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Lopes Rego AT, Snell J, Meeter M. Language models outperform cloze predictability in a cognitive model of reading. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1012117. [PMID: 39321153 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 09/09/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Although word predictability is commonly considered an important factor in reading, sophisticated accounts of predictability in theories of reading are lacking. Computational models of reading traditionally use cloze norming as a proxy of word predictability, but what cloze norms precisely capture remains unclear. This study investigates whether large language models (LLMs) can fill this gap. Contextual predictions are implemented via a novel parallel-graded mechanism, where all predicted words at a given position are pre-activated as a function of contextual certainty, which varies dynamically as text processing unfolds. Through reading simulations with OB1-reader, a cognitive model of word recognition and eye-movement control in reading, we compare the model's fit to eye-movement data when using predictability values derived from a cloze task against those derived from LLMs (GPT-2 and LLaMA). Root Mean Square Error between simulated and human eye movements indicates that LLM predictability provides a better fit than cloze. This is the first study to use LLMs to augment a cognitive model of reading with higher-order language processing while proposing a mechanism on the interplay between word predictability and eye movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrielli Tina Lopes Rego
- Department of Education, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and LEARN! Research Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joshua Snell
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn Meeter
- Department of Education, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and LEARN! Research Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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2
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Lu Z, Ri N, Jingxin W. The role of predictive and preview effects in Mongolian reading: evidence from eye movements. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1420223. [PMID: 39346505 PMCID: PMC11427253 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1420223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 09/04/2024] [Indexed: 10/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The research on contextual predictability in reading has been thoroughly investigated in the context of horizontal text comprehension. However, the performance of contextual predictive effects in Mongolian vertical reading remains unknown. Methods To explore this, we conducted an eye-tracking study using a boundary paradigm. Our study aimed to investigate contextual predictability and preview effects in Mongolian reading. Results We found significant main effects of predictability and previewing on temporal indicators. However, there were no significant effects on skipping rates, and no interaction between predictability and previewing was observed. Discussion We speculate that the unique reading orientation and writing features of Mongolian, compared to horizontally read phonetic scripts, reduce the parafoveal processing of preview information, leading to lower skipping rates in Mongolian reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang Lu
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- School of Education Science, Inner Mongolia Minzu University, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia, China
- Research Base of Inner Mongolia Education and Psychological Development, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia, China
| | - Na Ri
- School of Education Science, Inner Mongolia Minzu University, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia, China
- Research Base of Inner Mongolia Education and Psychological Development, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia, China
| | - Wang Jingxin
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
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Liu Y, Yu L, Reichle ED. Towards a model of eye-movement control in Chinese reading. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02570-9. [PMID: 39240533 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02570-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/10/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024]
Abstract
The Chinese writing system has several features that make it markedly different from the alphabetic systems that have most often been examined in reading research, including the fact that individual words consist of various uniformly sized, box-shaped characters whose boundaries are not clearly demarcated (e.g., by blank spaces). These features raise the question: How do readers of Chinese "know" where to move their eyes for the purpose of efficiently segmenting and/or identifying words? To answer this question, we used the E-Z Reader model of eye-movement control in reading to run an 'experiment' involving a series of simulations in which two saccade-targeting assumptions (i.e., directing the eyes towards default targets vs. adjusting saccade length as a function of parafoveal processing difficulty) were factorially manipulated with three word-segmentation heuristics (i.e., ideal-observer knowledge of word boundaries vs. probabilistic guessing vs. familiarity-based segmentation) to examine which combination of assumptions provide the best quantitative account of eye-movement control during the reading of Chinese. Based on these simulations, we conclude the best account is one in which readers use relative differences in the familiarity of groups of parafoveal characters to dynamically adjust the lengths of saccades in a manner that affords efficient word identification. We discuss the broader theoretical implications of these conclusions for models of Chinese reading and for models of reading more generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Liu
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, No. 135, Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China.
| | - Lili Yu
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Erik D Reichle
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
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Chen S, Reichle ED, Liu Y. Direct lexical control of eye movements in Chinese reading: Evidence from the co-registration of EEG and eye tracking. Cogn Psychol 2024; 153:101683. [PMID: 39217858 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 08/21/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
The direct-lexical-control hypothesis stipulates that some aspect of a word's processing determines the duration of the fixation on that word and/or the next. Although the direct lexical control is incorporated into most current models of eye-movement control in reading, the precise implementation varies and the assumptions of the hypothesis may not be feasible given that lexical processing must occur rapidly enough to influence fixation durations. Conclusive empirical evidence supporting this hypothesis is therefore lacking. In this article, we report the results of an eye-tracking experiment using the boundary paradigm in which native speakers of Chinese read sentences in which target words were either high- or low-frequency and preceded by a valid or invalid preview. Eye movements were co-registered with electroencephalography, allowing standard analyses of eye-movement measures, divergence point analyses of fixation-duration distributions, and fixated-related potentials on the target words. These analyses collectively provide strong behavioral and neural evidence of early lexical processing and thus strong support for the direct-lexical-control hypothesis. We discuss the implications of the findings for our understanding of how the hypothesis might be implemented, the neural systems that support skilled reading, and the nature of eye-movement control in the reading of Chinese versus alphabetic scripts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyuan Chen
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, China
| | - Erik D Reichle
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Australia
| | - Yanping Liu
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, China.
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5
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Laurinavichyute A, Ziubanova A, Lopukhina A. Eye-Movement Suppression in the Visual World Paradigm. Open Mind (Camb) 2024; 8:1012-1036. [PMID: 39170794 PMCID: PMC11338299 DOI: 10.1162/opmi_a_00157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Eye movements in the visual world paradigm are known to depend not only on linguistic input but on such factors as task, pragmatic context, affordances, etc. However, the degree to which eye movements may depend on task rather than on linguistic input is unclear. The present study for the first time tests how task constraints modulate eye movement behavior in the visual world paradigm by probing whether participants could refrain from looking at the referred image. Across two experiments with and without comprehension questions (total N = 159), we found that when participants were instructed to avoid looking at the referred images, the probability of fixating these reduced from 58% to 18% while comprehension scores remained high. Although language-mediated eye movements could not be suppressed fully, the degree of possible decoupling of eye movements from language processing suggests that participants can withdraw at least some looks from the referred images when needed. If they do so to different degrees in different experimental conditions, comparisons between conditions might be compromised. We discuss some cases where participants could adopt different viewing behaviors depending on the experimental condition, and provide some tentative ways to test for such differences.
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Wilcox EG, Pimentel T, Meister C, Cotterell R. An information-theoretic analysis of targeted regressions during reading. Cognition 2024; 249:105765. [PMID: 38772254 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
Regressions, or backward saccades, are common during reading, accounting for between 5% and 20% of all saccades. And yet, relatively little is known about what causes them. We provide an information-theoretic operationalization for two previous qualitative hypotheses about regressions, which we dub reactivation and reanalysis. We argue that these hypotheses make different predictions about the pointwise mutual information or pmi between a regression's source and target. Intuitively, the pmi between two words measures how much more (or less) likely one word is to be present given the other. On one hand, the reactivation hypothesis predicts that regressions occur between words that are associated, implying high positive values of pmi. On the other hand, the reanalysis hypothesis predicts that regressions should occur between words that are not associated with each other, implying negative, low values of pmi. As a second theoretical contribution, we expand on previous theories by considering not only pmi but also expected values of pmi, E[pmi], where the expectation is taken over all possible realizations of the regression's target. The rationale for this is that language processing involves making inferences under uncertainty, and readers may be uncertain about what they have read, especially if a previous word was skipped. To test both theories, we use contemporary language models to estimate pmi-based statistics over word pairs in three corpora of eye tracking data in English, as well as in six languages across three language families (Indo-European, Uralic, and Turkic). Our results are consistent across languages and models tested: Positive values of pmi and E[pmi] consistently help to predict the patterns of regressions during reading, whereas negative values of pmi and E[pmi] do not. Our information-theoretic interpretation increases the predictive scope of both theories and our studies present the first systematic crosslinguistic analysis of regressions in the literature. Our results support the reactivation hypothesis and, more broadly, they expand the number of language processing behaviors that can be linked to information-theoretic principles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tiago Pimentel
- Department of Computer Science, ETH Zürich, Switzerland; Department of Computer Science, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Clara Meister
- Department of Computer Science, ETH Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Ryan Cotterell
- Department of Computer Science, ETH Zürich, Switzerland.
