Hostility and withdrawal in marital conflict: effects on parental emotional unavailability and inconsistent discipline

Family risk, parental cortisol contagion, and parenting: A process-oriented approach to spillover

This multi-method longitudinal study sought to investigate linkage in parental neuroendocrine functioning - indicated by cortisol - over two measurement occasions. In addition, we examined how parental cortisol linkage may operate as an intermediate factor in the cascade of contextual risks and parenting. Participants were 235 families with a young child (Mage = 33.56, 36.00 years for mothers and fathers respectively), who were followed for two annual measurement occasions. Parental cortisol linkage was measured around a laboratory conflict discussion task at both measurement occasions (i.e., pre-discussion, 20- and 40-minute post-discussion for each measurement occasion). Maternal and paternal parenting behavior was observed during a parent-child discipline discussion task. Findings indicated similar levels of cortisol linkage between parents over the two measurement occasions. Furthermore, cortisol linkage between parents operated as an intermediate factor between contextual risks and more compromised parenting behavior. That is, greater contextual risks, indicated by greater neighborhood risk and interparental conflict, were linked to greater cortisol linkage between parents over time, which was in turn linked to greater authoritarian parenting during parent-child interaction. Findings highlighted the importance of understanding physiological-linkage processes with respect to the impact of contextual risks on family functioning and may have crucial implications for clinical work.

What About the Children? Co-Occurrence of Child Maltreatment and Parental Separation

The aim of this study was to investigate (a) the extent to which child maltreatment co-occurs with parental separation and (b) associations between different types of child maltreatment and various types of separation-associated interparental conflict. Professionals working with children (N = 785) reported each case of suspected child maltreatment they observed during a 3-month period and indicated whether parental divorce or separation was about to take place or had taken place. This resulted in 530 reported cases that matched the definitions of child maltreatment for which information on parental relationship status was available. Most of the maltreated children (60%) also experienced (impending) parental separation. In 69% of these cases child maltreatment was associated with parental separation. Particularly, cases of emotional neglect, and emotional abuse co-occurred with parental separation. In addition, four clusters of separation-associated interparental conflict were distinguished- No observed conflict, Non-physical conflict, Verbal and physical conflict, and Multiple conflict-which were associated with child and family characteristics and specific types of child maltreatment. The results of this study suggest that child maltreatment often co-occurs with parental separation, especially when there is a considerable amount of interparental conflict.

Unique roles of adolescents' friends and fathers in predicting verbal aggression in future adult romantic relationships

This 20-year prospective study examined verbal aggression and intense conflict within the family of origin and between adolescents and their close friends as predictors of future verbal aggression in adult romantic relationships. A diverse community sample of 154 individuals was assessed repeatedly from age 13 to 34 years using self-, parent, peer, and romantic partner reports. As hypothesized, verbal aggression in adult romantic relationships was best predicted by both paternal verbal aggression toward mothers and by intense conflict within adolescent close friendships, with each factor contributing unique variance to explaining adult romantic verbal aggression. These factors also interacted, such that paternal verbal aggression was predictive of future romantic verbal aggression only in the context of co-occurring intense conflict between an adolescent and their closest friend. Predictions remained robust even after accounting for levels of parental abusive behavior toward the adolescent, levels of physical violence between parents, and the overall quality of the adolescent's close friendship. Results indicate the critical importance of exposure to aggression and conflict within key horizontal relationships in adolescence. Implications for early identification of risk as well as for potential preventive interventions are discussed.

Parental stress mediates the effects of parental risk factors on dysfunctional parenting in first-time parents: A dyadic longitudinal study

Both parental psychological well-being (e.g., depressive symptoms) and parental relationship functioning (e.g., negative communication) are common parental risk factors for dysfunctional parenting. The spillover process from these parental characteristics to dysfunctional parenting is assumed to be amplified by parental stress, which is particularly common among mothers and fathers of young children. However, few studies have examined dyadic spillover processes from parental risk factors and parental stress on parenting in early childhood. In the current study, we first examined direct actor and partner effects of parents' depressive symptoms and negative communication at 10 months postpartum on dysfunctional parenting at 48 months postpartum in 168 primiparous mixed-gender couples. Second, we analyzed indirect effects via one's own and the partner's parental stress at 36 months postpartum using Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation Models (APIMeM). We found direct actor effects for mothers' depressive symptoms and negative communication on their dysfunctional parenting. Additionally, indirect actor effects were found for depressive symptoms and negative communication among mothers and fathers. Specifically, mediating effects of depressive symptoms and negative communication on one's dysfunctional parenting through one's parental stress were found. There were no indirect partner effects through parental stress. These findings highlight the important role of parental stress in early childhood as a mediator between both individual and relationship parental risk factors and dysfunctional parenting. These results further underscore the importance of longitudinal dyadic analyses in providing early and tailored interventions for both mothers and fathers of young children.

