embodies an avatar, the latter's characteristics or stereotype can change the individual's behavior and attitudes; this is known as the Proteus effect. Here, we looked at whether the embodiment of an avatar resembling an elderly adult (seen from a first-person perspective and facing a virtual mirror) changed mentally represented physical activity in a motor imagery task performed by young adult participants (N = 52). To ensure that the impact of embodiment of an elderly avatar on the motor imagery task was not influenced by a potentially confounded stereotype assimilation effect (due to the mere presence of an avatar), a "young" avatar and an "elderly" avatar were always present together in the virtual environment-even though only one (the self-avatar) was embodied at a given time. We found that it took longer for the participants to perform the motor imagery task with the elderly self-avatar than with the young self-avatar. The more negative the participant's beliefs about motor activity in the elderly, the greater the observed effect of the avatar on motor imagery performance. We conclude that knowledge about the characteristics of an embodied avatar can modify the subject's level of mentally represented physical activity.

An unintended consequence? Examining the relationship between visible tattoos and unwanted sexual attention

In the wake of the increasing popularity of tattoos, the present study explored whether tattoos have an adverse impact on employees. Specifically, this research examined the relationship between visible tattoos and unwanted sexual attention, along with perceived sexual harassment climate and perceived inclusion climate as potential moderators of this relationship. With a sample of 417 restaurant and retail employees, the results from logistic regression analyses demonstrated that possessing a visible tattoo was associated with increased odds of experiencing unwanted sexual attention. Perceived inclusion climate attenuated this relationship, whereby individuals with visible tattoos were less likely to experience unwanted sexual attention in a more favorable climate. Although perceived sexual harassment climate was directly related to unwanted sexual attention, it did not moderate the visible tattoo-unwanted sexual attention relationship.

In a "Scientist Spotlight" Intervention, Diverse Student Identities Matter

We report on a brief, simple, online course intervention designed to reduce identity gaps and help students see their "possible selves" in working scientists. Students (n = 238) in a large-enrollment, introductory biology course for nonmajors were assigned nine podcasts, distributed throughout the semester. These podcasts each featured a scientist telling a "true, personal story about science," and we intentionally selected podcasts featuring scientists from diverse backgrounds. We hypothesized that this intervention would serve to broaden student perceptions of science and scientists, and we used a mixed-methods approach to analyze (a) survey data and (b) short written responses about how these podcasts impacted students' views of the people who do science. Student survey responses confirm that students overwhelmingly found the podcasts valuable, engaging, and relatable, and student impressions varied as a function of student identity (gender, religiosity, sexual orientation, etc.). Further, these podcasts changed student perceptions of the sort of people who do science. This work builds on earlier findings and expands the current work to include a look at how students from a range of different identities-hidden and visible-respond to a simple intervention designed to counter stereotypes about scientists.

Inclusion of Older Adults in the Research and Design of Digital Technology

Digital technology holds a promise to improve older adults' well-being and promote ageing in place. However, there seems to be a discrepancy between digital technologies that are developed and what older adults actually want and need. Ageing is stereotypically framed as a problem needed to be fixed, and older adults are considered to be frail and incompetent. Not surprisingly, many of the technologies developed for the use of older adults focus on care. The exclusion of older adults from the research and design of digital technology is often based on such negative stereotypes. In this opinion article, we argue that the inclusion rather than exclusion of older adults in the design process and research of digital technology is essential if technology is to fulfill the promise of improving well-being. We emphasize why this is important while also providing guidelines, evidence from the literature, and examples on how to do so. We unequivocally state that designers and researchers should make every effort to ensure the involvement of older adults in the design process and research of digital technology. Based on this paper, we suggest that ageism in the design process of digital technology might play a role as a possible barrier of adopting technology.

Ageing, old age and older adults: a social media analysis of dominant topics and discourses

Whilst representations of old age and older people in traditional media have been well documented, examinations of such representations within social media discourse are still scarce. This is an unfortunate omission because of the importance of social media for communication in contemporary society. In this study, we combine content analysis and discourse analysis to explore patterns of representation on Twitter around the terms ageing, old age, older people and elderly with a sample of 1,200 tweets. Our analysis shows that ‘personal concerns/views’ and ‘health and social care’ are the predominant overall topics, although some topics are clearly linked with specific keywords. The language often used in the tweets seems to reinforce negative discourses of age and ageing that locate older adults as a disempowered, vulnerable and homogeneous group; old age is deemed a problem and ageing is considered something that needs to be resisted, slowed or disguised. These topics and discursive patterns are indeed similar to those found in empirical studies of social perceptions and traditional media portrayal of old age, which indicates that social media and Twitter in particular appears to serve as an online platform that reproduces and reinforces existing ageist discourses in traditional media that feed into social perceptions of ageing and older people.