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7
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Mei X, Chen S, Xia X, Yang B, Liu Y. Neural correlates for word-frequency effect in Chinese natural reading. Atten Percept Psychophys 2024:10.3758/s13414-024-02894-7. [PMID: 38995494 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-024-02894-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Word frequency effect has always been of interest for reading research because of its critical role in exploring mental processing underlying reading behaviors. Access to word frequency information has long been considered an indicator of the beginning of lexical processing and the most sensitive marker for studying when the brain begins to extract semantic information Sereno & Rayner, Brain and Cognition, 42, 78-81, (2000), Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 489-493, (2003). While the word frequency effect has been extensively studied in numerous eye-tracking and traditional EEG research using the RSVP paradigm, there is a lack of corresponding evidence in studies of natural reading. To find the neural correlates of the word frequency effect, we conducted a study of Chinese natural reading using EEG and eye-tracking coregistration to examine the time course of lexical processing. Our results reliably showed that the word frequency effect first appeared in the N200 time window and the bilateral occipitotemporal regions. Additionally, the word frequency effect was reflected in the N400 time window, spreading from the occipital region to the central parietal and frontal regions. Our current study provides the first neural correlates for word-frequency effect in natural Chinese reading so far, shedding new light on understanding lexical processing in natural reading and could serve as an important basis for further reading study when considering neural correlates in a realistic manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolin Mei
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, No. 135, Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
- School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shuyuan Chen
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, No. 135, Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Xinyi Xia
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, No. 135, Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Bo Yang
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, No. 135, Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Yanping Liu
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, No. 135, Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China.
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8
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Pan Y, Frisson S, Federmeier KD, Jensen O. Early parafoveal semantic integration in natural reading. eLife 2024; 12:RP91327. [PMID: 38968325 PMCID: PMC11226228 DOI: 10.7554/elife.91327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans can read and comprehend text rapidly, implying that readers might process multiple words per fixation. However, the extent to which parafoveal words are previewed and integrated into the evolving sentence context remains disputed. We investigated parafoveal processing during natural reading by recording brain activity and eye movements using MEG and an eye tracker while participants silently read one-line sentences. The sentences contained an unpredictable target word that was either congruent or incongruent with the sentence context. To measure parafoveal processing, we flickered the target words at 60 Hz and measured the resulting brain responses (i.e. Rapid Invisible Frequency Tagging, RIFT) during fixations on the pre-target words. Our results revealed a significantly weaker tagging response for target words that were incongruent with the previous context compared to congruent ones, even within 100ms of fixating the word immediately preceding the target. This reduction in the RIFT response was also found to be predictive of individual reading speed. We conclude that semantic information is not only extracted from the parafovea but can also be integrated with the previous context before the word is fixated. This early and extensive parafoveal processing supports the rapid word processing required for natural reading. Our study suggests that theoretical frameworks of natural reading should incorporate the concept of deep parafoveal processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Pan
- Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of BirminghamBirminghamUnited Kingdom
| | - Steven Frisson
- Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of BirminghamBirminghamUnited Kingdom
| | - Kara D Federmeier
- Department of Psychology, Program in Neuroscience, and the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of IllinoisChampaignUnited States
| | - Ole Jensen
- Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of BirminghamBirminghamUnited Kingdom
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9
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Snell J. No, Bionic Reading does not work. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2024; 247:104304. [PMID: 38723450 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/17/2024] Open
Abstract
It has recently been claimed that presenting text with the first half of each word printed in bold (as is done in this example), so-called Bionic Reading, facilitates reading. However, empirical tests of this claim are lacking, and theoretically one might expect a cost rather than a benefit. Here I tested participants' reading speed of 100 paragraphs that were presented either in 'Bionic' or in normal font. Statistical analyses revealed no significant difference in reading times between Bionic and normal reading. I conclude that Bionic Reading does not facilitate reading.
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10
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Esteve D, Perea M, Angele B, Kuperman V, Drieghe D. Individual differences in word skipping during reading in English as L2. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02529-w. [PMID: 38867033 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02529-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
The Multilingual Eye-movement Corpus (MECO; Siegelman et al., 2022) contains data from unbalanced bilinguals reading in their first language (L1) for a variety of languages and in English as their second language (L2). We analyzed word skipping in L2 on the basis of five predictors consisting of the frequency and length of the word in L2 and three measures of individual differences. Besides the L2 proficiency of the participant, two novel measures were also constructed: the average amount of skipping in L1 across participants per language and whether an individual reader skips words often in their L1 compared with other L1 readers in the same language. Word skipping in L2 increased for short and high-frequency words, for participants with higher L2 proficiency, for readers whose L1 featured relatively high average skipping rates compared with the other languages, and especially for participants who skip more often in L1 than their peers. All three individual differences interacted with word length such that their influence was more pronounced for longer words. Our results show that readers prefer to maintain a certain level of word skipping resembling how they read in L1. Due to lower L2 than L1 proficiency in unbalanced bilinguals, word skipping in L2 would often be based on a comparatively less advanced stage in parafoveal word recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Esteve
- Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
- University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Manuel Perea
- Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
- Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
| | - Bernhard Angele
- Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
- Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
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Lecce M, Miazza D, Muzio C, Parigi M, Miazza A, Bergomi MG. Visuospatial, oculomotor, and executive reading skills evolve in elementary school, and errors are significant: a topological RAN study. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1383969. [PMID: 38903458 PMCID: PMC11188999 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1383969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
We investigate the development of visuospatial and oculomotor reading skills in a cohort of elementary school children. Employing a longitudinal methodology, the study applies the Topological serial digit Rapid Automated Naming (Top-RAN) battery, which evaluates visuospatial reading skills leveraging metrics addressing crowding, distractors, and voluntary attention orientation. The participant pool comprises 142 students (66 males, 76 females), including 46 non-native speakers (21 males, 25 females), representing a diverse range of ethnic backgrounds. The Top-RAN dataset encompasses performance, error, and self-correction metrics for each subtest and student, underscoring the significance of these factors in the process of reading acquisition. Analytical methods include dimensionality reduction, clustering, and classification algorithms, consolidated into a Python package to facilitate reproducible results. Our results indicate that visuospatial reading abilities vary according to the task and demonstrate a marked evolution over time, as seen in the progressive decrease in execution times, errors, and self-corrections. This pattern supports the hypothesis that the growth of oculomotor, attentional, and executive skills is primarily fostered by educational experiences and maturation. This investigation provides valuable insights into the dynamic nature of these skills during pivotal educational stages.
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Wang M, Gill DE, Judge J, Zang C, Bai X, Liversedge SP. Column setting and text justification influence return-sweep eye movement behavior during Chinese multi-line reading. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2024; 9:34. [PMID: 38831087 PMCID: PMC11147972 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-024-00559-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
People regularly read multi-line texts in different formats and publishers, internationally, must decide how to present text to make reading most effective and efficient. Relatively few studies have examined multi-line reading, and fewer still Chinese multi-line reading. Here, we examined whether texts presented in single or double columns, and either left-justified or fully-justified affect Chinese reading. Text format had minimal influence on overall reading time; however, it significantly impacted return-sweeps (large saccades moving the eyes from the end of one line of text to the beginning of the next). Return-sweeps were launched and landed further away from margins and involved more corrective saccades in single- than double-column format. For left- compared to fully-justified format, return-sweeps were launched and landed closer to margins. More corrective saccades also occurred. Our results showed more efficient return-sweep behavior for fully- than left-justified text. Moreover, there were clear trade-off effects such that formats requiring increased numbers of shorter return-sweeps produced more accurate targeting and reduced numbers of corrective fixations, whereas formats requiring reduced numbers of longer return-sweeps caused less accurate targeting and an increased rate of corrective fixations. Overall, our results demonstrate that text formats substantially affect return-sweep eye movement behavior during Chinese reading without affecting efficiency and effectiveness, that is, the overall time it takes to read and understand the text.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengsi Wang
- Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.