Strengths-based spillover models: Constructive interparental conflict, parental supportive problem solving, and development of child executive functioning

Empirical research examining the Spillover Hypothesis has largely substantiated that interparental conflict comprised of hostility and anger has negative implications for parenting behaviors and cascading effects on children's development. However, less is known about how constructive forms of interparental conflict may operate in spillover processes. Toward this, the present study examined how interparental supportive and problem-solving approaches to conflict were associated with parental guided learning in the caregiving context and by extension young children's executive functioning. Participants included 231 families (mothers, fathers, and their child). Assessments of constructive interparental conflict were derived from both observational tasks and multi-informant report. Parental supportive problem solving was assessed observationally during a goal-directed parent-child interaction. Children's inhibitory control, working memory, and visual-spatial reasoning were assessed using validated tasks. Analyses were conducted in a structural equation modeling framework, and significance of indirect paths were tested using RMediation. Results showed constructive interparental conflict was associated with increases in maternal supportive problem solving, which in turn predicted increases in children's working memory. Furthermore, constructive interparental conflict was indirectly associated with increases in children's inhibitory control via paternal supportive problem solving. These findings were significant over two waves of data collection after controlling for child sex, maternal and paternal age, and maternal and paternal education. Findings underscore the potential utility of family resilience theory and domain approaches to parenting for increasing specificity and precision in identifying spillover processes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Partner Emotional Support and Child Problem Behaviors: The Indirect Role of Harsh Parenting for Young Mothers and Their Children

Emotionally supportive partners promote the well-being of teenage mothers and their children as they navigate sensitive developmental periods. Yet, having focused on young parents' relationship dissolution, we know very little about benefits of partner supportiveness for the development of children's psychological adjustment or processes that may explain this association. Using five waves of Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study data (N = 771) and parallel process latent growth curve modeling, this study tested whether trajectories of partner supportiveness (measured by maternal reports of fathers' emotional support) directly mitigated trajectories of children's externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors (measured by maternal reports of problem behaviors) and/or whether such effects were indirectly linked through lower levels of maternal harsh parenting (measured by observational ratings of mother-child interactions). Results suggest that higher levels of partner supportiveness at birth were associated with child externalizing and internalizing trajectories that started at lower levels and demonstrated slower improvements across time. Lower starting levels of maternal harsh parenting when children were three years old partially explained associations between partner supportiveness at birth and lower levels of child externalizing symptoms at age three. Lessons gleaned from this study are discussed in context of young families' strengths and applied to practice-based settings.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations between interparental and sibling relationships: Positive or negative?

According to family systems theory, a family is regarded as an organized whole and relations within this system are interconnected. However, it is not clear to date whether the interparental and the sibling relationship are associated and, if such an association exists, whether it is positive or negative. Previous findings on the associations between the interparental and sibling relationships are inconsistent and there is as yet no pertinent review or meta-analysis. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis set out (1) to aggregate previous studies investigating the links between the interparental and sibling relationships and (2) to examine potential moderators in this link. Based on 47 studies reporting 234 effect sizes (N = 29,746 from six nations; 6-12 years; 49% boys), meta-analytic results suggest a small positive correlation between interparental and sibling relationship quality (r = .14). Only the percentage of male children in the sample moderated this effect. Sex composition of sibling dyad and source of publication affected whether positive or negative associations were found. The findings support a growing consensus that family relations do not function in isolation, but are mutually interdependent, which should be considered in clinical practice.

