Exploring Chinese Millennials' Minimalist Consumption Behavior in the Context of Global Economic Downturn: A PLS-SEM Analysis Based on Symbolic and Simulacrum Consumption Perception

In the context of a global economic downturn, Millennials-who represent the emerging primary consumer demographic-are increasingly adopting a minimalist consumption model. To understand this phenomenon, this study employed a partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis of 554 survey responses from Chinese Millennials. Building on the Theory of Reasoned Action, we explored the effects of consumption orientation, perceived economic pressure, self-expression, and perceived consumption risk on symbolic and simulacrum consumption perceptions. Furthermore, we investigated how these perceptions shape minimalist consumption awareness and behavior. The findings indicate the following: (1) consumption orientation significantly and positively influences symbolic consumption perception; (2) self-expression and perceived consumption risk positively affect both symbolic and simulacrum consumption perceptions; (3) symbolic consumption perception has a positive impact on minimalist consumption awareness; and (4) upward social comparison exerts a significant negative moderating effect on the relationship between minimalist consumption awareness and behavior. This study is the first to integrate symbolic and simulacrum consumption into the analytical framework of Millennials' minimalist consumption behavior, shedding light on the nuanced relationship between self-expression and consumption behavior under economic pressure. The findings contribute a novel theoretical perspective for future research on minimalist consumption and offer practical insights for businesses aiming to devise effective marketing strategies amidst economic challenges.

Unconscious Drivers of Consumer Behavior: An Examination of the Effect of Nature-Nurture Interactions on Product Desire

Both biological and environmental factors can affect consumer behavior. Consumer behavior can also be a product of an interaction between one's evolved biology and environmental factors. If marketers aim to increase healthy consumption behavior and decrease unhealthy behavior, they need to identify whether the behavior is a product of one's evolved biology or environmental factors acting in isolation, or if the behavior is a product of a biology-environment interaction. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the effect of biology-environment interactions on product desire. This study comprises two experiments that used a repeated-measures design. The first experiment included 315 females and examined the effect of perceived physical safety, economic well-being, and social support on the desire for beautifying and wealth-signalling products. The second experiment included 314 men and examined the effect of perceived physical safety, economic well-being, and social support on the desire for products that are used to signal wealth and toughness. The results showed that under harsh economic conditions, product desire generally decreased. However, there were significant differences in the amount of decrease between product categories in different environmental conditions.

Perception of uncontrollable mortality risk is associated with food insecurity and reduced economic effort among resource-insecure college students during COVID-19

In the framework of the uncontrollable mortality risk hypothesis, resource scarcity intersects with mortality risk, shaping resource allocation strategies with enduring impacts on human health and wellbeing. Despite rising economic and food insecurity among US college students, little is known about how these insecurities relate to mortality risk, or how scarcity and mortality risk interact to shape college students' resource allocation strategies. We examine perceptions of resource scarcity and mortality risk and their associations with food insecurity and resource allocation strategies among economically insecure college students during COVID-19 lockdowns. Participants were recruited through an economic crisis response center at a major public university in the United States. A total of 118 participants completed an online Qualtrics survey assessing sociodemographic characteristics, perceptions of mortality risk and resource availability, food security, economic effort, and time perspective; a subset (n = 51) also participated in a telephone interview assessing psychological distress. In general, participants reported more environmental adversity and economic effort during COVID-19 lockdowns compared to before. Students experiencing higher levels of uncontrollable (and not controllable) mortality risk report lower levels of economic effort, and the association was strongest among students perceiving the fewest resources. We also found significant associations between uncontrollable mortality risk and food insecurity. Our results highlight uncontrollable mortality risk's influence on human well-being. Public health efforts should target the experiences and root structural causes of uncontrollable mortality risk, which among economically insecure college students increasingly involves food insecurity.

Preference for depth versus breadth in social relationships: Childhood socioeconomic background matters

Although the need for social connection is fundamental, people approach this need through different strategies. Drawing from life history theory, the current research explored whether individuals' early-life experiences are associated with narrow/deep (depth), or broad/shallow (breadth) approach to social relationships. Three studies revealed that participants' childhood socioeconomic status (SES) interacts with perception of economic instability to create diverging preferences in social relationship pattern. Specifically, when economic instability was salient (chronic belief, Study 1; experimentally primed, Studies 2 and 3), individuals from lower-SES childhood preferred a narrower and deeper social network, whereas those from higher-SES childhood preferred a broader and shallower network. Taken together, the present research offers a novel understanding of depth- versus breadth-focused approach to social relationships from the perspective of life history theory.

