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Kärtner J, Köster M. Early social-cognitive development as a dynamic developmental system-a lifeworld approach. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1399903. [PMID: 38939231 PMCID: PMC11210372 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1399903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Based on developmental systems and dynamic systems theories, we propose the lifeworld approach-a conceptual framework for research and a hypothesis concerning early social-cognitive development. As a framework, the lifeworld approach recognizes the social embeddedness of development and shifts the focus away from individual developmental outcomes toward the reciprocal interplay of processes within and between individuals that co-constitutes early social-cognitive development. As a hypothesis, the lifeworld approach proposes that the changing developmental system-spanning the different individuals as their subsystems-strives toward attractor states through regulation at the behavioral level, which results in both the emergence and further differentiation of developmental attainments. The lifeworld approach-as a framework and a hypothesis, including key methodological approaches to test it-is exemplified by research on infants' self-awareness, prosocial behavior and social learning. Equipped with, first, a conceptual framework grounded in a modern view on development and, second, a growing suite of methodological approaches, developmental science can advance by analyzing the mutually influential relations between intra-individual and interactional processes in order to identify key mechanisms underlying early social-cognitive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joscha Kärtner
- Developmental Psychology Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Moritz Köster
- Developmental Cognitive Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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2
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Lahtela H, Flykt M, Nolvi S, Kataja EL, Eskola E, Tervahartiala K, Pelto J, Carter AS, Karlsson H, Karlsson L, Korja R. Mother-Infant Interaction and Maternal Postnatal Psychological Distress Associate with Child's Social-Emotional Development During Early Childhood: A FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2024:10.1007/s10578-024-01694-2. [PMID: 38625659 DOI: 10.1007/s10578-024-01694-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
We studied the effects of mother-infant interaction and maternal pre- and postnatal psychological distress on children's social-emotional problems and competences, as well as whether interaction quality moderates the association between distress and children's outcomes. Maternal pre- and postnatal psychological distress were measured using the SCL and EPDS questionnaires, whereas mother-infant interaction was measured when the child was 8 months old using the EA Scales. Children's social-emotional development was measured using the BITSEA questionnaire at 2 years old and using the SDQ questionnaire at 4 years old, where higher maternal structuring was associated with fewer social-emotional problems in children and higher maternal sensitivity was associated with greater social-emotional competence in children at 2 years old. Further, higher postnatal distress was found associated with greater social-emotional problems at 2 years old, though neither these effects nor moderating effects at 4 years old were observed after multiple-comparison corrections. Our findings support direct associations of both mother-infant interaction and maternal postnatal psychological distress with children's social-emotional development during toddlerhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hetti Lahtela
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Department of Clinical Medicine, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
- Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
| | - Marjo Flykt
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Faculty of Social Sciences (Psychology), Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Saara Nolvi
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Department of Clinical Medicine, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Turku Institute for Advanced Studies, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Eeva-Leena Kataja
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Department of Clinical Medicine, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Eeva Eskola
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Department of Clinical Medicine, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
- Expert Services, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Katja Tervahartiala
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Department of Clinical Medicine, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Juho Pelto
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Department of Clinical Medicine, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Alice S Carter
- Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, USA
| | - Hasse Karlsson
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Department of Clinical Medicine, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Linnea Karlsson
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Department of Clinical Medicine, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Pediatrics, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Riikka Korja
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Department of Clinical Medicine, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
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3
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Stockdale LA, Porter CL, Reschke PJ, Booth M, Coyne SM, Stephens J, Memmott-Elison MK. Infants’ physiological responses to emotionally salient media with links to parent and child, empathy, prosocial behaviors and media use. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2022.107497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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4
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Hepach R, Engelmann JM, Herrmann E, Gerdemann SC, Tomasello M. Evidence for a developmental shift in the motivation underlying helping in early childhood. Dev Sci 2023; 26:e13253. [PMID: 35191158 PMCID: PMC10078187 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We investigated children's positive emotions as an indicator of their underlying prosocial motivation. In Study 1, 2-, and 5-year-old children (N = 64) could either help an individual or watch as another person provided help. Following the helping event and using depth sensor imaging, we measured children's positive emotions through changes in postural elevation. For 2-year-olds, helping the individual and watching another person help was equally rewarding; 5-year-olds showed greater postural elevation after actively helping. In Study 2, 5-year-olds' (N = 59) positive emotions following helping were greater when an audience was watching. Together, these results suggest that 2-year-old children have an intrinsic concern that individuals be helped whereas 5-year-old children have an additional, strategic motivation to improve their reputation by helping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Hepach