Dispositional Mindfulness is Cross-Sectionally Predicted by Interactions between Interparental Conflict and Parent-Child Relationships

Theory emphasizes the importance of the family environment for the development of dispositional mindfulness, but past research has focused exclusively on parent-child attachment relationships as family-level predictors of mindfulness. Our goal was to examine unique and joint associations of both interparental conflict and parent-child relationship quality with dispositional mindfulness. Participants were 150 youth (14-21 yrs) who reported the warmth and support in their relationships with mothers and fathers separately, as well as their appraisals of the properties of their parents' conflict, how threatening that conflict is, and how responsible for it they feel, in addition to dispositional mindfulness. Results indicated consistent interactions between conflict properties and mother-child relationship quality in relation to dispositional mindfulness. Dispositional mindfulness was lowest for youth who reported low levels of frequent/intense interparental conflict and poor-quality relationships with mothers. In contrast, either self-blame/threat or poor-quality relationships with mothers predicted lower levels of dispositional mindfulness. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

When Fathers Are Involved: Examining Relational and Psychosocial Health among Military Families

Father involvement can promote the psychosocial health of family members (i.e., fathers, mothers, and children). However, the association between father involvement and individual members' psychosocial health may depend on the quality of the marital relationship and the perceptions of the reporting family member. Research with multiple reporters from the same family is needed identify how family members perceive the impact of father involvement on family member well-being. Using a risk and resilience theoretical framework applied to a family systems perspective, the current study examines associations between father involvement, family flexibility, marital quality, and psychosocial health with a sample of 207 military families (including fathers, mothers, and their adolescents). After accounting for military context, a conditional structural equation model was used to examine the associations between fathers' involvement and family members' psychosocial health. Family flexibility was examined as a mediator between these associations and marital quality as a moderator. Findings suggest that when fathers are more involved, both mothers and fathers report less family flexibility, and that family flexibility was positively associated with family member (father, mother, and adolescent) well-being. Further, father involvement was indirectly related to mothers' psychosocial health through family flexibility, and father involvement was directly associated with better psychosocial health for fathers and adolescents. Marital quality moderated these associations for fathers, mothers, and adolescents. Given the combined benefits of father involvement, family flexibility, and positive marital relationships, clinical efforts to provide information to increase knowledge and skills around maintaining a healthy relationship could serve to promote psychosocial health by improving marital quality and family flexibility.

Integrating a multilevel approach to examine family conflict and parent-adolescent physiological synchrony

The present study investigated physiological synchrony across mothers, fathers, and adolescents during a conflict discussion. In particular, a multilevel, within-dyad approach was used to parameterize synchrony within the parasympathetic nervous system. Moreover, we examined how domains of conflict within the larger family system influenced the level of synchrony between family members. Participants were 191 families with adolescents (M age = 12.4 years), whose respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) were measured during a triadic family conflict discussion. On the minute-to-minute basis, mothers and adolescents as well as mothers and fathers exhibited positive RSA concurrent synchrony, whereas no such concordance was observed between adolescents and fathers. In addition, the presence of conflict between parents with respect to coparenting moderated the level of mother-adolescent synchrony such that no concordant RSA synchrony emerged between mother and adolescents under high levels of coparenting conflict. In contrast, general interparental conflict did not moderate levels of physiological synchrony among any of the dyads. Findings suggest that mothers may be particularly physiologically in tune with family members in the context of conflict discussions and specific domains of family conflict may influence concordant physiological dynamics. Taken together, this is one of the first studies to examine physiological synchrony during the adolescent period and results suggest this may be an important developmental period for these dynamics. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Romantic Partner Satisfaction Among Low-Income Mothers: Links to Child-Peer and Teacher Relationships via Mother-Child Conflict

The current project explores maternal inter-parental (IP) romantic partner satisfaction in relation to mother-child conflict and later peer and teacher relations from early to middle childhood among a sample of low-income, ethnically diverse mothers (N = 271) who were part of a longitudinal study testing the effectiveness of the Family Check-Up intervention. We hypothesized spillover effects from IP dissatisfaction during early childhood to mother-child conflict two years later. Greater mother-child conflict in turn was expected to lead to poorer peer relations and greater conflict with teachers in middle childhood. Results support a spillover effect from lower IP satisfaction at age 3 to higher mother-child conflict at age 5 to poorer peer relations and greater conflict with teachers at school at ages 8.5, 9.5, and 10.5. Mother-child conflict significantly mediates these pathways. Results support the importance of IP satisfaction and mother-child conflict in early childhood as critical factors in pathways leading to low-income children's social relationships at school during middle childhood.