To Enhance, or not to Enhance: The Situational Context Shapes Women's Intentions on Amount and Diligence of Makeup Application

Makeup is a tool that women use to shape their image and gain benefits in both inter- and intrasexual selection. As makeup enables the hiding or enhancing of facial features, it allows women to strategically shape impressions in a given context. It affects interpersonal perceptions, workplace impressions, and can attract romantic partners. However, research has primarily focused on examining everyday makeup use, although the amount and type of makeup can vary depending on the situation and the motivation to make an impression. In two studies, we investigated how the intended amount and application of makeup differ depending on various situational contexts. Specifically, in Study 1 (N = 533), we explored the everyday and party contexts, while in Study 2 (N = 400), we additionally introduced the contexts of mating and threat. The results show that: 1) women intend to put on more makeup in a more diligent way in party contexts compared to everyday contexts, 2) the intended diligence of makeup application is the highest in contexts were women expect an attractive man to be present, and the lowest when a threatening context is introduced, 3) these effects are partially or fully mediated by women's motivation to make an impression, and 4) neither sociosexual orientation nor appearance orientation significantly moderated the obtained effects. Our studies extend previous research on makeup application as an appearance-enhancing or worsening strategy by further investigating the signaling function of women's makeup and its strategic use in various situational contexts. We discuss the results from a functional evolutionary perspective.

Women's Romantic Jealousy Predicts Risky Appearance Enhancement Effort

Human appearance enhancement effort has recently been considered from an evolutionary perspective as an adaptive and sexually dimorphic strategy for effective female intrasexual and intersexual competition. Most writing and research on the topic to date has focused on appearance enhancement as a means of mate attraction, with relatively less research examining its role in mate retention. The present study considered whether romantic jealousy, as a negative emotion experienced in response to perceived threat to a desired relationship, predicts costly and/or risky appearance enhancement independent of the closely related emotion of envy. In a sample of 189 undergraduate women, results showed that romantic jealousy and dispositional envy were positively correlated with one another. Results further demonstrated that romantic jealousy predicted women's positive attitude toward cosmetic surgery, willingness to use a one-week free tanning membership, willingness to use a risky diet pill, and intent on spending a greater proportion of their income on appearance enhancement, but not intended use of facial cosmetics. Results held independent of participants' dispositional envy, suggesting that romantic jealousy is a unique predictor of women's efforts at enhancing their physical appearance, which could extend into costly and physically risky mate retention efforts.

Delicate dining with a date and burger binging with buddies: impression management across social settings and consumers' preferences for masculine or feminine foods

Consumers often use their food choices as an impression management strategy to signal desirable aspects about themselves to others, especially in public places like restaurants and cafeterias, where the presence of others can promote certain consumption choices and preference patterns. In mating contexts, people prefer gender-typical traits and characteristics in a potential partner. Food options can also be classified according to their gender typicality, with certain alternatives perceived as feminine (e.g., salad, seafood) and with other options perceived as more masculine (e.g., steak, burger). Drawing on impression management theories from the drinking and dining domain and literature on sex differences in human mate preferences, we present a high-powered experiment investigating whether consumers' preferences for masculine or feminine foods depend on the social setting in which the food consumption takes place: dining with an attractive date (mating) or meeting and eating with friends (non-mating). Participants (N = 162, 46.9% females, 53.1% males; age M = 41.8  years, SD = 14.5) were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental conditions (mating vs. non-mating) and were asked to indicate their food preferences for 15 dishes that differed markedly in perceived femininity/masculinity. Consistent with our theorizing, females (males) generally had a stronger preference for foods perceived as more feminine (masculine), thereby supporting the gender-typicality thesis at the aggregate level. Furthermore, females in the mating condition-but not females in the non-mating condition-reported significantly stronger preferences for more feminine food alternatives. However, in direct contrast to our theorizing, males preferred more masculine meals in the non-mating condition (i.e., when dining with friends), whereas this gender-typical tendency did not emerge in the mating condition (i.e., when dining with an attractive date). We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings and present a set of fruitful avenues for future research.