- Tianjin Social Science Laboratory of Students' Mental Development and Learning, Tianjin, China.
| | - Donna E Gill
- School of Psychology and Humanities, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Jeannie Judge
- School of Psychology and Humanities, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Chuanli Zang
- School of Psychology and Humanities, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Xuejun Bai
- Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Social Science Laboratory of Students' Mental Development and Learning, Tianjin, China
| | - Simon P Liversedge
- School of Psychology and Humanities, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
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Angele B, Duñabeitia JA. Closing the eye-tracking gap in reading research. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1425219. [PMID: 38887629 PMCID: PMC11180887 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1425219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Angele
- Centro de Investigación Nebrija en Cognición (CINC), Facultad de Lenguas y Educación, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
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14
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Johnson RL, Slattery TJ. Processing difficulty while reading words with neighbors is not due to increased foveal load: Evidence from eye movements. Atten Percept Psychophys 2024; 86:1360-1374. [PMID: 38532237 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-024-02880-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
Words with high orthographic relatedness are termed "word neighbors" (angle/angel; birch/birth). Activation-based models of word recognition assume that lateral inhibition occurs between words and their activated neighbors. However, studies of eye movements during reading have not found inhibitory effects in early measures assumed to reflect lexical access (e.g., gaze duration). Instead, inhibition in eye-movement studies has been found in later measures of processing (e.g., total time, regressions in). We conducted an eye-movement boundary change study (Rayner, Cognitive Psychology, 7(1), 65-81, 1975) that manipulated the parafoveal preview of the word following the neighbor word (word N+1). In this way, we explored whether the late inhibitory effects seen with transposed letter words and words with higher-frequency neighbors result from reduced parafoveal preview due to increased foveal load and/or interference during late stages of lexical processing (the L2 stage within the E-Z Reader framework). For word N+1, while there were clear preview effects, there was not an effect of the neighborhood status of word N, nor a significant interaction. This suggests that the late inhibitory effects of earlier eye-movement studies are driven by misidentification of neighbor words rather than being due to increased foveal load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Johnson
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY, 12866, USA.
| | - Timothy J Slattery
- Psychology Department, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB, UK
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15
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Han L, Du Z. Evaluation of eye-catching effect in highway tunnel entrance area based on saccade behavior. TRAFFIC INJURY PREVENTION 2024; 25:724-732. [PMID: 38634777 DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2024.2342014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to investigate the effects of visual attraction in the entrance areas of highway tunnels on drivers' saccade behavior and driving safety, with the objective of providing insights for tunnel entrance design and driver education. METHODS Fifty participants were recruited for the naturalistic driving experiment. Four different visually attractive driving scenarios (baseline, landscape-style architecture, tip slogan, and billboard) were selected. Eye-tracking technology was utilized to record and analyze the scanning behavior of participating drivers. Various metrics, including saccade duration, frequency, amplitude, velocity, and the peak-to-average ratio of saccade velocity (PARSV), were measured and compared across different scenarios. RESULTS The results revealed different patterns of visual scanning dynamics among the four experimental scenarios, reflecting the different levels of visual-cognitive demands and situation awareness of drivers. The visual attraction in the tunnel entrance area resulted in prolonged saccade duration, increased saccade amplitude, reduced saccade frequency, and slower, less stable saccade velocity. Among these, drivers exhibited the most intricate and unstable scanning behavior, accompanied by the lowest level of situational awareness, particularly under the influence of visual attraction of tip slogan. CONCLUSIONS The findings highlight the importance of considering visual attraction in tunnel entrance design. Minimizing unnecessary visual attraction can help reduce distractions and maintain driver attention, ultimately enhancing driving safety. Driver education programs should emphasize the significance of adapting to visual attraction at tunnel entrances to promote safer driving practices. Overall, this study contributes valuable insights into the effects of visual attraction on driver scanning behavior, facilitating the development of strategies to improve tunnel design and driver education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Han
- School of Transportation and Logistics Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zhigang Du
- School of Transportation and Logistics Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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16
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Seijdel N, Stolwijk G, Janicas B, Snell J, Meeter M. Explaining the Sentence Superiority Effect and N400s Elicited by Words and Short Sentences with OB1-Reader. J Cogn 2024; 7:34. [PMID: 38638462 PMCID: PMC11025567 DOI: 10.5334/joc.358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Research into reading has benefitted from the emergence of powerful computational models that account for reading behavior at different levels. Such models become more powerful when the underlying anatomy, architecture or 'physiology' can be linked to the behavior of interest. OB1-reader is a reading model that simulates the processes underlying reading in the human brain. Previous studies showed that OB1-reader can account for various phenomena in the word recognition and text reading literatures. Here we aim to extend OB1's scope, by simulating behavioral performance and evoked EEG activity for two experimental word-recognition tasks: a flanker task in which unrelated flankers generated less accurate responses combined with a larger N400, and a sentence reading task in which words were recognized more accurately at central positions and within intact sentences, than at peripheral positions and in scrambled sentences. OB1 simulated several behavioral findings in both paradigms, including the so-called sentence superiority effect. Moreover, virtual event-related potentials (ERPs) generated from node activity in OB1 were compared to human ERPs. More lexical activity in OB1 predicted the size of the N400 component of human readers in both experiments, but not the N250.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noor Seijdel
- Department of Educational and Family studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- LEARN! Research Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Gina Stolwijk
- Department of Educational and Family studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Beatriz Janicas
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joshua Snell
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Institute of Brain and Behavior Amsterdam (iBBA), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Martijn Meeter
- Department of Educational and Family studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- LEARN! Research Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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17
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Sun Y, Li S, Zhang Y, Wang J. Parafoveal Word Frequency Does Not Modulate the Effect of Foveal Load on Preview in Chinese Reading: Evidence from Eye Movements. Brain Sci 2024; 14:360. [PMID: 38672012 PMCID: PMC11047846 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14040360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The foveal load effect is one of the most fundamental effects in reading psychology, and also one of the most controversial issues in recent years. The foveal load effect refers to the phenomenon that the difficulty of foveal processing affects parafoveal preview. In Chinese reading, whether the foveal load effect exists, as well as whether this effect is modulated by parafoveal word frequency, remains unclear. In this study, the eye-tracking technique was used to track the eye movements of 48 subjects. Utilized the boundary paradigm with single-character words as parafoveal words, the present study manipulated foveal word frequency (high and low), parafoveal word frequency (high and low), and two types of preview (identical preview and pseudocharacter preview) to investigate these questions. The results revealed that the foveal word frequency does not influence preview, suggesting the absence of the foveal load effect when using single-character words as parafoveal words. Furthermore, parafoveal word frequency does not modulate the effect of the foveal load on the preview. This empirical evidence contributes to refining the understanding of the Chinese reading model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Sun
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300387, China;
| | - Sainan Li
- Tianjin Academy of Educational Sciences, Tianjin 300191, China;
| | - Yancui Zhang
- College of Humanities, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin 300384, China;
| | - Jingxin Wang
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300387, China;
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18
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Campbell M, Oppenheimer N, White AL. Severe processing capacity limits for sub-lexical features of letter strings. Atten Percept Psychophys 2024; 86:643-652. [PMID: 38172462 PMCID: PMC10805793 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02830-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
When reading, the visual system is confronted with many words simultaneously. How much of that information can a reader process at once? Previous studies demonstrated that low-level visual features of multiple words are processed in parallel, but lexical attributes are processed serially, for one word at a time. This implies that an internal bottleneck lies somewhere between early visual and lexical analysis. We used a dual-task behavioral paradigm to investigate whether this bottleneck lies at the stage of letter recognition or phonological decoding. On each trial, two letter strings were flashed briefly, one above and one below fixation, and then masked. In the letter identification experiment, participants indicated whether a vowel was present in a particular letter string. In the phonological decoding experiment, participants indicated whether the letter string was pronounceable. We compared accuracy in a focused attention condition, in which participants judged only one of the two strings, with accuracy in a divided attention condition, in which participants judged both strings independently. In both experiments, the cost of dividing attention was so large that it supported a serial model: participants were able to process only one letter string per trial. Furthermore, we found a stimulus processing trade-off that is characteristic of serial processing: When participants judged one string correctly, they were less likely to judge the other string correctly. Therefore, the bottleneck that constrains word recognition under these conditions arises at a sub-lexical level, perhaps due to a limit on the efficiency of letter recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Campbell
- Department of Neuroscience & Behavior, Barnard College, Columbia University, 76 Claremont Ave, New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Nicole Oppenheimer
- Department of Neuroscience & Behavior, Barnard College, Columbia University, 76 Claremont Ave, New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Alex L White
- Department of Neuroscience & Behavior, Barnard College, Columbia University, 76 Claremont Ave, New York, NY, 10027, USA.