Perceived Stress as a Predictor of Partnership Relation Quality in Polish Mothers of Preterm-Born Children

The aim of the study was to identify whether perceived stress and significant life changes are related with partnership relation quality in mothers of preterm-born children. The study group consisted of 260 women, who gave a preterm birth. In most cases the delivery took place in the 34⁻36th week of pregnancy. The research consisted of two phases. Phase 1 was carried out in the Department of Obstetrics at the Medical University of Gdansk in the neonatal period (2⁻3 days after birth). Phase 2 was carried out in the place of residence of the mother and child during early childhood (24⁻30th month of the child's life). The following research tools were used in the first phase of the research project: Analysis of nursing and medical reports, an interview questionnaire and psychological interview, The Perceived Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) (Lavenstein, the Polish version, after Plopa, 2008), The Recent Life Changes Questionnaire (RLCQ) (Rahe and Holmes, 1975), the Polish version, after Terelak 1995), and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) (Spanier, 1976, the Polish version, after Cieślak, 1989). In the second phase of the study the respondents were once again examined using the DAS. It was shown that stress is related to partnership relationship quality and of all its components, except cohesion. The findings demonstrated that important life events are associated with a couple's emotional expression in the neonatal period. Stressful life events do not correlate with relationship quality.

Stepfamily Relationship Quality and Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

The stepfamily literature is replete with between-group analyses by which youth residing in stepfamilies are compared to youth in other family structures across indicators of adjustment and well-being. Few longitudinal studies examine variation in stepfamily functioning to identify factors that promote the positive adjustment of stepchildren over time. Using a longitudinal sample of 191 stepchildren (56% female, mean age = 11.3 years), the current study examines the association between the relationship quality of three central stepfamily dyads (stepparent-child, parent-child, and stepcouple) and children's internalizing and externalizing problems concurrently and over time. Results from path analyses indicate that higher levels of parent-child affective quality are associated with lower levels of children's concurrent internalizing and externalizing problems at Wave 1. Higher levels of stepparent-child affective quality are associated with decreases in children's internalizing and externalizing problems at Wave 2 (6 months beyond baseline), even after controlling for children's internalizing and externalizing problems at Wave 1 and other covariates. The stepcouple relationship was not directly linked to youth outcomes. Our findings provide implications for future research and practice.

Emotion Socialization in the Context of Childhood Cancer: Perceptions of Parental Support Promotes Posttraumatic Growth

Background

Examined youth’s perceptions of parental reactions to youth’s cancer and non-cancer event-related distress and the link between perceptions of parental reactions and youth posttraumatic growth (PTG).

Method

Participants included 201 youth (8–21 years) with a history of cancer. Participants self-identified their most stressful life event, which were characterized as cancer or non-cancer related, and then completed measures in reference to this event assessing (1) their perceptions of parent reactions to event-related distress and (2) PTG.

Results

Youth who identified a cancer-related event perceived their parents as reacting with more support and reassurance/distraction than those who identified a non-cancer event. Perceptions of parental support, reassurance/distraction, and magnification of youth distress were associated with more PTG, with event type (cancer vs. non-cancer) indirectly predicting PTG through perceptions of parental support.

Conclusion

Youth perceive their parents as reacting differently to cancer versus non-cancer distress, which is in turn predictive of their perceptions of growth. Findings suggest that parental support and reassurance/distraction are possible mechanisms facilitating resilience and growth in children with cancer.

Does interparental conflict decrease following changes in observed parenting from a preventive intervention program?

Interparental conflict, which is common among families where a parent has a history of Major Depressive Disorder, is associated with deficits in parenting. Models of family functioning propose that interparental conflict and parenting behaviors are transactional in nature. Given the interdependent nature of family systems, increases in positive parenting practices may lead to subsequent decreases in interparental conflict. The current study was a secondary analysis of data from a preventive intervention to improve parenting, child coping skills, and child behavior in families with a history of parental depression. We hypothesized that increases in positive parenting strategies would be associated with decreases in interparental conflict 12 months later. Results supported the study hypothesis. Findings underscored the interdependent nature of parent-child and parent-parent subsystems.