Effects of perceived quality on consumer attitudes and satisfaction: Focus on lip products

BACKGROUND

Growth of national and economic development industrial and economic standards has raised women's social status, and the consumption value of aesthetic pursuit, which is the mainstream among women's diverse needs as consumers, has been increasing in quantities.

AIM

This study attempted to investigate what are the consumer selection criteria for lip products represented by the lipstick effect that creates continuous demand even in the COVID-19 era, and the main factors driving the continuous demand for lip products.

METHODS

We collected research data through a survey targeting 600 male and female consumers who had purchased lip products through online/offline stores during the COVID-19 period (2020-2021) in Korea.

RESULTS

As a result of examining the effect of perceived quality on consumer attitude formation on lip products, the factors of usability sensitivity and price had a positive effect on consumer attitude formation. Consumer awareness of lip products naturally acts as a bridge to consumer satisfaction.

CONCLUSION

This study focused on consumers' perception and potential for development of lip products whose demand has rather rebounded due to the lipstick effect during the COVID-19 crisis. It is thought that this will act as a positive mechanism for the formation of a favorable attitude toward lip products by consumers.

Music preferences as an instrument of emotional self-regulation along the business cycle

This paper studies the influence of macroeconomic conditions on subjective well-being and music preferences. The macroeconomic cycle exerts an effect on happiness and well-being that consumers counterbalance by modifying music consumption. We use machine learning techniques to make a weekly classification of the top 100 songs of Billboard Hot 100 into positive and negative lyrics over the period 1958-2019. When unemployment is high, society generally prefers more positive songs. Other macroeconomic indicators such as high inflation, high interest rates or low stock market prices also affect musical preferences. These results provide initial evidence regarding the use of cultural consumption to offset business cycle oscillations.

The Role of Resources in the Success or Failure of Diverse Teams: Resource Scarcity Activates Negative Performance-Detracting Resource Dynamics in Social Category Diverse Teams

Increasing the social category diversity of work teams is top of mind for many organizations. However, such efforts may not always be sufficiently resourced, given the numerous resource demands facing organizations. In this paper, we offer a novel take on the relationship between social category diversity and team performance, seeking to understand the role resources may play in both altering and explaining the performance dynamics of diverse teams. Specifically, our resource framework explains how the effects of social category diversity on team performance can be explained by intrateam resource cognitions and behaviors and are dependent on team resource availability. We propose that in the face of scarcity in a focal resource (i.e., budget), diverse (but not homogenous) teams generalize this scarcity perception to fear that all resources (i.e., staff, time, etc.) are scarce, prompting performance-detracting power struggles over resources within the team. We find support for our model in three multimethod team-level studies, including two laboratory studies of interacting teams and a field study of work teams in research and development firms. Our resource framework provides a new lens to study the success or failure of diverse teams by illuminating a previously overlooked danger in diverse teams (negative resource cognitions (scarcity spillover bias) and behaviors (intrateam power struggles)), which offers enhanced explanatory power over prior explanations. This resource framework for the study of team diversity also yields insight into how to remove the roadblocks that may occur in diverse teams, highlighting the necessity of resource sufficiency for the success of diverse teams.

An Evolutionary Perspective on Appearance Enhancement Behavior

Researchers have highlighted numerous sociocultural factors that have been shown to underpin human appearance enhancement practices, including the influence of peers, family, the media, and sexual objectification. Fewer scholars have approached appearance enhancement from an evolutionary perspective or considered how sociocultural factors interact with evolved psychology to produce appearance enhancement behavior. Following others, we argue that evidence from the field of evolutionary psychology can complement existing sociocultural models by yielding unique insight into the historical and cross-cultural ubiquity of competition over aspects of physical appearance to embody what is desired by potential mates. An evolutionary lens can help to make sense of reliable sex and individual differences that impact appearance enhancement, as well as the context-dependent nature of putative adaptations that function to increase physical attractiveness. In the current review, appearance enhancement is described as a self-promotion strategy used to enhance reproductive success by rendering oneself more attractive than rivals to mates, thereby increasing one's mate value. The varied ways in which humans enhance their appearance are described, as well as the divergent tactics used by women and men to augment their appearance, which correspond to the preferences of opposite-sex mates in a heterosexual context. Evolutionarily relevant individual differences and contextual factors that vary predictably with appearance enhancement behavior are also discussed. The complementarity of sociocultural and evolutionary perspectives is emphasized and recommended avenues for future interdisciplinary research are provided for scholars interested in studying appearance enhancement behavior.