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19
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Liao S, Yu L, Kruger JL, Reichle ED. Dynamic reading in a digital age: new insights on cognition. Trends Cogn Sci 2024; 28:43-55. [PMID: 37696692 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
People increasingly read text displayed on digital devices, including computers, handheld e-readers, and smartphones. Given this, there is rapidly growing interest in understanding how the cognitive processes that support the reading of static text (e.g., books, magazines, or newspapers) might be adapted to reading digital texts. Evidence from recent experiments suggests a complex interplay of visual and cognitive influences on how people engage with digital reading. Although readers can strategically adjust their reading behaviors in response to their immediate reading context, the efficacy of these strategies depends on cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational factors. A better understanding of the factors that influence reading offers the promise of leveraging digital technologies to enhance the reading experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sixin Liao
- Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2109.
| | - Lili Yu
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2109
| | - Jan-Louis Kruger
- Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2109; UPSET Research Focus Area, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa 1900
| | - Erik D Reichle
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2109
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20
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Krasich K, O'Neill K, Murray S, Brockmole JR, De Brigard F, Nuthmann A. A computational modeling approach to investigating mind wandering-related adjustments to gaze behavior during scene viewing. Cognition 2024; 242:105624. [PMID: 37944314 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Research on gaze control has long shown that increased visual-cognitive processing demands in scene viewing are associated with longer fixation durations. More recently, though, longer durations have also been linked to mind wandering, a perceptually decoupled state of attention marked by decreased visual-cognitive processing. Toward better understanding the relationship between fixation durations and visual-cognitive processing, we ran simulations using an established random-walk model for saccade timing and programming and assessed which model parameters best predicted modulations in fixation durations associated with mind wandering compared to attentive viewing. Mind wandering-related fixation durations were best described as an increase in the variability of the fixation-generating process, leading to more variable-sometimes very long-durations. In contrast, past research showed that increased processing demands increased the mean duration of the fixation-generating process. The findings thus illustrate that mind wandering and processing demands modulate fixation durations through different mechanisms in scene viewing. This suggests that processing demands cannot be inferred from changes in fixation durations without understanding the underlying mechanism by which these changes were generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Krasich
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Duke Institute for Brain Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
| | - Kevin O'Neill
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Duke Institute for Brain Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Samuel Murray
- Philosophy Department, Providence College, Providence, RI, USA
| | - James R Brockmole
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
| | - Felipe De Brigard
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Duke Institute for Brain Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Philosophy, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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21
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Zou J, Zhang Y, Li J, Tian X, Ding N. Human attention during goal-directed reading comprehension relies on task optimization. eLife 2023; 12:RP87197. [PMID: 38032825 PMCID: PMC10688971 DOI: 10.7554/elife.87197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The computational principles underlying attention allocation in complex goal-directed tasks remain elusive. Goal-directed reading, that is, reading a passage to answer a question in mind, is a common real-world task that strongly engages attention. Here, we investigate what computational models can explain attention distribution in this complex task. We show that the reading time on each word is predicted by the attention weights in transformer-based deep neural networks (DNNs) optimized to perform the same reading task. Eye tracking further reveals that readers separately attend to basic text features and question-relevant information during first-pass reading and rereading, respectively. Similarly, text features and question relevance separately modulate attention weights in shallow and deep DNN layers. Furthermore, when readers scan a passage without a question in mind, their reading time is predicted by DNNs optimized for a word prediction task. Therefore, we offer a computational account of how task optimization modulates attention distribution during real-world reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajie Zou
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Sciences, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Nanhu Brain-computer Interface InstituteHangzhouChina
| | - Yuran Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Sciences, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Jialu Li
- Division of Arts and Sciences, New York University ShanghaiShanghaiChina
| | - Xing Tian
- Division of Arts and Sciences, New York University ShanghaiShanghaiChina
| | - Nai Ding
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Sciences, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Nanhu Brain-computer Interface InstituteHangzhouChina
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22
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Milledge SV, Bhatia N, Mensah-Mcleod L, Raghvani P, A McGowan V, Elsherif MM, Cutter MG, Wang J, Liu Z, Paterson KB. The transposed-word effect provides no unequivocal evidence for parallel processing. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2538-2546. [PMID: 37188860 PMCID: PMC10600278 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02721-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Studies using a grammaticality decision task have revealed surprising flexibility in the processing of word order during sentence reading in both alphabetic and non-alphabetic scripts. Participants in these studies typically exhibit a transposed-word effect, in which they make more errors and slower correct responses for stimuli that contain a word transposition and are derived from grammatical as compared to ungrammatical base sentences. Some researchers have used this finding to argue that words are encoded in parallel during reading, such that multiple words can be processed simultaneously and might be recognised out of order. This contrasts with an alternative account of the reading process, which argues that words must be encoded serially, one at a time. We examined, in English, whether the transposed-word effect provides evidence for a parallel-processing account, employing the same grammaticality decision task used in previous research and display procedures that either allowed for parallel word encoding or permitted only the serial encoding of words. Our results replicate and extend recent findings by showing that relative word order can be processed flexibly even when parallel processing is not possible (i.e., within displays requiring serial word encoding). Accordingly, while the present findings provide further evidence for flexibility in the processing of relative word order during reading, they add to converging evidence that the transposed-word effect does not provide unequivocal evidence for a parallel-processing account of reading. We consider how the present findings may be accounted for by both serial and parallel accounts of word recognition in reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara V Milledge
- School of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Neya Bhatia
- School of Psychology and Vision Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Loren Mensah-Mcleod
- School of Psychology and Vision Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Pallvi Raghvani
- School of Psychology and Vision Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Victoria A McGowan
- School of Psychology and Vision Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Mahmoud M Elsherif
- School of Psychology and Vision Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
- Department of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Jingxin Wang
- Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhiwei Liu
- Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- School of Education and Psychology, Sichuan University of Science and Engineering, Zigong, China
| | - Kevin B Paterson
- School of Psychology and Vision Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.
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23
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Chiu TY, Drieghe D. The role of visual crowding in eye movements during reading: Effects of text spacing. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2834-2858. [PMID: 37821744 PMCID: PMC10600290 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02787-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Visual crowding, generally defined as the deleterious influence of clutter on visual discrimination, is a form of inhibitory interaction between nearby objects. While the role of crowding in reading has been established in psychophysics research using rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigms, how crowding affects additional processes involved in natural reading, including parafoveal processing and saccade targeting, remains unclear. The current study investigated crowding effects on reading via two eye-tracking experiments. Experiment 1 was a sentence-reading experiment incorporating an eye-contingent boundary change in which reader's parafoveal processing was quantified through comparing reading times after valid or invalid information was presented in the parafovea. Letter spacing was jointly manipulated to compare how crowding affects parafoveal processing. Experiment 2 was a passage-reading experiment with a line spacing manipulation. In addition to replicating previously observed letter spacing effects on global reading parameters (i.e., more but shorter fixations with wider spacing), Experiment 1 found an interaction between preview validity and letter spacing indicating that the efficiency of parafoveal processing was constrained by crowding and visual acuity. Experiment 2 found reliable but subtle influences of line spacing. Participants had shorter fixation durations, higher skipping probabilities, and less accurate return sweeps when line spacing was increased. In addition to extending the literature on the role of crowding to reading in ecologically valid scenarios, the current results inform future research on characterizing the influence of crowding in natural reading and comparing effects of crowding across reader populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Yao Chiu
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, 225 Psychology Building, 1835 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA.
| | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
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24
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Yu R, Wu Y, Gu F. Parallel phonological processing of Chinese characters revealed by flankers tasks. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1239256. [PMID: 37868597 PMCID: PMC10587470 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1239256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
An important and extensively researched question in the field of reading is whether readers can process multiple words in parallel. An unresolved issue regarding this question is whether the phonological information from foveal and parafoveal words can be processed in parallel, i.e., parallel phonological processing. The present study aims to investigate whether there is parallel phonological processing of Chinese characters. The original and the revised flankers tasks were applied. In both tasks, a foveal target character was presented in isolation in the no-flanker condition, flanked on both sides by a parafoveal homophone in the homophone-flanker condition, and by a non-homophonic character in the unrelated-flanker condition. Participants were instructed to fixate on the target characters and press two keys to indicate whether they knew the target characters (lexical vs. non-lexical). In the original flankers task, the stimuli were presented for 150 ms without a post-mask. In the revised flankers task, we set the stimulus exposure time (duration of the stimuli plus the blank interval between the stimuli and the post-mask) to each participant's lexical decision threshold to prevent participants from processing the target and flanker characters serially. In both tasks, reaction times to the lexical targets were significantly shorter in the homophone-flanker condition than in the unrelated-flanker condition, suggesting parallel phonological processing of Chinese characters. In the revised flankers task, accuracy rates to the lexical targets were significantly lower in the unrelated-flanker condition compared to the homophone-flanker condition, further supporting parallel phonological processing of Chinese characters. Moreover, reaction times to the lexical targets were the shortest in the no-flanker condition in both tasks, reflecting the attention distribution over both the target and flanker characters. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the parallel processing mechanisms involved in reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruifeng Yu
- Neurocognitive Laboratory for Linguistics and Semiotics, College of Literature and Journalism, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Digital Convergence Laboratory of Chinese Cultural Inheritance and Global Communication, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yunong Wu
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Feng Gu
- Neurocognitive Laboratory for Linguistics and Semiotics, College of Literature and Journalism, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Digital Convergence Laboratory of Chinese Cultural Inheritance and Global Communication, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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25
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Fackler NG, Gordon PC. Mask-related costs in measuring preview benefit: Evidence from a distributional analysis based on target word reading times. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2475-2487. [PMID: 37532883 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02762-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Skilled reading involves processing the upcoming word in parafoveal vision before it is fixated, leading to shorter fixations on that word. This phenomenon, parafoveal preview benefit, is a key component of theoretical models of reading; it is measured using the invisible boundary paradigm, in which reading times on a target word are compared for instances when preview is accurate and when the target word is masked while in the parafovea. However, parafoveal masks have been shown to induce unintentional processing costs, thereby inflating measures of preview benefit. The degraded mask has been explored as a potential solution to this problem, leading to mixed results. While previous work has analyzed the preview effect by comparing mean reading times on the target word, the present study provides a more comprehensive analysis by examining the distribution of the preview effect across target word fixation times for unrelated and degraded masks. Participants read sentences containing target words whose preview was either identical, unrelated, or degraded, and their eye movements were recorded. Analyses revealed that although there were no mean differences between reading times for the unrelated and degraded conditions, the pattern of the effects varied as a function of target word fixation times. Unrelated masks resulted in positively sloped generally linear delta plots, while degraded masks resulted in relatively flat delta plots for fixations longer than 200 ms. These differences suggest that different cognitive mechanisms are involved in the processing of the two mask types. Implications for understanding and measuring preview benefit are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki G Fackler
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Peter C Gordon
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- Department of Psychology, CB#3270, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 26599-3270, USA.