Marital Conflict Predicts Mother-to-Infant Adrenocortical Transmission

Employing an experimental design, mother-to-infant transmission of stress was examined. Mothers (N = 117) were randomized to either have a positive or conflictual discussion with their marital partners, after which infants (age = 6 months) participated in a fear and frustration task. Saliva samples were collected to assess maternal cortisol responses to the discussion and infant cortisol responses to the challenge task. Results indicate maternal cortisol reactivity and recovery to the conflict (but not positive) discussion predicted infant cortisol reactivity to the infant challenge. Mothers' positive affect during the discussion buffered, and intrusion during the free-play potentiated, mother-to-infant adrenocortical transmission. These findings advance our understanding of the social and contextual regulation of adrenocortical activity in early childhood.

Madres, padres y profesores como educadores de la resiliencia en niños colombianos

Resumen El objetivo del estudio consistió en analizar el aporte de las prácticas educativas de madres, padres y profesores en el desarrollo de la resiliencia en niños(as). Se contó con 417 niños(as), 199 profesores, 111 mamás y 80 papás de zona rural de nivel socioeconómico bajo. Fue un estudio transversal, de análisis correlacional, explicativo. Las niñas mostraron mayor nivel de generosidad, laboriosidad y resiliencia total en comparación con los niños. Las mamás tienden a practicar la aceptación y apoyo, la afirmación del poder, el retiro del afecto y el trato rudo más que los papás. Las profesoras también ejercen estás prácticas pero en menor proporción que los dos padres. La aceptación de papás y profesoras, el monitoreo de los dos padres y la afirmación del poder de las profesoras, son variables que pesan de manera significativa en la explicación de resiliencia en los niños(as). Es importante diseñar estrategias de intervención conjuntas en el contexto familiar y escolar desde edades tempranas, con el fin de desarrollar procesos de resiliencia en niños, teniendo en cuenta el papel protagónico de los padres y los profesores en este proceso.

Hostility and substance use in relation to intimate partner violence and parenting among fathers

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a significant public health and economic problem, which also increases the risks for child maltreatment. One attribute that may contribute to both IPV and poor parenting is hostility. Moreover, the link between hostility and these outcomes may be mediated by substance use, such that more hostile individuals are at greater risk for using drugs and alcohol, leading them to engage in more aggressive and rejecting behavior toward their partners and children. We tested this possibility in sample of 132 fathers. Additionally, we explored whether hostility and substance use had interactive effects on IPV and parenting by examining moderated-mediation models. The results show that substance use mediated the relationship between hostility and all IPV and parenting outcomes. Furthermore, this mediated relationship was moderated by substance use level for parenting outcomes, but not IPV. In the case of parenting, the mediated path from hostility to aggressive and rejecting parenting only occurred for those high in substance use. Limitations and implications for prevention and treatment of IPV and aggressive and rejecting parenting are discussed. Aggr. Behav. 41:205-213, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A typology of interpartner conflict and maternal parenting practices in high-risk families: Examining spillover and compensatory models and implications for child adjustment

The present study incorporates a person-based approach to identify spillover and compartmentalization patterns of interpartner conflict and maternal parenting practices in an ethnically diverse sample of 192 2-year-old children and their mothers who had experienced higher levels of socioeconomic risk. In addition, we tested whether sociocontextual variables were differentially predictive of theses profiles and examined how interpartner-parenting profiles were associated with children's physiological and psychological adjustment over time. As expected, latent class analyses extracted three primary profiles of functioning: adequate functioning, spillover, and compartmentalizing families. Furthermore, interpartner-parenting profiles were differentially associated with both sociocontextual predictors and children's adjustment trajectories. The findings highlight the developmental utility of incorporating person-based approaches to models of interpartner conflict and maternal parenting practices.

Is the Relationship Between Marital Adjustment and Parenting Stress Mediated or Moderated by Parenting Alliance?

The purpose of this study was to explore the mediating and moderating effects of parenting alliance on the relationship between marital adjustment, as represented by the dimensions dyadic consensus, dyadic satisfaction, dyadic cohesion, and affectional expression, and maternal and paternal stress. Self-report data were gathered from 236 Italian families (236 mothers:M= 40.9;SD= 4.4 and 236 fathers:M= 42.9;SD= 4.8) of children aged 6–11 years (M= 8.6;SD= 1.7). A set of regression analyses were conducted to examine whether parenting alliance mediates or moderates the relationship between marital adjustment and parenting stress. Regression analyses were consistent with a model of coparenting as a mediator but not as a moderator of the relationship between marital adjustment and parenting stress. In the case of mothers, parenting alliance mediates the relationships between two dimensions of marital adjustment (dyadic consensus and dyadic cohesion) on parenting stress; in the case of fathers, parenting alliance serves as a mediator of the relationship between the marital adjustment (in terms of dyadic satisfaction) and parenting stress. Implications for future research and interventions are discussed.