Changes in consumers’ awareness and interest in cosmetic products during the pandemic

This research investigates the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on consumers’ perspectives of beauty and individual cosmetic products. Since the first confirmed case of COVID-19 was announced on December 31st, 2019, the search volumes of Google News have been updated and information on confirmed cases of the disease has been collected. This study used Python 3.7, NodeXL 1.0.1, and Smart PLS 3.0 to analyze consumer awareness of cosmetic products during the pandemic. The results reveal that consumers’ perspectives of beauty are impacted by a pandemic. Global consumers perceive skincare as an important aspect during the pandemic, while the importance of makeup fell after the outbreak. The awareness of skincare and makeup products has changed. The spread of the pandemic (SOP) has a positive impact on skincare products, but a negative impact on makeup products, except for eye makeup products, which was positive. Finally, the SOP was not significant in terms of consumers’ interest in masks. Fifth, interest in masks showed a positive relationship with interest in skincare products, such as cleansing products, while a negative relationship was observed with interest in makeup products. Overall, this study concludes that pandemics certainly have an impact on global consumers’ perspectives. As a pandemic spread, interest in skincare products increases, while interest in makeup products decreases. This study has academic significance in that it investigates the effects of consumption of cosmetic products during the stay-at-home rules. It can be used as standard information for setting marketing strategies in pandemic-like situations in the future.

Can Sexual Appeal, Beauty, or Virtue Increase the Opportunity for a Woman to Be Selected as a Spouse? The Mediating Role of Human Uniqueness

High mating value is believed to correspond with high mating opportunities. On that premise, this study explores three cues that are linked to women of high long-term mating value, namely a "beautiful" facial appearance, "sexually attractive" body shape, and "virtuous" behavior. With exclusive attention focused on the above cues, this study examines what kind of human attributes would make a contribution to women's mating opportunities. The results reveal that both "beautiful" women and "virtuous" women were assessed (in this study) as having greater mating opportunities than "sexually attractive" women. In regard to the human attributes, only the "beautiful" woman was assessed as having high levels of human uniqueness and human nature. Meanwhile, "virtuous" women were assessed as having higher levels of human uniqueness but lower levels of human nature. In contrast, "sexually attractive" women were assessed as having lower levels of human uniqueness but higher levels of human nature. In addition, the results of a mediation analysis show that the trait of human uniqueness, and not human nature, was the mediator between the three types of women and women's mating opportunities. This finding means that, when women have higher levels of human uniqueness, they can acquire more mating opportunities. These findings contribute an improved understanding to why and how "beauty" or "virtue" increases the opportunity for woman to be selected as a spouse.

Preparation, Characterization and Evaluation of Organogel-Based Lipstick Formulations: Application in Cosmetics

1,3:2,4-Dibenzylidene-D-sorbitol (DBS) and 12-hydroxystearic acid (12-HSA) are well-known as low-molecular-weight organogelators (LMOGs) capable of gelling an organic liquid phase. Considering their unique chemical and physical properties, we assessed their potential effects in new lipstick formulations by discrimination testing; in vitro measurements of the sun protection factor (SPF); and thermal, mechanical and texture analyzes. DBS and 12-HSA were used to formulate four types of lipsticks: L1 (1% DBS), L2 (10% 12-HSA), L3 (1.5% DBS) and L4 (control, no LMOGs). The lipsticks were tested for sensory perception with an untrained panel of 16 consumers. LMOG formulations exhibited higher UVA protection factor (UVA-PF) and in vitro SPF, particularly in the 12-HSA-based lipstick. Regarding thermal properties, the 12-HSA-based lipstick and those without LMOGs were more heat-amenable compared to thermoresistant DBS-based lipsticks. The results also showed the viscoelastic and thermally reversible properties of LMOGs and their effect of increasing pay-off values. In general, the texture analysis indicated that 12-HSA-based lipstick was significantly harder to bend compared to control, while the other formulations became softer and easier to bend throughout the stability study. This work suggests the potential use of LMOGs as a structuring agent for lipsticks, paving the way towards more photoprotective and sustainable alternatives.