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26
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Heilbron M, van Haren J, Hagoort P, de Lange FP. Lexical Processing Strongly Affects Reading Times But Not Skipping During Natural Reading. Open Mind (Camb) 2023; 7:757-783. [PMID: 37840763 PMCID: PMC10575561 DOI: 10.1162/opmi_a_00099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In a typical text, readers look much longer at some words than at others, even skipping many altogether. Historically, researchers explained this variation via low-level visual or oculomotor factors, but today it is primarily explained via factors determining a word's lexical processing ease, such as how well word identity can be predicted from context or discerned from parafoveal preview. While the existence of these effects is well established in controlled experiments, the relative importance of prediction, preview and low-level factors in natural reading remains unclear. Here, we address this question in three large naturalistic reading corpora (n = 104, 1.5 million words), using deep neural networks and Bayesian ideal observers to model linguistic prediction and parafoveal preview from moment to moment in natural reading. Strikingly, neither prediction nor preview was important for explaining word skipping-the vast majority of explained variation was explained by a simple oculomotor model, using just fixation position and word length. For reading times, by contrast, we found strong but independent contributions of prediction and preview, with effect sizes matching those from controlled experiments. Together, these results challenge dominant models of eye movements in reading, and instead support alternative models that describe skipping (but not reading times) as largely autonomous from word identification, and mostly determined by low-level oculomotor information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micha Heilbron
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jorie van Haren
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Hagoort
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Floris P. de Lange
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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27
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Lijuan Z, Yingying Z, Zhiwei L, Lin L, Sha L, Jingxin W. The role of orthographic and phonological processing during reading Chinese sentences: Evidence from eye movements. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1148815. [PMID: 37663353 PMCID: PMC10471128 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1148815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of phonological and orthographic processing and their time course during lexical processing and sentence reading remain controversial. By adopting a misspelled-characters disruption paradigm and eye-tracking technique, we manipulated the writing for the first characters of two-character target words to investigate the relative role of orthographic and phonological processing on word recognition in Chinese reading. There are four conditions: (a) correct character, (b) misspelled character with a stroke missing, (c) misspelled homographic character, and (d) misspelled homophonic character. The results showed that homophonic errors caused more disruptions than other conditions in the early (first-pass reading times) and later (total reading time) stages of lexical processing during Chinese reading. Homographic errors and omitted stroke errors lead to equal disruptions at the early stage of word recognition, but homographic errors cause more disruptions at the later stage. These results suggest that orthography plays a dominant role in word recognition during Chinese reading, whereas phonology plays a weaker and more limited role. The direct access and dual-rote hypothesis may well explain the mechanism of lexical processing in Chinese reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang Lijuan
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhang Yingying
- College of Sports and Health, Shandong Sport University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Liu Zhiwei
- School of Education and Psychology, Sichuan University of Science and Engineering, Zigong, Sichuan, China
| | - Li Lin
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Li Sha
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Wang Jingxin
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
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28
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Iaconis FR, Meo M, Del Punta JA, Gasaneo G. Modelling the eye movements of dyslexic children during reading as a continuous time random walk. CHAOS (WOODBURY, N.Y.) 2023; 33:083116. [PMID: 37549112 DOI: 10.1063/5.0140886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023]
Abstract
The study of eye movements during reading is considered a valuable tool for understanding the underlying cognitive processes and for its ability to detect alterations that could be associated with neurocognitive deficiencies or visual conditions. During reading, the gaze moves from one position to the next on the text performing a saccade-fixation sequence. This dynamics resembles processes usually described as continuous time random walk, where the jumps are the saccadic movements and waiting times are the duration of fixations. The time between jumps (intersaccadic time) consists of stochastic waiting time and flight time, which is a function of the jump length (the amplitude of the saccade). This motivates the present proposal of a model of eye movements during reading in the framework of the intermittent random walk but considering the time between jumps as a combined stochastic-deterministic process. The parameters used in this model were obtained from records of eye movements of children with dyslexia and typically developed for children performing a reading task. The jump lengths arise from the characteristics of the selected text. The time required for the flights was obtained based on a previously proposed model. Synthetic signals were generated and compared with actual eye movement signals in a complexity-entropy plane.
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Affiliation(s)
- F R Iaconis
- Instituto de Física del Sur, Departamento de Física, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS)-CONICET, Bahía Blanca 8000, Argentina
| | - M Meo
- Instituto de Física del Sur, Departamento de Física, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS)-CONICET, Bahía Blanca 8000, Argentina
| | - J A Del Punta
- Instituto de Física del Sur, Departamento de Física, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS)-CONICET and Departamento de Matemática, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), Bahía Blanca 8000, Argentina
| | - G Gasaneo
- Instituto de Física del Sur, Departamento de Física, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS)-CONICET, Bahía Blanca 8000, Argentina
- Centro Integral de Neuricencias Aplicadas, Bahía Blanca 8000, Argentina
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Johnson M, Palmer J, Moore CM, Boynton GM. Evidence from partially valid cueing that words are processed serially. Psychon Bull Rev 2023; 30:1539-1548. [PMID: 36547819 PMCID: PMC10482765 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02230-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
There has been a longstanding debate about whether lexical and semantic processing of words is serial or parallel. We addressed this debate using partially valid cueing, where one of two words is cued. The cue was valid on 80% and invalid on the other 20% of the trials. The task was semantic categorization, and performance was measured by accuracy. The new feature was to limit attentional switching using a postmask of consonants that closely followed the presentation of words. We found a large effect of cueing and, most importantly, performance for the uncued word was at chance. This chance performance was consistent with serial processing, but not with typical parallel processing. This result adds to the evidence from other recent studies that the lexical and semantic processing of words is serial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - John Palmer
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Cathleen M Moore
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
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30
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Søby KF, Ishkhanyan B, Kristensen LB. Not all grammar errors are equally noticed: error detection of naturally occurring errors and implications for eye-tracking models of everyday texts. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1124227. [PMID: 37519397 PMCID: PMC10373887 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1124227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Grammar errors are a natural part of everyday written communication. They are not a uniform group, but vary from morphological errors to ungrammatical word order and involve different types of word classes. In this study, we examine whether some types of naturally occurring errors attract more attention than others during reading, measured by detection rates. Data from 211 Danish high school students were included in the analysis. They each read texts containing different types of errors: syntactic errors (verb-third word order), morphological agreement errors (verb conjugations; gender mismatches in NPs) and orthographic errors. Participants were asked to underline all errors they detected while reading for comprehension. We examined whether there was a link between the type of errors that participants did not detect, the type of errors which they produce themselves (as measured in a subsequent grammar quiz), and the type of errors that are typical of high school students in general (based on error rates in a corpus). If an error is infrequent in production, it may cause a larger surprisal effect and be more attended to. For the three subtypes of grammar errors (V3 word order, verb errors, NP errors), corpus error rates predicted detection rates for most conditions. Yet, frequency was not the only possible explanation, as phonological similarity to the correct form is entangled with error frequency. Explicit grammatical awareness also played a role. The more correct answers participants had in the grammar tasks in the quiz, the more errors they detected. Finally, we found that the more annoyed with language errors participants reported to be, the more errors they detected. Our study did not measure eye movements, but the differences in error detection patterns point to shortcomings of existing eye-tracking models. Understanding the factors that govern attention and reaction to everyday grammar errors is crucial to developing robust eye-tracking processing models which can accommodate non-standard variation. Based on our results, we give our recommendations for current and future processing models.
