1
|
Ding N, Miller R, Clayton NS. Inhibition and cognitive flexibility are related to prediction of one's own future preferences in young British and Chinese children. Cognition 2023; 236:105433. [PMID: 37001438 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
The ability to shift from current to future perspective is pivotal to future-oriented cognition. With two distinct cultural groups, UK (N = 92) and China (N = 90), we investigated 3 to 5-year-olds' understanding of preference changes occurring within themselves and their peers (another child). We administered a battery of representative tasks of executive function and theory of mind to examine their underlying relationships with children's ability to predict future preferences. British 3-year-olds outperformed Chinese children in predicting future preferences, while no country differences were observed between the 4- and 5-year-olds. Across the UK and China, children were more accurate when predicting for their peers than for themselves. They were also more accurate when their current preferences were identified first, i.e. before answering questions about the future. Chinese children outperformed their British counterparts on inhibition and cognitive flexibility tasks whereas there were no Eastern and Western differences in their theory of mind abilities. After controlling for age and children's knowledge of generic adult preferences, children's performance in the inhibition and cognitive flexibility tasks were significantly correlated with the prediction of their own future preferences, but they were not significantly correlated when predicting for a peer. These results are discussed in relation to the conflicts between multiple perspectives and the cognitive correlates of future-oriented cognition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ning Ding
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Rachael Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; School of Life Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Nicola S Clayton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Goulding BW, Stonehouse EE, Friedman O. Anchored in the present: preschoolers more accurately infer their futures when confronted with their pasts. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210344. [PMID: 36314155 PMCID: PMC9620753 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
People often speculate about what the future holds. They wonder what will happen tomorrow, and what the world will be like in the distant future. Nonetheless, people's ability to consider future possibilities may be restricted when they consider their own futures. Adults show the 'end of history' illusion, believing they have changed more in the past than they will in the future. Further, preschoolers are even more limited in anticipating future change, as 3-year-olds insist their current desires will persist later in life. These findings suggest a deficit in children's and adults' abilities to simulate alternative possibilities that pertain to themselves. However, we report four experiments (n = 233) suggesting otherwise, at least for children. We find that 3-year-olds accurately infer their futures when prompted to consider their past rather than present preferences. Children also succeed at inferring their past preferences when not shown items they currently prefer. This shows that children can reason about their pasts and futures, though this ability is hindered when they are shown items that anchor them to the present. Our findings suggest that children's difficulties with mental time travel reflect a failure to shift away from the present rather than an inability to simulate alternative possibilities. This article is part of the theme issue 'Thinking about possibilities: mechanisms, ontogeny, functions and phylogeny'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brandon W. Goulding
- Department of Psychology, University of Winnipeg, 515 Portage Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3B 2E9
| | | | - Ori Friedman
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Blakey KH, Atkinson M, Rafetseder E, Renner E, Caldwell CA. Taking account of others' goals in social information use: Developmental changes in 3- to 7-year-old children. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 215:105325. [PMID: 34896763 PMCID: PMC8784822 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Social information use improved with age but only for exploration of alternatives. Children were able to account for others’ conflicting motivations from 4 years. Alignment of the demonstrator’s and children’s goals did not influence performance. From 6 years children could infer the outcome of others’ behaviour. Rates of copying were low at all ages, even when it was the appropriate response.
The ability to take mental states such as goals into account when interpreting others’ behavior has been proposed to be what sets human use of social information apart from that of other animals. If so, children’s social information use would be expected to change as their understanding of others’ mental states develops. We explored age-related changes in 3- to 7-year-old children’s ability to strategically use social information by taking into account another’s goal when it was, or was not, aligned with their own. Children observed as a puppet demonstrator selected a capsule, peeked inside, and chose to accept or reject it, following which children made their own selection. Children were able to account for others’ conflicting motivations from around 4 years of age and reliably inferred the outcome of others’ behavior from 6 years. However, using social information based on such inferences appeared to be challenging regardless of whether the demonstrator’s goal was, or was not. aligned to that of the participant. We found that social information use improved with age; however, this improvement was restricted to cases in which the appropriate response was to avoid copying the demonstrator’s selection. In contrast to previous research, appropriate copying responses remained at chance. Possible explanations for this unexpected pattern of results are discussed. The cognitive challenge associated with the ability to account for others’ goals could offer humans a significant advantage over that of other animals in their ability to use social information.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten H Blakey
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK.