Examining the Links Between Beauty Ideals Internalization, the Objectification of Women, and Ambivalent Sexism Among Chinese Women: The Effects of Sexual Orientation

The widespread propagation of beauty ideals has made their influence inescapable for women worldwide. Numerous studies have suggested the negative consequences of the internalization of beauty ideals. However, researchers have mostly focused on Western cultures, with only a few studies addressing China. Given that Chinese traditional Confucian values emphasize more reproduction and family duties of women, women suffer more pressures in China. However, not all women experience and respond to cultural practices in the same way. The present study aimed to examine the mechanism underlying the link between the internalization of beauty ideals and ambivalent sexism and the differences in this link among subgroups of Chinese women. Data were collected from a sample of 293 (146 heterosexual women, 147 sexual minority women). The results showed that the associations of the internalization of beauty ideals with hostile sexism and benevolent sexism were mediated by the objectification of women. Furthermore, the link between the internalization of beauty ideals and the objectification of women depended on women's sexual orientation. More specifically, for lesbian and bisexual women but not heterosexual women, the internalization of beauty ideals was positively associated with the objectification of women. The present study addressed a major gap by examining how and for whom the internalization of beauty ideals was associated with increased hostile sexism and benevolent sexism among Chinese women. Sociocultural factors and implications are discussed.

Women’s Intrasexual Competition Results in Beautification

Psychology research focuses primarily on male competition. This research, however, investigates women’s competition for love and the ideal partner in the mating market and reveals one psychological consequence for women, that is, beautification. This is demonstrated with ecologically valid, real-world archive and online search query data, a quasi-experiment, and a series of controlled experiments with random assignments. Intrasexual competition, indexed by the operational sex ratio (OSR) and income inequality (GINI), predicts women’s beautification reflected by Google search queries for cosmetic surgery terms (Study 1) and the density of certificated plastic surgeons (Study 2). Female college students from faculties with female-biased OSRs exhibit greater appearance focus than women from male-biased faculties (Study 3). A causal relationship, between women’s intrasexual competition and beautification (and even self-objectification), is subsequently demonstrated in experiments (Studies 4–6). Additionally, self-objectification due to intrasexual competition leads to women’s preference for appearance-oriented products (Study 6). Implications are discussed.

Life history and individual differences in male testosterone: Mixed evidence for early environmental calibration of testosterone response to first-time fatherhood

Male testosterone (T) decreases in response to childbirth. Longitudinal support for this has come from samples across cultures. In this study, we look at individual differences in this phenomenon. Utilizing a sample of U.S. fathers, we employ life history theory to investigate the influence of a father's early experience on his neuroendocrine response to fatherhood. We conducted three home visits (n = 226 fathers) from the third trimester of pregnancy to when infants were 10 months old. In this sample, T declined from the third trimester of (a partner's) pregnancy to the early months of the postnatal period. T recovered to pre-birth levels by the time infants reached 10 months old. We did not find any evidence that one's subjective experience of their early environment could account for any meaningful variability in T calibration. Objective, "event" measures of early harshness (i.e., death of a sibling/friend) and unpredictability (i.e., parent upheaval) each uniquely predicted a younger age of sexual debut. Neither harshness nor unpredictability had any (direct or indirect) effects on T calibration. Age of sexual debut did predict the rate of T recovery from 3 to 10 months postnatal. The younger one's sexual debut, the more accelerated their T ascent during this period. We discuss the potential reasons for, and implications of our mixed results.

Using Sexual Selection Theories to Examine Contextual Variation in Heterosexual Women's Orientation Toward High Heels

High heels are symbols of female sexuality and are "costly signals" if the risks of wearing them are offset by improving women's attractiveness to men. From a functionalist perspective, the costs versus benefits of wearing heels may vary according to personal and contextual factors, such as her effectiveness at competing for mates, or at times when such motives are stronger. Here, we examined potential differences between women (self-rated attractiveness, dyadic versus solitary sexual desire, women's age, competitive attitudes toward other women) and contextual variation (priming mating and competitive motives) in their responses to high heels. Study 1 (N = 79) and Study 2 (N = 273) revealed that self-rated attractiveness was positively related to orientation toward heeled shoes. When examining responses to two very attractive shoes (one higher heel, one lower heel) in Study 2, dyadic sexual desire, but not solitary sexual desire or intrasexual competitiveness, predicted their inclination to buy the higher-heeled shoe. In Study 3 (N = 142), young women chose high heels when primed with free choice of a designer shoe (95% CI [53.02 mm, 67.37 mm]) and preferred a heel 22 mm (0.87") higher than older women (Study 4, N = 247). Contrary to predictions, priming mating or competitive motives did not alter women's preference toward a higher heel (Studies 3 and 4). Our studies suggest that attractive women augment their physical appeal via heels. High heels may be a subtle indicator of dyadic sexual desire, and preferences for heels are stronger at times in the lifespan when mating competition is relatively intense.