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31
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Berzak Y, Levy R. Eye Movement Traces of Linguistic Knowledge in Native and Non-Native Reading. Open Mind (Camb) 2023; 7:179-196. [PMID: 37416079 PMCID: PMC10320821 DOI: 10.1162/opmi_a_00084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The detailed study of eye movements in reading has shed considerable light into how language processing unfolds in real time. Yet eye movements in reading remain inadequately studied in non-native (L2) readers, even though much of the world's population is multilingual. Here we present a detailed analysis of the quantitative functional influences of word length, frequency, and predictability on eye movement measures in reading in a large, linguistically diverse sample of non-native English readers. We find many similar qualitative effects as in L1 readers, but crucially also a proficiency-sensitive "lexicon-context tradeoff". The most proficient L2 readers' eye movements approach an L1 pattern, but as L2 proficiency diminishes, readers' eye movements become less sensitive to a word's predictability in context and more sensitive to word frequency, which is context-invariant. This tradeoff supports a rational, experience-dependent account of how context-driven expectations are deployed in L2 language processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yevgeni Berzak
- Faculty of Data and Decision Sciences, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachussets Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
| | - Roger Levy
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachussets Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
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32
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de Chambrier AF, Pedrotti M, Ruggeri P, Dewi J, Atzemian M, Thevenot C, Martinet C, Terrier P. Reading numbers is harder than reading words: An eye-tracking study. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 237:103942. [PMID: 37210866 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
We recorded the eye movements of adults reading aloud short (four digit) and long (eight to 11 digit) Arabic numerals compared to matched-in-length words and pseudowords. We presented each item in isolation, at the center of the screen. Participants read each item aloud at their pace, and then pressed the spacebar to display the next item. Reading accuracy was 99 %. Results showed that adults make 2.5 times more fixations when reading short numerals compared to short words, and up to 7 times more fixations when reading long numerals with respect to long words. Similarly, adults make 3 times more saccades when reading short numerals compared to short words, and up to 9 times more saccades when reading long numerals with respect to long words. Fixation duration and saccade amplitude stay almost the same when reading short numerals with respect to short words. However, fixation duration increases by ∼50 ms when reading long numerals (∼300 ms) with respect to long words (∼250 ms), and saccade amplitude decreases up to 0.83 characters when reading long numerals with respect to long words. The pattern of findings for long numerals-more and shorter saccades as well as more and longer fixations-shows the extent to which reading long Arabic numerals is a cognitively costly task. Within the phonographic writing system, this pattern of eye movements stands for the use of the sublexical print-to-sound correspondence rules. The data highlight that reading large numerals is an unautomatized activity and that Arabic numerals must be converted into their oral form by a step-by-step process even by expert readers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marco Pedrotti
- Haute Ecole Arc Santé, HES-SO University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland, Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
| | - Paolo Ruggeri
- Brain Electrophysiology Attention Movement Laboratory, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jasinta Dewi
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Development, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Catherine Thevenot
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Development, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Philippe Terrier
- Haute Ecole Arc Santé, HES-SO University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland, Neuchâtel, Switzerland; Department of Thoracic and Endocrine Surgery, University Hospitals of Geneva, Switzerland
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33
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Iaconis FR, Trujillo Jiménez MA, Gasaneo G, Rosso OA, Delrieux CA. Ordinal pattern transition networks in eye tracking reading signals. CHAOS (WOODBURY, N.Y.) 2023; 33:2887745. [PMID: 37125937 DOI: 10.1063/5.0142230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Eye tracking is an emerging technology with a wide spectrum of applications, including non-invasive neurocognitive diagnosis. An advantage of the use of eye trackers is in the improved assessment of indirect latent information about several aspects of the subjects' neurophysiology. The path to uncover and take advantage of the meaning and implications of this information, however, is still in its very early stages. In this work, we apply ordinal patterns transition networks as a means to identify subjects with dyslexia in simple text reading experiments. We registered the tracking signal of the eye movements of several subjects (either normal or with diagnosed dyslexia). The evolution of the left-to-right movement over time was analyzed using ordinal patterns, and the transitions between patterns were analyzed and characterized. The relative frequencies of these transitions were used as feature descriptors, with which a classifier was trained. The classifier is able to distinguish typically developed vs dyslexic subjects with almost 100% accuracy only analyzing the relative frequency of the eye movement transition from one particular permutation pattern (plain left to right) to four other patterns including itself. This characterization helps understand differences in the underlying cognitive behavior of these two groups of subjects and also paves the way to several other potentially fruitful analyses applied to other neurocognitive conditions and tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- F R Iaconis
- Instituto de Física del Sur, Departamento de Física, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS)- CONICET, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - M A Trujillo Jiménez
- Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computadoras, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
- Instituto Patagónico de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas - CONICET, 9200 Puerto Madryn, Argentina
| | - G Gasaneo
- Instituto de Física del Sur, Departamento de Física, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS)- CONICET, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
- Centro Integral de Neurociencias Aplicadas, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - O A Rosso
- Instituto de Física, Universidad Federal de Alagoas (UFAL), 57072-970 Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil
- Instituto de Física La Plata, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (IFLP), 1900 La Plata, Pcia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - C A Delrieux
- Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computadoras, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
- Instituto de Ciencias e Ingeniería de la Computación - CONICET, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
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34
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Justino J, Kolinsky R. Eye movements during reading in beginning and skilled readers: Impact of reading level or physiological maturation? Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 236:103927. [PMID: 37126894 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We begin by presenting and examining relevant data in the literature on eye movements in reading, from childhood to adulthood. In particular, we discuss the differences found in eye movements during reading between children in different age groups and with different reading levels and skilled adult readers in terms of word recognition and sentence processing. We then critically discuss two hypotheses that account for the differences between children and adults' eye movement during reading: one being reading age itself - the changes in eye movement patterns in reading are regulated by the level of reading proficiency and its automatization - and the other being the role of maturation of oculomotor control and, consequently, its possible changes in eye movement patterns during reading. Finally, we list gaps in the research field and suggest that future research will benefit from investigating eye movements during reading in ex-illiterate adults who are in the process of learning to read in order to isolate both reading and maturational factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Justino
- Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS (FRS-FNRS), Belgium; Unité de Recherche en Neurosciences Cognitives (Unescog/CRCN), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium.
| | - Régine Kolinsky
- Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS (FRS-FNRS), Belgium; Unité de Recherche en Neurosciences Cognitives (Unescog/CRCN), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium.