Supportive family environments, genes that confer sensitivity, and allostatic load among rural African American emerging adults: a prospective analysis

The purpose of this study was to investigate interactions between exposure to supportive family environments and genetic characteristics, which were hypothesized to forecast variations in allostatic load (AL) in a representative sample of 315 rural African American youths. Data on family environments were gathered when youths were 11-13, and genetic data were collected when they were 16, years of age. Data on AL were obtained at the beginning of emerging adulthood, age 19 years. The data analyses revealed that, as predicted, emerging adults exposed to less supportive family environments across preadolescence manifested higher levels of AL when they carried the short (s) allele at the 5-HTTLPR and an allele of DRD4 with seven or more repeats. This is an E(family environment) × G(5-HTTLPR status) × G(DRD4 status) interaction. These data suggest that African American youths carrying genes that confer sensitivity who are exposed to less supportive family environments may be at greater risk for adverse physical health consequences that AL presages.

Interparental Violence and Children's Long-Term Psychosocial Adjustment: The Mediating Role of Parenting Practices

The objectives of this study were: (a) to examine the direct and indirect relationships among witnessing interparental violence, parenting practices, and children's long-term psychosocial adjustment; (b) to analyze the possible gender differences in the relationships specified. The sample consisted of 1295 Spanish university students (M age = 21.21, SD = 4.04). We performed statistical analyses using structural equation modeling. The results showed that witnessing parental violence as a child is related to poor long-term psychosocial adjustment during the child's adult years. Furthermore, we found that parenting practices fully mediated the relation between witnessing interparental violence and the child's long-term adjustment. The multigroup analyses showed that most of the relations among the variables did not differ significantly by gender. However, the relation between harsh discipline and antisocial behavior was stronger for males, whereas the relation between harsh discipline and depressive symptoms was stronger for females. Finally, we discuss the implications of these findings for the clinicians and specialists who plan and develop intervention programs for populations at risk.

Pathways and processes of risk in associations among maternal antisocial personality symptoms, interparental aggression, and preschooler's psychopathology

Two studies examined the nature and processes underlying the joint role of interparental aggression and maternal antisocial personality as predictors of children's disruptive behavior problems. Participants for both studies included a high-risk sample of 201 mothers and their 2-year-old children in a longitudinal, multimethod design. Addressing the form of the interplay between interparental aggression and maternal antisocial personality as risk factors for concurrent and prospective levels of child disruptive problems, the Study 1 findings indicated that maternal antisocial personality was a predictor of the initial levels of preschooler's disruptive problems independent of the effects of interparental violence, comorbid forms of maternal psychopathology, and socioeconomic factors. In attesting to the salience of interparental aggression in the lives of young children, latent difference score analyses further revealed that interparental aggression mediated the link between maternal antisocial personality and subsequent changes in child disruptive problems over a 1-year period. To identify the family mechanisms that account for the two forms of intergenerational transmission of disruptive problems identified in Study 1, Study 2 explored the role of children's difficult temperament, emotional reactivity to interparental conflict, adrenocortical reactivity in a challenging parent-child task, and experiences with maternal parenting as mediating processes. Analyses identified child emotional reactivity to conflict and maternal unresponsiveness as mediators in pathways between interparental aggression and preschooler's disruptive problems. The findings further supported the role of blunted adrenocortical reactivity as an allostatic mediator of the associations between parental unresponsiveness and child disruptive problems.