In the context of romantic attraction, beautification can increase assertiveness in women

Can beautification empower women to act assertively? Some women report that beautification is an agentic and assertive act, whereas others find beautification to be oppressive and disempowering. To disentangle these effects, in the context of romantic attraction we conducted the first experimental tests of beautification—on psychological and behavioral assertiveness. Experiment 1 (N = 145) utilized a between-subjects design in which women used their own clothing, make-up, and accessories to adjust their appearance as they normally would for a “hot date” (beautification condition) or a casual day at home with friends (control condition). We measured implicit, explicit, and behavioral assertiveness, as well as positive affect and sexual motivation. Experiment 2 (N = 40) sought to conceptually replicate Experiment 1 using a within-subject design and different measures of assertiveness. Women completed measures of explicit assertiveness and assertive behavioral intentions in three domains, in whatever clothing they were wearing that day then again after extensively beautifying their appearance. In Experiment 1, we found that women demonstrated higher psychological assertiveness after beautifying their appearance, and that high sexual motivation mediated the effect of beautification on assertive behavior. All effects were independent of positive affect. Experiment 2 partially replicated Experiment 1. These experiments provide novel insight into the effects of women’s appearance-enhancing behaviors on assertiveness by providing evidence that beautification may positively affect assertiveness in women under some circumstances.

The greater the economic inequality, the later people have children: The association between economic inequality and reproductive timing

Economic inequality is associated with a series of social outcomes, including health, social trust, and crime rates. However, little is known about the role of economic inequality as a characteristic of the socioecological environment in individuals' reproductive behavior. According to embodied capital theory, this research explored how individuals calibrate their reproductive timing to maximize payoffs to investment in embodied capital in an environment of high economic inequality. Five studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that higher economic inequality leads people to delay reproduction. Across nations (Study 1), we found that the average reproductive age is higher in nations with greater economic inequality. Study 2 found that people living in more economically unequal U.S. states tend to marry later. In Study 3, individuals who perceived higher levels of inequality in a given society planned to have their children later. Finally, in Study 4, the priming of high inequality led to a greater preference for delaying reproduction, which represented a desire to pursue one's development rather than to build a family (Study 4a and 4b). These results expand the literature regarding the effect of economic inequality on human behavior.

Status anxiety mediates the positive relationship between income inequality and sexualization

Income inequality generates and amplifies incentives, particularly incentives for individuals to elevate or maintain their status, with important consequences for the individuals involved and aggregate outcomes for their societies [R. G. Wilkinson, K. E. Pickett, Annu. Rev. Sociol. 35, 493-511 (2009)]. Economically unequal environments intensify men's competition for status, respect, and, ultimately, mating opportunities, thus elevating aggregate rates of violent crime and homicide [M. Daly, M. Wilson, Evolutionary Psychology and Motivation (2001)]. Recent evidence shows that women are more likely to post "sexy selfies" on social media and that they spend more on beautification in places where inequality is high rather than low [K. R. Blake, B. Bastian, T. F. Denson, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 115, 8722-8727 (2018)]. Here we test experimentally for causal links between income inequality and individual self-sexualization and status-related competition. We show that manipulating income inequality in a role-playing task indirectly increases women's intentions to wear revealing clothing and that it does so by increasing women's anxiety about their place in the social hierarchy. The effects are not better accounted for by wealth/poverty than by inequality or by modeling anxiety about same-sex competitors in place of status anxiety. The results indicate that women's appearance enhancement is partly driven by status-related goals.