| | - Mark Atkinson
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Eva Rafetseder
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Elizabeth Renner
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Christine A Caldwell
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Duan J, Wang X, Brinsfield CT, Liu S. How Enhancing Employee Well-Being Can Encourage Voice Behavior: A Desire Fulfillment Perspective. HUMAN PERFORMANCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/08959285.2020.1811708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
5
|
Ahl RE, Dunham Y. Have your cake, and your asparagus, too: Young children expect variety-seeking behavior from agents with diverse desires. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
6
|
Guan Y, Deák GO, Huangfu B, Xu Z. Perspective‐taking and gift‐giving in Chinese preschool children. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yao Guan
- Faculty of Psychology Southwest University Chongqing China
- Department of Psychology University of Florida Gainesville Florida
| | - Gedeon O. Deák
- Department of Cognitive Science University of California, San Diego San Diego California
| | - Baihui Huangfu
- Faculty of Psychology Southwest University Chongqing China
| | - Zhan Xu
- Faculty of Psychology Southwest University Chongqing China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Jin X, Li P, He J, Shen M. How you act matters: The impact of coordination on 4-year-old children's reasoning about diverse desires. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 176:13-25. [PMID: 30076995 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cooperation is generally found to have a more positive impact than competition on children's high-level social understanding (e.g., diverse desires, false beliefs); however, recent evidence has shown that competition could also improve such understanding. Differences in coordination level during interactions with others may potentially explain these inconsistent results. In this study, we tested the impact of coordination on children's ability to reason about diverse desires in both competitive and cooperative conditions. Four-year-old children played a competitive (Experiment 1, N = 48) or cooperative (Experiment 2, N = 48) game with an adult. They were then tested for their understanding of diverse desires in a gift selection condition that was difficult for children of this age. Coordination levels were manipulated as high versus low in both games. Results showed that coordination enhanced children's performance in reasoning about diverse desires, allowing children to conduct desire inferences and perspective taking simultaneously in both conditions. This finding accords well with the constructivist view that social understanding could be shaped by the underlying structure of the social interaction in which one participates. More important, it adds to our knowledge about how social interaction enhances one's social understanding at an early age; specifically, it highlights the decisive role of coordination in this process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Jin
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, People's Republic of China; Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, People's Republic of China
| | - Pengchao Li
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie He
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, People's Republic of China.
| | - Mowei Shen
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Rabinowitch TC, Meltzoff AN. Joint Rhythmic Movement Increases 4-Year-Old Children's Prosocial Sharing and Fairness Toward Peers. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1050. [PMID: 28694786 PMCID: PMC5483466 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The allocation of resources to a peer partner is a prosocial act that is of fundamental importance. Joint rhythmic movement, such as occurs during musical interaction, can induce positive social experiences, which may play a role in developing and enhancing young children's prosocial skills. Here, we investigated whether joint rhythmic movement, free of musical context, increases 4-year-olds' sharing and sense of fairness in a resource allocation task involving peers. We developed a precise procedure for administering joint synchronous experience, joint asynchronous experience, and a baseline control involving no treatment. Then we tested how participants allocated resources between self and peer. We found an increase in the generous allocation of resources to peers following both synchronous and asynchronous movement compared to no treatment. At a more theoretical level, this result is considered in relation to previous work testing other aspects of child prosociality, for example, peer cooperation, which can be distinguished from judgments of fairness in resource allocation tasks. We draw a conceptual distinction between two types of prosocial behavior: resource allocation (an other-directed individual behavior) and cooperation (a goal-directed collaborative endeavor). Our results highlight how rhythmic interactions, which are prominent in joint musical engagements and synchronized activity, influence prosocial behavior between preschool peers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tal-Chen Rabinowitch
- Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, University of Washington, SeattleWA, United States
| | - Andrew N Meltzoff
- Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, University of Washington, SeattleWA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Tõugu P, Suits K, Tulviste T. Developmental changes in children’s references to self and others in their recollections of past events: A longitudinal study. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2017.1318750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pirko Tõugu
- Institute of Psychology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kristi Suits
- Institute of Psychology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tiia Tulviste
- Institute of Psychology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Cooperation, but not competition, improves 4-year-old children's reasoning about others' diverse desires. J Exp Child Psychol 2017; 157:81-94. [PMID: 28126519 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2016.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Three experiments examined whether cooperation or competition affects 4-year-old children's reasoning about other people's desires-which differed from their own-in a gift selection task. Experiment 1 (N=72) found that children's performance in selecting an adult-preferred gift for an adult experimenter was enhanced by a short period of preceding cooperative, but not competitive or individualistic, play with the experimenter. Experiment 2 (N=24) ruled out the alternative explanation that children resisted satisfying their opponent after competition. Experiment 3 (N=48) replicated the cooperation advantage in selecting a gift for someone else, indicating that children's understanding of diverse desires was generally improved by cooperation but not competition. These findings support the constructivist view of social development and highlight the advantage of cooperation.