The impact of allostatic load on maternal sympathovagal functioning in stressful child contexts: implications for problematic parenting

The present study applies an allostatic load framework to an examination of the relationship between maternal psychosocial risk factors and maladaptive parenting behaviors. Specifically, the implications of low socioeconomic status and maternal depressive symptoms for maternal sympathovagal functioning during young children's distress were examined, as well as whether that functioning was, in turn, associated with maternal insensitivity, hostility, intrusiveness, and disengagement during mother-child dyadic interaction. Consistent with an allostatic framework, three patterns of sympathovagal functioning were expected to emerge: normative arousal, hyperarousal, and hypoarousal profiles. Furthermore, meaningful associations between maternal psychosocial risk factors, maladaptive parenting behaviors, and the three profiles of sympathovagal functioning were anticipated. Participants included 153 mother-toddler dyads recruited proportionately from lower and middle socioeconomic status backgrounds. Mothers' sympathovagal response to their child's distress was assessed during the Strange Situation paradigm, and mothers' parenting behavior was assessed during a dyadic free-play interaction. As hypothesized, normative arousal, hyperarousal, and hypoarousal profiles of maternal sympathovagal functioning were identified. Maternal depressive symptomatology predicted the hyperarousal profile, whereas socioeconomic adversity predicted hypoarousal. Moreover, allostatic load profiles were differentially associated with problematic parenting behaviors. These findings underscore the role of physiological dysregulation as a mechanism in the relationship between proximal risk factors and actual maladaptive parenting behaviors.

Development of the Brief Romantic Relationship Interaction Coding Scheme (BRRICS)

Although observational studies of romantic relationships are common, many existing coding schemes require considerable amounts of time and resources to implement. The current study presents a new coding scheme, the Brief Romantic Relationship Interaction Coding Scheme (BRRICS), designed to assess various aspects of romantic relationship both quickly and efficiently. The BRRICS consists of four individual coding dimensions assessing positive and negative affect in each member of the dyad, as well as four codes assessing specific components of the dyadic interaction (i.e., positive reciprocity, demand-withdraw pattern, negative reciprocity, and overall satisfaction). Concurrent associations with measures of marital adjustment and conflict were evaluated in a sample of 118 married couples participating in the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Couples were asked to discuss common conflicts in their marriage while being videotaped. Undergraduate coders used the BRRICS to rate these interactions. The BRRICS scales were correlated in expected directions with self-reports of marital adjustment, as well as children's perception of the severity and frequency of marital conflict. Based on these results, the BRRICS may be an efficient tool for researchers with large samples of observational data who are interested in coding global aspects of the relationship but do not have the resources to use labor intensive schemes.

Family relationships and children's stress responses

In this chapter, the theoretical and empirical associations between family relationships and children's responses to stressors are reviewed. Family relationships explored are primarily dyadic, representing the emphasis of past empirical research; these include parent-parent, parent-child, and sibling relationships. However, in recognition of the more complicated and interconnected nature of family relationships, also reviewed are associations between the broader family context and children's stress responses. Multiple measures of stress responses are considered, including both physiological and emotional responses to and recovery from stressful experiences. Overall, the studies reviewed suggest that poor-quality family environments, including those characterized by low emotional support or high conflict, are associated with dysregulated stress responses throughout childhood and adolescence. In contrast, children and adolescents in families with high emotional support or low conflict seem to be protected from developing stress regulatory problems. Limitations in this body of research as well as directions for future research are discussed.

Maternal sensitivity buffers the adrenocortical implications of intimate partner violence exposure during early childhood

This study prospectively examined the effect of intimate partner violence (IPV) on adrenocortical reactivity and recovery during early childhood. The sample (n = 1102 mother–infant dyads; 49.2% male) was racially diverse and from predominantly low-income, rural communities. To measure IPV exposure mothers completed the Conflicts Tactics Scale, and her caretaking behaviors were observed when her child was approximately 7, 15, and 24 months of age. Children's saliva samples, later assayed for cortisol, were collected around challenge tasks designed to elicit emotional reactivity. IPV was related to a trajectory of increased cortisol reactivity from infancy to toddlerhood. By contrast, the trajectory for non-IPV-exposed children decreased in cortisol reactivity across 7 to 24 months of age. At the 24-month assessment, on average, toddlers did not exhibit a cortisol reaction; however, those exposed to high levels of violence continued to have reactivity. Accumulative levels of IPV across the first 2 years of life predicted cortisol reactivity at 24 months of age. Early (7-month) sensitive maternal behavior moderated this relationship, so that only children exposed to both early insensitivity and high accumulated IPV exhibited increased reactivity at the 24-month assessment. Findings are discussed in relation to the risky family framework.