People of Lower Social Status Are More Sensitive to Hedonic Product Information-Electrophysiological Evidence From an ERP Study

Consumer psychology research has shown that individuals of different social statuses have distinctive purchase intentions for different products. Individuals of a high social status will simultaneously measure the symbolic status meaning and utilitarian value of a product, but they will not show strong preferences for any attributes. However, individuals of a low social status show strong purchasing tendency for hedonic products that are associated with symbolic status meaning and could satisfy their spiritual needs. This phenomenon may be due to self-threat, which caused by hedonic products. Based on the above, this study compares the cognitive processing differences of hedonic and utilitarian label products between high- and low-social-status groups by recording event related potentials (ERPs). The results showed that under the P2, P3, and LPP components, the low-social-status group elicited smaller deflections in hedonic label stimuli than in utilitarian label stimuli. The high-social-status group did not show a significant difference in these components. These results suggested that individuals with a low social status are more sensitive to hedonic product information, because high-status information contained in the hedonic label induces a sense of threat in them and generates certain negative emotions.

Perception and Deception: Human Beauty and the Brain

Human physical characteristics and their perception by the brain are under pressure by natural selection to optimize reproductive success. Men and women have different strategies to appear attractive and have different interests in identifying beauty in people. Nevertheless, men and women from all cultures agree on who is and who is not attractive, and throughout the world attractive people show greater acquisition of resources and greater reproductive success than others. The brain employs at least three modules, composed of interconnected brain regions, to judge facial attractiveness: one for identification, one for interpretation and one for valuing. Key elements that go into the judgment are age and health, as well as symmetry, averageness, face and body proportions, facial color and texture. These elements are all Costly Signals of reproductive fitness because they are difficult to fake. However, people deceive others using tricks such as coloring hair, cosmetics and clothing styles, while at the same time they also focus on detecting fakes. People may also deceive themselves, especially about their own attractiveness, and use self-signally actions to demonstrate to themselves their own true value. The neuroscience of beauty is best understood by considering the evolutionary pressures to maximize reproductive fitness.

The Role of Regional Contrast Changes and Asymmetry in Facial Attractiveness Related to Cosmetic Use

This study collected behavioral data for testing how regional contrast changes due to the addition of cosmetics would affect attractiveness ratings. In addition, we used an established model of asymmetry to look for a correlation between changes in attractiveness related to the application of cosmetics to specific regions of the face and changes in symmetry. Using this asymmetry model we compared female faces with and without makeup. Specifically, we used a highly controlled set of grayscale faces in which makeup application was standardized to explore these issues from a perceptual perspective. The human data showed that adding upper eye makeup significantly increased attractiveness ratings. In contrast, increases in contrast to the lower eyes and lips did not lead to increases in attractiveness ratings; application of cosmetics to the lower eyes led to a significant decrease in attractiveness. We found that for the makeup condition that led to increased attractiveness, asymmetry did not change significantly when makeup was applied to the female faces. This suggests a role for mechanisms other than symmetry related to increases in attractiveness related to makeup use in females.

Reexamining the Link Between Economic Downturns and Racial Antipathy: Evidence That Prejudice Against Blacks Rises During Recessions

Scholars have long argued that economic downturns intensify racial discord. However, empirical support for this relationship has been mixed, with most recent studies finding no evidence that downturns provoke greater racial animosity. Yet most past research has focused on hate crimes, a particularly violent and relatively infrequent manifestation of racial antipathy. In this article, we reexamine the relationship between economic downturns and racial acrimony using more subtle indicators of racial animosity. We found that during economic downturns, Whites felt less warmly about Blacks (Studies 1 and 2), held more negative explicit and implicit attitudes about Blacks, were more likely to condone the use of stereotypes, and were more willing to regard inequality between groups as natural and acceptable (Study 2). Moreover, during downturns, Black musicians (Study 3) and Black politicians (Study 4) were less likely to secure a musical hit or win a congressional election.

Negative Effects of Makeup Use on Perceptions of Leadership Ability Across Two Ethnicities

Cosmetics alter social perceptions, and prior work suggests that cosmetic use may aid female intrasexual competition, making women appear more dominant to other women but more prestigious to other men. It is unclear whether these findings reflect general improvements in perceptions of traits related to women’s dominance or if they are specific to mating contexts only. Here, across two ethnicities, we examined effects of cosmetics used for a social night out on perceptions of women’s leadership ability, a trait that denotes competence/high status outside of mating contexts. Participants of African and Caucasian ethnicity judged faces for leadership ability where half of the trials differed in ethnicity (own- vs. other-ethnicity face pairs) and the subtlety of the color manipulation (50% vs. 100%). Regardless of the participant’s sex or ethnicity, makeup used for a social night out had a negative effect on perceptions of women’s leadership ability. Our findings suggest that, in prior work, women are afforded traits related to dominance, as makeup enhances perceptions of traits that are important for successful female mating competition but not other components of social dominance such as leadership.