Neurocomputational mechanisms at play when weighing concerns for extrinsic rewards, moral values, and social image

Humans not only value extrinsic monetary rewards but also their own morality and their image in the eyes of others. Yet violating moral norms is frequent, especially when people know that they are not under scrutiny. When moral values and monetary payoffs are at odds, how does the brain weigh the benefits and costs of moral and monetary payoffs? Here, using a neurocomputational model of decision value (DV) and functional (f)MRI, we investigated whether different brain systems are engaged when deciding whether to earn money by contributing to a “bad cause” and when deciding whether to sacrifice money to contribute to a “good cause,” both when such choices were made privately or in public. Although similar principles of DV computations were used to solve these dilemmas, they engaged 2 distinct valuation systems. When weighing monetary benefits and moral costs, people were willing to trade their moral values in exchange for money, an effect accompanied by DV computation engaging the anterior insula and the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC). In contrast, weighing monetary costs against compliance with one’s moral values engaged the ventral putamen. Moreover, regardless of the type of dilemma, a brain network including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), anterior insula, and the right temporoparietal junction (TJP) was more engaged in public than in private settings. Together, these findings identify how the brain processes three sources of motivation: extrinsic rewards, moral values, and concerns for image.

Distinct brain systems are engaged when weighing whether to earn money by contributing to a ‘bad cause’ and when weighing whether to lose money to contribute to a ‘good cause,’ regardless of whether such choices are made privately or in public.

The Flywheel Effect of Gender Role Expectations in Diverse Work Groups

Popular press suggests that gender diversity benefits the performance of work groups. However, decades of research indicate that such performance benefits of gender diversity are anything but a given. To account for this incongruity, in this conceptual paper we argue that the performance of gender-diverse work groups is often inhibited by self-reinforcing gender role expectations. We use the analogy of a flywheel to illustrate how gender role expectations tend to reinforce themselves via three mechanisms. Specifically, we argue that gender role expectations shape (1) the allocation of jobs, tasks, and responsibilities, (2) the behavior of perceivers, and (3) the behavior of target women and men. In turn, these three consequences of gender role expectations tend to confirm the initial gender role expectations, thus creating an automatic, self-reinforcing flywheel effect. Such self-reinforcing gender role expectations provide superficial impressions of individual women’s and men’s actual knowledge and abilities at best. We therefore further propose that each of the three mechanisms of the flywheel of gender role expectations negatively affects group performance to the extent that gender role expectations inaccurately capture group members’ actual knowledge and abilities. Because the extent to which work group members rely on gender role expectations depends on how they form impressions of others, we propose that individuals’ motivation to form accurate impressions is crucial for inhibiting the flywheel of gender role expectations. We close by advancing an agenda for future research on each of the three areas of interest in our conceptual analysis: the flywheel effect of gender role expectations, the consequences of this flywheel effect for group functioning, and ways to motivate group members to form accurate impressions.

The factors shaping car drivers' attitudes towards cyclist and their impact on behaviour

Cycling for transportation has multiple benefits to both individuals and societies. However, in many countries, cycling rates are very low. One major deterrent is hostile or aggressive behaviours directed towards cyclists. Past research has established that negative attitudes towards cyclist are a major driver of aggressive behaviour. However, the attitudinal roots that motivate these negative attitudes are currently not well understood. This study investigates to what extent negative attitudes towards cyclists are rooted in a sense of attachment to cars, and environmental attitudes. Furthermore, the study examines whether the distinctiveness of group-membership of cyclists, as signalled by cycling attire, influences the link between attitudes and aggressive behaviours directed at cyclists. An online survey of 308 car drivers measured automobility and environmental attitudes, attitudes towards cyclist, and aggressive behaviour addressed at two groups of cyclists (lycra-clad or casually dressed cyclists). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that automobility attitudes, but not environmental attitudes, were associated with negative car driver attitudes towards cyclists. A significant link between negative attitudes towards cyclists and aggressive behaviour addressed at cyclists was not moderated by the type of cyclist shown. These findings provide a more refined understanding of the basis in which negative attitudes towards cyclists are rooted and how they affect driver behaviour. This research may inform campaigns and initiatives aimed at changing attitudes towards cyclists.