Fathering in family context and child adjustment: a longitudinal analysis

This study focuses on relations between fathers' behavior in family context and children's adjustment, including the roles of paternal depressive symptoms, paternal marital conflict behaviors, paternal parenting, and children's emotional security. Participants included 235 families with a six-year-old child, with families followed longitudinally each year for three years. In terms of fathers' adjustment, paternal problem drinking was related to paternal negative marital conflict behaviors and decreased positive parenting, which was associated with children's externalizing and internalizing problems. Fathers' depressive symptoms were directly related with children's internalizing problems. Children's emotional security was an intervening variable in relations between father's behavior in family context and children's development.

Understanding the role of personality in explaining associations between marital quality and parenting

Analyses assessed the degrees to which personality accounts for associations between marital quality and parenting and mediates genetic contributions to these relationships. Participants included 318 male and 544 female same-sex twin pairs from the Twin and Offspring Study in Sweden. All twins completed self-report measures of marital quality and personality (anxiousness, aggression, sociability). Composite measures of parent negativity and warmth were derived from the twins' and their adolescent children's ratings of the twins' disciplinary styles and the emotional tone of the parent-child relationship. Observational ratings of marital quality and parenting were also obtained for a subset of twins. Personality characteristics explained 33% to 42% of the covariance between reported marital quality and parenting and 26% to 28% of the covariance between observed marital quality and parenting. For both sets of analyses, personality accounted for more than half of the genetic contributions to covariance between marital quality and parenting. Results indicate that personality significantly contributes to associations between marital quality and parenting and that personality is an important path through which genetic factors contribute to family relationships.

Sanctification of Parenting, Moral Socialization, and Young Children's Conscience Development

Religion is important to most U.S. families, but is often overlooked in research on children's development. This study examined parental religious beliefs about the sanctification of parenting, parental disciplinary strategies, and the development of young children's conscience in a sample of 58 two-parent families with a preschool child. Fathers were more punitive and used less induction when disciplining their children than did mothers. Maternal and paternal reports of the sanctification of parenting were positively related to positive socialization/praise and the use of induction. When mothers and fathers in the family were both using induction, children had higher scores on moral conduct. Parents' use of positive socialization combined with a belief in the sanctification of parenting predicted children's conscience development.

Mother Involvement as an Influence on Father Involvement with Early Adolescents

This study hypothesized that father involvement is influenced by mothers' level of involvement as well as by marital conflict, mothers' work hours, and fathers' status as biological or step father. The analysis also tested hypotheses about mother involvement as a potential mediator of the effects of marital conflict and maternal work hours on father involvement, and hypotheses about factors influencing mother involvement. Children aged 10-14 from the NLSY79 who resided with their biological or step father and with their mother reported on each parent's involvement with them. As hypothesized, father involvement was predicted by mother involvement, and the reciprocal influence was not significant. Father involvement was associated with low marital conflict and being a biological father. Mothers' involvement partially mediated the effects of marital conflict on father involvement. If the mediating role of maternal involvement is not taken into account, the effect of marital conflict on father involvement is overestimated.

Prospective effects of interparental conflict on child attachment security and the moderating role of parents' romantic attachment

This study investigated the impact of parents' observed conflict behavior on subsequent child attachment security, both as a main effect and as moderated by parents' romantic attachment. Participants were 80 heterosexual couples involving men from the Oregon Youth Study and their first-born children. The authors used hierarchical linear modeling to predict child security with each parent. Interparental psychological aggression predicted lower child security with father, regardless of romantic attachment. If the father was insecure, interparental positive engagement predicted lower child security with him. If either the mother or father was avoidant, interparental withdrawal did not predict lower child security, though it did for more secure parents. Results are discussed in terms of implications of attachment-(in)congruent behavior for parents' emotional availability.

Parental dysphoria and children's adjustment: marital conflict styles, children's emotional security, and parenting as mediators of risk

Dimensions of martial conflict, children's emotional security regarding interparental conflict, and parenting style were examined as mediators between parental dysphoria and child adjustment. A community sample of 262 children, ages 8-16, participated with their parents. Behavioral observations were made of parents' interactions during marital conflict resolution tasks, which children later observed to assess their emotional security. Questionnaires assessed parents' dysphoria, parenting, and children's adjustment. Structural equation modeling indicated that parental dysphoria was linked with child adjustment through specific and distinct mediating family processes, including marital conflict and parenting. Children's emotional security in the context of particular marital conflict styles also mediated relations between parental dysphoria and child adjustment problems, with similar pathways found for mothers and fathers. These pathways remained significant even after significant parenting contributions were considered.