Pain in Dementia: Use of Observational Pain Assessment Tools by People Who Are Not Health Professionals

Objective

Pain is prevalent among older adults but is often underestimated and undertreated, especially in people with severe dementia who have limited ability to self-report pain. Pain in patients with moderate to severe dementia can be assessed using observational tools. Informal caregivers (relatives of seniors with dementia) are an untapped assessor group who often bear the responsibility of care for their loved ones. Our objective was to evaluate the ability of laypeople to assess pain using observational measures originally developed for use by health care professionals.

Design

We employed a quasi-experimental design and presented videos depicting patients with dementia (portrayed by actors) displaying pain behaviors or during a calm relaxed state (no pain) to long-term care nurses and laypeople. Participants rated the pain behaviors observed in each video by completing two standardized observational measures that had been previously developed for use by long-term care staff.

Results

As expected, both laypeople and nurses were able to effectively differentiate painful from nonpainful situations using the standardized tools. Both groups were also able to discriminate among gradations of pain (i.e., no pain, mild, moderate, severe) and required comparable amounts of time to complete the assessments.

Conclusions

We conclude that, as hypothesized, the instruments under study can be used for the assessment of pain by laypeople. This is the first study to validate these instruments for use by laypeople. The use of these tools by laypeople (under the guidance of health professionals) has the potential of facilitating earlier detection and treatment of pain in older adults with dementia who live in community settings.

When the appeal of a dominant leader is greater than a prestige leader

Across the globe we witness the rise of populist authoritarian leaders who are overbearing in their narrative, aggressive in behavior, and often exhibit questionable moral character. Drawing on evolutionary theory of leadership emergence, in which dominance and prestige are seen as dual routes to leadership, we provide a situational and psychological account for when and why dominant leaders are preferred over other respected and admired candidates. We test our hypothesis using three studies, encompassing more than 140,000 participants, across 69 countries and spanning the past two decades. We find robust support for our hypothesis that under a situational threat of economic uncertainty (as exemplified by the poverty rate, the housing vacancy rate, and the unemployment rate) people escalate their support for dominant leaders. Further, we find that this phenomenon is mediated by participants' psychological sense of a lack of personal control. Together, these results provide large-scale, globally representative evidence for the structural and psychological antecedents that increase the preference for dominant leaders over their prestigious counterparts.

Relative Physical Position as an Impression-Management Strategy: Sex Differences in Its Use and Implications

People's physical position relative to others may shape how those others perceive them. The research described here suggests that people use relative physical position to manage impressions by strategically positioning themselves either higher or lower relative to ostensible observers. Five studies supported the prediction that women take and display photographs portraying themselves in a low relative physical position to highlight their youthful features and appear attractive, whereas men take and display photographs portraying themselves in a high relative physical position to highlight their size and appear dominant. The effectiveness of these strategies was confirmed in two studies that measured social perceptions of male and female targets who varied in their relative position. In sum, as do members of other social species, people use relative physical position to manage social impressions, and although these impression-management strategies may have deep ancestral roots, they appear to manifest themselves through a contemporary human modality-photographs.

Conceptual Review of Underrepresentation of Women in Senior Leadership Positions From a Perspective of Gendered Social Status in the Workplace

An increasing number of studies report more similarities than differences in leadership styles between women and men. However, the evident vertical gender segregation at top management levels still remains a common phenomenon for various organizations. This consistent disparity needs to be addressed by identifying the underlying mechanism embedded in organizational structures that portrays women as less suitable for senior leadership positions than their male counterparts, although evidence suggests that there is no substantial gender difference in leadership styles or behaviors. This conceptual review articulates the deeply rooted gendered social status of organizations by delineating conceptual constructs and relationships regarding women’s delayed advancement to senior leadership positions. The resulting model further implies that the gendered social status associated with women could compromise the effectiveness of human resources development (HRD) interventions initially developed to help women. This understanding prompts reexamination of existing HRD interventions to support women’s career advancement to senior leadership positions in organizations.