Moderating Role of the Experience of having had a Female Boss in Relationship between Neosexism and Unfavorable Attitudes toward Female Leaders

Modern sexist beliefs are currently emerging as one of the most important barriers to achieving gender equality in managerial positions in organizations. However, little research addresses the factors that can reduce or soften the negative effects that these beliefs have on unfavorable attitudes toward female leaders. In the present study, it is analyzed whether the experience of having a female leader moderates this relationship. Additionally, we sought to verify whether this moderation is found in both genders. A sample of 307 employees from various positions in Spanish companies participated in this study. We performed regression analyses in blocks. The results indicate that this moderating role emerges only among women. Nevertheless, the findings also indicate that coming into contact with female leaders can increase these attitudes when the level of neosexism is low. The results suggest that the organizational policies that are introduced with the aim of reducing unfavorable attitudes and discriminatory behaviors toward female leaders should take into account that the assignment of women to leadership positions may favor the achievement of this aim in, at least, female employees who highly adhere to neosexist beliefs. However, this could also lead to an increase of these attitudes in female employees who present a low adherence to them.

Interview expectancies: awareness of potential biases influences behaviour in interviewees

Expectancy effects are known to influence behaviour so that what is expected appears to be true. In this study, expectancy was induced using (fabricated) information about honesty and specific group membership. Targets were tested in a non-accusatory interview environment using neutral and information-gathering questions. It was hypothesized that those exposed to the negative information (the expectancy) would demonstrate behaviour consistent with an increased cognitive load, and evidence was found to support this prediction. Due to the investigative nature of the information-gathering questions, it was also expected that the targets exposed to the expectancy would exhibit more of these behaviours in the investigative portion of the interview. Some behaviour was found to support this prediction (i.e. shorter responses and increased speech disturbances); however, indicators of performance altering load were not observed during this phase of the interview. These findings support the hypothesis that expectancy effects can noticeably alter interviewee behaviour.

Does Inside Equal Outside? Relations Between Older Adults' Implicit and Explicit Aging Attitudes and Self-Esteem

Attitudes toward one's own aging and self-esteem are crucial variables in predicting older adults' physical and mental health and can significantly affect their will to live, cognitive judgement and acceptance of medical treatment. However, little is known about the relation between the implicit attitude toward one's own aging and implicit self-esteem. This research explored consistencies between implicit and explicit attitudes toward one's own aging and between implicit and explicit self-esteem and explored their relations in 70 older adults aged 60–91 years old using the word and picture versions of the Implicit Association Test and standardized scales. The results showed that (a) the explicit and implicit attitudes toward one's own aging represented independent structures, and the implicit and explicit self-esteem also represented independent structures; (b) subjects generally showed positive explicit attitudes toward their own aging and negative implicit attitudes toward their own aging while also showing high explicit self-esteem and relatively low implicit self-esteem; (c) subjects' implicit attitudes toward their own aging and implicit self-esteem were positively correlated, and explicit attitudes toward their own aging and explicit self-esteem were also positively correlated. The more positive the subjects' explicit attitudes toward their own aging, the higher their explicit self-esteem levels were. The more negative their implicit attitudes toward their own aging, the higher their implicit self-esteem levels were. We concluded that older adults' explicit and implicit attitudes toward their own aging and self-esteem are independent structures; older adults' explicit and implicit attitudes toward their own aging have predictive effects on their explicit and implicit self-esteem in different directions, respectively.

Have a look around: the effect of physical environments on risk behaviour in work-related versus non-work related decision-making tasks

Due to ubiquitous computing, knowledge workers do not only work in typical work-associated environments (e.g. the office) but also wherever it best suits their schedule or preferences (e.g. the park). In two experiments using laboratory and field methods, we compared decision making in work and non-work environments. We hypothesised that participants make riskier work-related decisions when in work-associated environments and riskier non-work-related decisions in non-work-associated environments. Therefore, if environment (work vs. non-work) and decision-making task (work-related vs. non-work-related) are incongruent, then risk-taking should be lower, as the decision maker might feel the situation is unusual or inappropriate. Although results do not reveal that work-associated environments generally encourage riskier work-related decisions (and likewise for non-work), we found environmental effects on decision making when including mood as a moderator. Practitioner summary: Mobile workers are required to make decisions in various environments. We assumed that decisions are more risky when they are made in a fitting environment (e.g. work-related decisions in work environments). Results of the two experiments (laboratory and field) only show an environmental effect when mood is included as a moderator.