Collapse
|
11
|
Lee WSC, Atance CM. The Effect of Psychological Distance on Children's Reasoning about Future Preferences. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0164382. [PMID: 27741264 PMCID: PMC5065213 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Young preschool-aged children often have difficulty thinking about the future, but tend to reason better about another person’s future than their own. This benefit may reflect psychological distance from one’s own emotions, beliefs, and states that may bias thinking. In adults, reasoning for others who are more socially distant (i.e., dissimilar, unfamiliar other) is associated with wiser and more adaptive reasoning. The current studies examined whether this effect of social distance could be demonstrated in young children’s future thinking. In a future preferences task, 3- and 4-year-olds were shown 5 pairs of child and adult items and selected which ones they would prefer when grown-up. Children answered for themselves, a socially close peer, or a socially distant peer. Social distance was manipulated by varying similarity in Study 1 and familiarity in Study 2. In Study 1, reasoning for similar and dissimilar peers was significantly more accurate than reasoning for the self, but reasoning for similar and dissimilar peers did not differ. In Study 2, scores showed a step-wise increase from self, familiar peer, to unfamiliar peer, but only reasoning for an unfamiliar peer was significantly better more accurate than reasoning for the self. Reasoning for a familiar peer did not differ from reasoning for the self or for an unfamiliar peer. These results suggest that, like adults, children benefit from psychological distance when reasoning for others, but are less sensitive to degrees of social distance, showing no graded effects on performance in Study 1 and weak effects in Study 2. Stronger adult-like effects may only emerge with increasing age and development of other socio-cognitive skills.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wendy S. C. Lee
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cristina M. Atance
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Bélanger MJ, Atance CM, Varghese AL, Nguyen V, Vendetti C. What will I like best when I'm all grown up? Preschoolers' understanding of future preferences. Child Dev 2014; 85:2419-31. [PMID: 25109689 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Three experiments investigated 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds' (N = 240) understanding that their future or "grown-up" preferences may differ from their current ones (self-future condition). This understanding was compared to children's understanding of the preferences of a grown-up (adult-now condition) or the grown-up preferences of a same-aged peer (peer-future condition). Children's performance across all three conditions improved significantly with age. Moreover, children found it significantly more difficult to reason about their own future preferences than they did to reason either about an adult's preferences or the future preferences of a peer. These results have important implications for theories about future thinking and perspective-taking abilities, more broadly.
Collapse
|
13
|
Noles NS, Gelman SA. You can't always want what you get: Children's intuitions about ownership and desire. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2014; 31:59-68. [PMID: 25018586 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2014.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Ownership is a central element of human experience. The present experiments were designed to examine the influence of psychological state on ownership judgments. In three experiments, 4-year-olds were asked to make ownership attributions about owners and non-owners who either desired or did not desire a gift. Despite exhibiting a clear sensitivity to the desires of others, children made accurate ownership attributions independent of individuals' desires. At the same time, there are subtle influences of desires on children's ownership judgments, as well as subtle influences of ownership on children's desire judgments. Thus, the two factors are largely but not wholly distinct in young children's thinking.
Collapse
|
14
|
Theory of Mind and Executive Function in Preschoolers with Typical Development Versus Intellectually Able Preschoolers with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2014; 44:2341-54. [DOI: 10.1007/s10803-014-2104-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|