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35
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Snell J, Yeaton J, Mirault J, Grainger J. Parallel word reading revealed by fixation-related brain potentials. Cortex 2023; 162:1-11. [PMID: 36948090 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2023.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
During reading, the brain is confronted with many relevant objects at once. But does lexical processing occur for multiple words simultaneously? Cognitive science has yet to answer this prominent question. Recently it has been argued that the issue warrants supplementing the field's traditional toolbox (response times, eye-tracking) with neuroscientific techniques (EEG, fMRI). Indeed, according to the OB1-reader model, upcoming words need not impact oculomotor behavior per se, but parallel processing of these words must nonetheless be reflected in neural activity. Here we combined eye-tracking with EEG, time-locking the neural window of interest to the fixation on target words in sentence reading. During these fixations, we manipulated the identity of the subsequent word so that it posed either a syntactically legal or illegal continuation of the sentence. In line with previous research, oculomotor measures were unaffected. Yet, syntax impacted brain potentials as early as 100 ms after the target fixation onset. Given the EEG literature on syntax processing, the presently observed timings suggest parallel word reading. We reckon that parallel word processing typifies reading, and that OB1-reader offers a good platform for theorizing about the reading brain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jonathan Mirault
- Aix-Marseille University & Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique, France
| | - Jonathan Grainger
- Aix-Marseille University & Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique, France; Institute of Language Communication and the Brain, Aix-Marseille University, France
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36
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Luo C, Zhu M, Zhuang X, Ma G. Food word processing in Chinese reading: A study of restrained eaters. Br J Psychol 2023; 114:476-494. [PMID: 36762466 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
Food-related attentional bias refers that individuals typically prioritize rewarding food-related cues (e.g. food words and food images) compared with non-food stimuli; however, the findings are inconsistent for restrained eaters. Traditional paradigms used to test food-related attentional bias, such as visual probe tasks and visual search tasks, may not directly and accurately enough to reflect individuals' food-word processing at different cognitive stages. In this study, we introduced the boundary paradigm to investigate food-word attentional bias for both restrained and unrestrained eaters. Eye movements were recorded when they performed a naturalistic sentence-reading task. The results of later-stage analyses showed that food words were fixated on for less time than non-food words, which indicated a superiority of foveal food-word processing for both restrained and unrestrained eaters. The results of early-stage analyses showed that restrained eaters spent more time on pre-target regions in the food-word valid preview conditions, which indicated a parafoveal food-word processing superiority for restrained eaters (i.e. the parafoveal-on-foveal effect). The superiority of foveal food-word processing provides new insights into explaining food-related attentional bias in general groups. Additionally, the enhanced food-word attentional bias in parafoveal processing for restrained eaters illustrates the importance of individual characteristics in studying word recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changlin Luo
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Mengyan Zhu
- School of Psychological Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Xiangling Zhuang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Guojie Ma
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
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37
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Ma X, Liu Y, Clariana R, Gu C, Li P. From eye movements to scanpath networks: A method for studying individual differences in expository text reading. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:730-750. [PMID: 35445941 PMCID: PMC10027820 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-022-01842-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Eye movements have been examined as an index of attention and comprehension during reading in the literature for over 30 years. Although eye-movement measurements are acknowledged as reliable indicators of readers' comprehension skill, few studies have analyzed eye-movement patterns using network science. In this study, we offer a new approach to analyze eye-movement data. Specifically, we recorded visual scanpaths when participants were reading expository science text, and used these to construct scanpath networks that reflect readers' processing of the text. Results showed that low ability and high ability readers' scanpath networks exhibited distinctive properties, which are reflected in different network metrics including density, centrality, small-worldness, transitivity, and global efficiency. Such patterns provide a new way to show how skilled readers, as compared with less skilled readers, process information more efficiently. Implications of our analyses are discussed in light of current theories of reading comprehension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochuan Ma
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Yikang Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, Millennium Science Complex, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Roy Clariana
- Department of Learning and Performance Systems, Keller Building, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Chanyuan Gu
- Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, Faculty of Humanities, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Ping Li
- Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, Faculty of Humanities, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
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38
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Hahn M, Keller F. Modeling task effects in human reading with neural network-based attention. Cognition 2023; 230:105289. [PMID: 36208565 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Research on human reading has long documented that reading behavior shows task-specific effects, but it has been challenging to build general models predicting what reading behavior humans will show in a given task. We introduce NEAT, a computational model of the allocation of attention in human reading, based on the hypothesis that human reading optimizes a tradeoff between economy of attention and success at a task. Our model is implemented using contemporary neural network modeling techniques, and makes explicit and testable predictions about how the allocation of attention varies across different tasks. We test this in an eyetracking study comparing two versions of a reading comprehension task, finding that our model successfully accounts for reading behavior across the tasks. Our work thus provides evidence that task effects can be modeled as optimal adaptation to task demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Hahn
- Department of Linguistics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; Collaborative Research Center 1102, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, 66123, Germany.
| | - Frank Keller
- School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh, 10 Crichton Street, Edinburgh, EH8 9AB, United Kingdom.
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39
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Prediction at the intersection of sentence context and word form: Evidence from eye-movements and self-paced reading. Psychon Bull Rev 2022:10.3758/s13423-022-02223-9. [PMID: 36510092 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02223-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A key issue in language processing is how we recognize and understand words in sentences. Research on sentence reading indicates that the time we need to read a word depends on how (un)expected it is. Research on single word recognition shows that each word also has its own recognition dynamics based on the relation between its orthographic form and its meaning. It is not clear, however, how these sentence-level and word-level dynamics interact. In the present study, we examine the joint impact of these sources of information during sentence reading. We analyze existing eye-tracking and self-paced reading data (Frank et al., 2013, Behavior Research Methods, 45[4], 1182-1190) to investigate the interplay of sentence-level prediction (operationalized as Surprisal) and word Orthography-Semantics Consistency in activating word meaning in sentence processing. Results indicate that both Surprisal and Orthography-Semantics Consistency exert an influence on several reading measures. The shape of the observed interaction differs, but the results give compelling indication for a general trade-off between expectations based on sentence context and cues to meaning from word orthography.
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40
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Gavard E, Ziegler JC. The Effects of Semantic and Syntactic Prediction on Reading Aloud. Exp Psychol 2022; 69:308-319. [PMID: 36809159 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Semantic and syntactic prediction effects were investigated in a word naming task using semantic or syntactic contexts that varied between three and six words. Participants were asked to read the contexts silently and name a target word, which was indicated by a color change. Semantic contexts were composed of lists of semantically associated words without any syntactic information. Syntactic contexts were composed of semantically neutral sentences, in which the grammatical category but not the lexical identity of the final word was highly predictable. When the presentation time of the context words was long (1,200 ms), both semantically and syntactically related contexts facilitated reading aloud latencies of target words and syntactically related contexts produced larger priming effects than semantically related contexts in two out of three analyses. When the presentation time was short (200 ms), however, syntactic context effects disappeared, while semantic context effects remained significant. Across the three experiments, longer contexts produced faster response latencies, but longer contexts did not produce larger priming effects. The results are discussed in the context of the extant literature on semantic and syntactic priming and more recent evidence, suggesting that syntactic information constrains single word recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Gavard
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (UMR 7290), Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, Marseille, France
| | - Johannes C Ziegler
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (UMR 7290), Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, Marseille, France
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41
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Wolf C, Belopolsky AV, Lappe M. Current foveal inspection and previous peripheral preview influence subsequent eye movement decisions. iScience 2022; 25:104922. [PMID: 36060066 PMCID: PMC9429799 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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42
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Cui X, Richlan F, Zhou W. Fixation-related fMRI analysis reveals the neural basis of parafoveal processing in self-paced reading of Chinese words. Brain Struct Funct 2022; 227:2609-2621. [PMID: 35997831 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-022-02552-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
While parafoveal word processing plays an important role in natural reading, the underlying neural mechanism remains unclear. The present study investigated the neural basis of parafoveal processing during Chinese word reading with the co-registration of eye-tracking and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) using fixation-related fMRI analysis. In the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm, preview conditions (words that are identical, orthographically similar, and unrelated to target words), pre-target word frequency and target word frequency were manipulated. When fixating the pre-target word, the identical preview condition elicited lower brain activation in the left fusiform gyrus relative to unrelated and orthographically similar preview conditions and there were significant interactions of preview condition and pre-target word frequency on brain activation of the left middle frontal gyrus, left fusiform gyrus and supplementary motor area. When fixating the target word, there was a significant main effect of preview condition on brain activation of the right fusiform gyrus and a significant interaction of preview condition and pre-target word frequency on brain activation of the left middle frontal gyrus. These results suggest that fixation-related brain activation provides immediate measures and new perspectives to understand the mechanism of parafoveal processing in self-paced reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Cui
- Beijing Key Lab of Learning and Cognition, School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fabio Richlan
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Psychology, Paris-Lodron-University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Wei Zhou
- Beijing Key Lab of Learning and Cognition, School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China.
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43
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The database of eye-movement measures on words in Chinese reading. Sci Data 2022; 9:411. [PMID: 35840575 PMCID: PMC9287311 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01464-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye movements are one of the most fundamental behaviors during reading. A growing number of Chinese reading studies have used eye-tracking techniques in the last two decades. The accumulated data provide a rich resource that can reflect the complex cognitive mechanisms underlying Chinese reading. This article reports a database of eye-movement measures of words during Chinese sentence reading. The database contains nine eye-movement measures of 8,551 Chinese words obtained from 1,718 participants across 57 Chinese sentence reading experiments. All data were collected in the same experimental environment and from homogenous participants, using the same protocols and parameters. This database enables researchers to test their theoretical or computational hypotheses concerning Chinese reading efficiently using a large number of words. The database can also indicate the processing difficulty of Chinese words during text reading, thus providing a way to control or manipulate the difficulty level of Chinese texts.
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44
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Parafoveal processing of underlying phonological information during Korean sentence reading. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022; 84:1411-1416. [PMID: 35507255 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-022-02499-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The question of whether phonological information is integrated through the parafovea has remained unanswered particularly in Korean sentence reading. The current study used homophones with identical underlying phonological forms but with different orthography to examine phonological preview benefit effects in Korean. In an eye-tracking experiment using the boundary paradigm, target fixations were shorter (a) when the preview-target pairs were identical than when they were unrelated, (b) when the pairs were orthographically similar than when they were unrelated, and most importantly, (c) when the pairs were phonologically identical than when they were phonologically similar but different. These results indicate that underlying phonological information of a word, aside from orthographic information, is integrated through parafoveal preview during Korean sentence reading.