Women's visibility in academic seminars: Women ask fewer questions than men

The attrition of women in academic careers is a major concern, particularly in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics subjects. One factor that can contribute to the attrition is the lack of visible role models for women in academia. At early career stages, the behaviour of the local community may play a formative role in identifying ingroup role models, shaping women’s impressions of whether or not they can be successful in academia. One common and formative setting to observe role models is the local departmental academic seminar, talk, or presentation. We thus quantified women’s visibility through the question-asking behaviour of academics at seminars using observations and an online survey. From the survey responses of over 600 academics in 20 countries, we found that women reported asking fewer questions after seminars compared to men. This impression was supported by observational data from almost 250 seminars in 10 countries: women audience members asked absolutely and proportionally fewer questions than male audience members. When asked why they did not ask questions when they wanted to, women, more than men, endorsed internal factors (e.g., not working up the nerve). However, our observations suggest that structural factors might also play a role; when a man was the first to ask a question, or there were fewer questions, women asked proportionally fewer questions. Attempts to counteract the latter effect by manipulating the time for questions (in an effort to provoke more questions) in two departments were unsuccessful. We propose alternative recommendations for creating an environment that makes everyone feel more comfortable to ask questions, thus promoting equal visibility for women and members of other less visible groups.

Women judging: Is a young male drunk driver perceived as more negligent than a young female drunk driver?

OBJECTIVE

It is well established that young men are the riskiest group of all drivers, and men in general more often drive under the influence of alcohol. However, potentially oversimplified representations such as a "young male problem" and "drunk driving as a male problem" can influence action and reinforce existing attitudes by selectively directing attention to stereotypically consistent behavior. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis of possible bias toward young male drivers in the context of drunk driving.

METHODS

We have created a scenario study investigating whether the sex of an imaginary young drunk driver would be associated with a different perceived negligence (ranging from 0 = not negligent at all to 10 = extremely negligent) among our participants. These participants were a representative sample of Finnish female driver's license holders. The data for the study were gathered as part of a larger survey study on women's drinking and driving culture.

RESULTS

Perceptions of how negligent a person was depended on the age of the respondents such that the older the respondent, the higher the perceived negligence. Perceived negligence was similar for male and female drivers in the scenario; however, there was an interaction effect between driver sex and the age of respondents. The youngest (20-29 years) and 2 oldest (50-69 years) groups of our respondents found the young woman to be more negligent, whereas the opposite occurred for the other 2 groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our imaginary scenario study of a representative sample of Finnish female driver's license holders do not support a hypothesis that there would be a negative bias toward young male drivers in the context of drunk driving behavior.

The Teenage Brain: Public Perceptions of Neurocognitive Development during Adolescence

Over the past decade, important insights have been obtained into the neurocognitive development during adolescence. To better understand how these neuroscientific insights impact the real world, we investigated how neuroscience has shaped public perceptions of the "teenage brain" and if these perceptions influence adolescent behavior. When asking to generate free associations with the word "teenage brain," adolescents ( n = 363, M_age = 14.47 years) and parents ( n = 164, M_age = 47.16 years) more often mention undesirable behaviors (e.g., "irresponsible") than desirable behaviors (e.g., "creative"). Despite these dominantly negative associations, priming adolescents with positively versus negatively framed statements about adolescent brain development did not influence their subsequent risk-taking, impulsivity, and performance on response-to-failure tasks. However, we did find a more nuanced effect, related to how much adolescents agreed with the negative versus positive priming statements: Adolescents' negative beliefs about adolescent brain development reinforced negative behaviors by increased risk-taking behaviors, and adolescents' positive beliefs reinforced positive behaviors by using positive strategies to cope with academic setbacks. The current findings underline the impact of views that build up over time and that these are not easily influenced by a one-time instance of information but rather reinforce the impact of new information. To prevent negative perceptions of the teenage brain from becoming self-fulfilling prophecies, it is important that communication about adolescent neurocognitive development is framed in a more balanced way. Neuroscientists need to be more aware of how their research impacts the real world, before we are fully ready for "real-world neuroscience."

Stereotype activation and self-regulation by conservatives and liberals in political encounters

We examined stereotyping and its effect on self-regulation in preparation for inter-ideological interactions. Turkish conservative and liberal students anticipated interacting with a political outgroup (vs. ingroup) member and the accessibility of outgroup and ingroup stereotypes was measured. Conservatives in both outgroup and ingroup interaction conditions showed higher accessibility for outgroup stereotypes. Liberals, however, showed lower accessibility for both outgroup and ingroup stereotypes in both conditions. Liberals' suppression of stereotypes about the anticipated partner led to worse self-regulation when the anticipated partner was conservative but better self-regulation when the partner was liberal. Conservatives' stereotype accessibility did not affect their self-regulation. These findings show that liberals may tend to rely on self-regulatory resources to suppress their stereotypes while anticipating inter-ideological interactions, while conservatives rely on stereotypes to navigate such interactions.

Overdiagnosis of ADHD in boys: Stereotype impact on neuropsychological assessment

There is vigorous debate regarding the possibility that ADHD is overdiagnosed in boys. We investigated the impact of the gender stereotype depicting boys as inattentive and impulsive on neuropsychological assessment (observation of psychology students and child's cognitive performance). In experiment 1, after the stereotype was activated, psychology students rated a "boy," a "girl," or a "child" on a behavioral assessment scale. In experiment 2, 103 children (boys and girls) completed neuropsychological tasks under stereotype threat or neutral conditions. The gender stereotype led psychology students to assess a child's behaviors more negatively if they thought the child was a boy. Boys' performance on one cognitive score declined following stereotype threat. Regression path analyses suggested moderation by stigma consciousness. Additionally, there were mediating and suppressing (through stereotype endorsement) effects. Our results suggest that the gender stereotype might contribute to the overdiagnosis of ADHD in boys.

Challenges From and Beyond Symptomatology: Stereotype Threat in Young Adults With ADHD

OBJECTIVE

Stereotype threat-faced when one confronts a personally relevant stereotype in a domain-relevant context-can significantly jeopardize individual performance in test-taking situations. Research has overlooked the potential for mental health labels to serve as bases for stereotype threat in such situations. This study examines whether ADHD, a disorder frequently serving as a basis for standardized testing accommodation, may trigger stereotype threat in testing situations.

METHOD

Drawing from a sample of 114 participants (53 reporting a history of ADHD and 61 not reporting a history of ADHD), this study considers whether stereotype threat invoked on the basis of ADHD hinders performance on Graduate Record Examination (GRE) questions beyond the impact of symptomatology.

RESULTS

Participants reporting ADHD achieved significantly lower scores on verbal and quantitative GRE questions than participants without ADHD. Participants between the ages of 18 and 24 reporting ADHD who were explicitly exposed to stereotype threat achieved significantly lower scores on quantitative GRE questions than their ADHD-reporting peers who were not explicitly exposed to stereotype threat.

CONCLUSION

Domain-relevant mental health labels may trigger stereotype threat in test-taking situations.

The Role of Experimenter Belief in Social Priming

Research suggests that stimuli that prime social concepts can fundamentally alter people’s behavior. However, most researchers who conduct priming studies fail to explicitly report double-blind procedures. Because experimenter expectations may influence participant behavior, we asked whether a short pre-experiment interaction between participants and experimenters would contribute to priming effects when experimenters were not blind to participant condition. An initial double-blind experiment failed to demonstrate the expected effects of a social prime on executive cognition. To determine whether double-blind procedures caused this result, we independently manipulated participants’ exposure to a prime and experimenters’ belief about which prime participants received. Across four experiments, we found that experimenter belief, rather than prime condition, altered participant behavior. Experimenter belief also altered participants’ perceptions of their experimenter, suggesting that differences in experimenter behavior across conditions caused the effect. Findings reinforce double-blind designs as experimental best practice and suggest that people’s prior beliefs have important consequences for shaping behavior with an interaction partner.

Riddle Me This: Using Riddles That Violate Gender Stereotypes To Demonstrate The Pervasiveness Of Stereotypes

This paper describes a classroom demonstration that showcases how pre-existing beliefs (e.g., stereotypes) influence problem-solving. Across four studies, participants solved riddles with gender stereotype-consistent (e.g. doctor is male) or gender stereotype-inconsistent (e.g., doctor is female; barber is female) solutions. Solve time, perceived difficulty, and perceptions of the demonstration and how it influenced learning were measured. Studies 3 and 4 extended Studies 1 and 2 by measuring objective learning through a quiz on gender stereotypes and bias. Results indicate that students solved the stereotype-inconsistent riddles slower than stereotype-consistent riddles. Stereotype-inconsistent riddles were rated as more difficult to solve than stereotype-consistent riddles. Subjectively, participants perceived the demonstration to be an effective tool, enhancing their knowledge about gender stereotypes. Objectively, participants performed better on the quiz when they solved stereotype-inconsistent riddles than stereotype-consistent riddles. These findings suggest that using stereotype-inconsistent riddles in class can help understanding about gender stereotypes and bias.