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White H, Heck A, Jubran R, Chroust A, Bhatt RS. Average fixation duration in infancy: Stability and predictive utility. INFANCY 2022; 27:866-886. [PMID: 35624554 DOI: 10.1111/infa.12483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The current study examined the stability, consistency, and predictive utility of average fixation durations in infancy. In Study 1, infants' (N = 80) average fixation duration when viewing social stimuli was found to show strong relative stability from 3.5 to 9 months of age. In Study 2, strong within-infant consistency was found in 3.5-month-old infants' (N = 73) average fixation durations to social and nonsocial stimuli. In Study 3, 3.5- to 9-month-old infants' (N = 89) average fixation duration was found to systematically vary with parent-reported symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) at 4-6 years of age. These results suggest that average fixation duration serves as a stable and systematic measure of individual differences in cognitive development beginning early in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah White
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Alison Heck
- Department of Psychology, Berea College, Berea, Kentucky, USA
| | - Rachel Jubran
- Department of Behavioral & Social Sciences, University of Montevallo, Montevallo, Alabama, USA
| | - Alyson Chroust
- College of Arts and Sciences, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ramesh S Bhatt
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
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Ansorge U, Baier D, Choi S. Linguistic Skill and Stimulus-Driven Attention: A Case for Linguistic Relativity. Front Psychol 2022; 13:875744. [PMID: 35668967 PMCID: PMC9163952 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
How does the language we speak affect our perception? Here, we argue for linguistic relativity and present an explanation through "language-induced automatized stimulus-driven attention" (LASA): Our respective mother tongue automatically influences our attention and, hence, perception, and in this sense determines what we see. As LASA is highly practiced throughout life, it is difficult to suppress, and even shows in language-independent non-linguistic tasks. We argue that attention is involved in language-dependent processing and point out that automatic or stimulus-driven forms of attention, albeit initially learned as serving a linguistic skill, account for linguistic relativity as they are automatized and generalize to non-linguistic tasks. In support of this possibility, we review evidence for such automatized stimulus-driven attention in language-independent non-linguistic tasks. We conclude that linguistic relativity is possible and in fact a reality, although it might not be as powerful as assumed by some of its strongest proponents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Ansorge
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Cognitive Science Hub, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Research Platform Mediatised Lifeworlds, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Diane Baier
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Acoustics Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Soonja Choi
- Department of Linguistics and Asian/Middle Eastern Languages, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States
- Faculty of Philological and Cultural Studies, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Gregg J, Inhoff AW, Li X. EXPRESS: Lexical Competition Influences Correct and Incorrect Visual Word Recognition. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2022; 76:1011-1025. [PMID: 35543593 DOI: 10.1177/17470218221102878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of research suggests that visual word recognition is error-prone, and that errors may contribute to inhibitory neighbor frequency effects in word identification and reading. The present study used the neighborhood frequency effect to examine the relationship between lexical competition and error-making during visual word recognition. A novel adaptation of the visual world paradigm (VWP) was used, in which participants selected a briefly-presented printed target word from an array containing the target, its higher- or lower-frequency neighbor, an orthographic onset competitor, and an orthographically unrelated distractor word. Analyses of the visual inspection of the arrays suggested that lexical competition occurred when words were correctly identified, as competitors were preferentially viewed as a function of their orthographic similarity with the target, and higher-frequency neighbors were preferentially viewed over lower-frequency neighbors. Orthographic similarity and neighbor frequency also influenced error-making. Targets were often mistaken for their neighbors, and these errors were more common for targets with higher-frequency neighbors. The time course of target and neighbor viewing for error trials also provided preliminary evidence for two kinds of errors: early-occurring, perceptual errors and later-occurring selection errors that resulted from unsuccessfully resolved lexical competition. Together, these findings suggest that neighbor frequency effects reflect the contribution of both general lexical competition and occasional errors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xingshan Li
- Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
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Brothers T. Capacity limits in sentence comprehension: Evidence from dual-task judgements and event-related potentials. Cognition 2022; 225:105153. [PMID: 35551040 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
There is an ongoing controversy over whether readers can access the meaning of multiple words, simultaneously. To date, different experimental methods have generated seemingly contradictory evidence in support of serial or parallel processing accounts. For example, dual-task studies suggest that readers can process a maximum of one word at a time (White, Palmer & Boynton, 2018), while ERP studies have demonstrated neural priming effects that are more consistent with parallel activation (Wen, Snell & Grainger, 2019). To help reconcile these views, I measured neural responses and behavioral accuracy in a dual-task sentence comprehension paradigm. Participants saw masked sentences and two-word phrases and had to judge whether or not they were grammatical. Grammatically correct sentences (This girl is neat) produced smaller N400 responses compared to scrambled sentences (Those girl is fled): an N400 sentence superiority effect. Critically, participants' grammaticality judgements on the same trials showed striking capacity limitations, with dual-task deficits closely matching the predictions of a serial, all-or-none processing account. Together, these findings suggest that the N400 sentence superiority effect is fully compatible with serial word recognition, and that readers are unable to process multiple sentence positions simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor Brothers
- Tufts University, Department of Psychology, United States of America.
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Tschense M, Wallot S. Using measures of reading time regularity (RTR) to quantify eye movement dynamics, and how they are shaped by linguistic information. J Vis 2022; 22:9. [PMID: 35612847 PMCID: PMC9165877 DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.6.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article, we present the concept of reading time regularity (RTR) as a measure to capture reading process dynamics. The first study is concerned with examining one of the assumptions of RTR, namely, that process measures of reading, such as eye movement fluctuations and fixation durations, exhibit higher regularity when contingent on sequentially structured information, such as texts. To test this, eye movements of 26 German native speakers were recorded during reading-unrelated and reading-related tasks. To analyze the data, we used recurrence quantification analysis and sample entropy analysis to quantify the degree of temporal structure in time series of gaze steps and fixation durations. The results showed that eye movements become more regular in reading compared to nonreading conditions. These effects were most prominent when calculated on the basis of gaze step data. In a second study, eye movements of 27 native speakers of German were recorded for five conditions with increasing linguistic information. The results replicate the findings of the first study, verifying that these effects are not due to mere differences in task instructions between conditions. Implications for the concept of RTR and for future studies using these metrics in reading research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Tschense
- Institute of Psychology, Leuphana University of Lüneburg, Lüneburg, Germany.,Research Group Neurocognition of Music and Language, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Department of Language and Literature, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2434-4516., https://www.leuphana.de/en/institutes/ifp/staff/monika-tschense.html
| | - Sebastian Wallot
- Institute of Psychology, Leuphana University of Lüneburg, Lüneburg, Germany.,Department of Language and Literature, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3626-3940., https://www.leuphana.de/en/institutes/ifp/staff/sebastian-wallot.html
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Suárez-Coalla P, Álvarez-Cañizo M, Jiménez S. Palabras, mejor de una en una: los niños con dislexia ante la lectura de palabras presentadas simultáneamente. REVISTA DE INVESTIGACIÓN EN LOGOPEDIA 2022. [DOI: 10.5209/rlog.78445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Diferentes estudios han reportado que los lectores competentes se benefician de la presentación simultánea de palabras durante la lectura. Por otra parte, la existencia de representaciones ortográficas de las palabras parece facilitar el inicio de la codificación fonológica de la palabra contigua, que se iniciaría durante el proceso de articulación de la palabra target. Sin embargo, este beneficio podría no darse en los niños con dislexia, considerando su escasa competencia lectora. El objetivo de este estudio era investigar si los niños con dislexia se benefician de la presentación simultánea de palabras escritas y si esto depende de las características de los estímulos. Para ello, niños con y sin dislexia participaron en dos tareas de lectura. En la primera tarea, las palabras, manipuladas en frecuencia y longitud, se presentaban de manera aislada; mientras que la segunda tarea se trataba de listas de tres palabras, en las que se manipulaba la frecuencia y longitud de la tercera palabra. Los resultados pusieron de relieve las dificultades lectoras en el grupo con dislexia, con peor rendimiento que el grupo control en ambas tareas. Por otra parte, ambos grupos obtuvieron ventaja de la presentación simultánea de palabras, con tiempos previos a la articulación de la palabra menores en la presentación simultánea que en la palabra aislada. Sin embargo, este beneficio no se dio en los tiempos de articulación y exactitud lectora en los niños con dislexia, especialmente cuando se trataba de palabras largas e infrecuentes, sugiriendo que los niños dislexia no alcanzan el mismo nivel de preprocesamiento que los niños del grupo control.
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