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Jan M Engelmann
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Esther Herrmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Stella C Gerdemann
- Department of Research Methods in Early Child Development, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany.,Leipzig Research Center for Early Child Development, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michael Tomasello
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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5
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Michael J, Green A, Siposova B, Jensen K, Kita S. Finish What you Started: 2‐Year‐Olds Motivated by a Preference for Completing Others’ Unfinished Actions in Instrumental Helping Contexts. Cogn Sci 2022; 46:e13160. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.13160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John Michael
- Department of Cognitive Science Central European University
| | | | | | - Keith Jensen
- Human Communication, Development & Hearing University of Manchester
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Song Y, Broekhuizen M, Dubas JS. A three‐wave study on the development of prosocial behaviours across toddlerhood: The role of socialization. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Song
- Developmental Psychology Utrecht University Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Martine Broekhuizen
- Child, Family, and Education Studies Utrecht University Utrecht The Netherlands
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Fairchild L. Raising Helpful Children: Exploring Conflict Between Goals and Practices in Euro-Heritage Socialization of Helping. Front Psychol 2021; 12:722998. [PMID: 34955953 PMCID: PMC8703067 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.722998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Helping others benefits both helper and helpee and is the basis for societal structures that promote collective well-being. Many parents Using a White, European-heritage "Constellation of practices" (UWEC), recognize the importance of raising a child who helps others. Yet UWEC children seem to take initiative to help with household work less, and in ways that benefit others less, than other children globally. It is important for future researchers to explore the phenomenon of many UWEC parents using practices that work against their explicit goals, and suggestions are made for future work, including better integration of cross-cultural evidence in developmental psychological study design. Better integrating evidence and exploring this conflict further would greatly advance our understanding of the socialization of helping, and may elucidate how much change is possible and advisable regarding how best to raise children to think and act in other-oriented ways that are beneficial for all.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc Fairchild
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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Coppens AD, Rogoff B. Cultural variation in the early development of initiative in children's prosocial helping. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D. Coppens
- Department of Education University of New Hampshire Durham New Hampshire USA
| | - Barbara Rogoff
- Department of Psychology University of California, Santa Cruz Santa Cruz California USA
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9
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Dahl A, Goeltz MT, Brownell CA. Scaffolding the emergence of infant helping: A longitudinal experiment. Child Dev 2021; 93:751-759. [PMID: 34779506 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Early social experiences, such as caregiver scaffolding, play a crucial but disputed role in the emergence of prosociality. A longitudinal experiment examined how explicit scaffolding-such as encouragement or praise-influences helping late in the first year, when helping emerges. Eighty-three infants (40 female, 6-9 months, 54% White, 17% Hispanic/Latinx, 16% Asian) participated in up to 10-weekly home visits in which they could help an experimenter in a novel activity. Data were collected in Santa Cruz, CA between February 2018 and August 2019. Compared to the control condition, explicit scaffolding increased helping by handing out-of-reach objects, η2 = .02, and, among younger infants, by cleaning up. Helping also increased with age and visit number. Using a new paradigm, this research provides experimental evidence for how adults' scaffolding shapes the emergence of helping in infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audun Dahl
- University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, USA
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Green A, Siposova B, Kita S, Michael J. Stopping at nothing: Two-year-olds differentiate between interrupted and abandoned goals. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 209:105171. [PMID: 33962107 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has established that goal tracking emerges early in the first year of life and rapidly becomes increasingly sophisticated. However, it has not yet been shown whether young children continue to update their representations of others' goals over time. The current study investigated this by probing young children's (24- to 30-month-olds; N = 24) ability to differentiate between goal-directed actions that have been halted because the goal was interrupted and those that have been halted because the goal was abandoned. To test whether children are sensitive to this distinction, we manipulated the experimenter's reason for not completing a goal-directed action; his initial goal was either interrupted by an obstacle or abandoned in favor of an alternative. We measured whether children's helping behavior was sensitive to the experimenter's reason for not completing his goal-directed action by recording whether children completed the experimenter's initial goal or the alternative goal. The results showed that children helped to complete the experimenter's initial goal significantly more often after this goal had been interrupted than after it had been abandoned. These results support the hypothesis that children continue to update their representations of others' goals over time by 2 years of age and specifically that they differentiate between abandoned and interrupted goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Green
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Barbora Siposova
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Sotaro Kita
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - John Michael
- Department of Cognitive Science, Central European University, Budapest 1051, Hungary.
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11
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Kochukhova O, Dyagileva Y, Mikhailova A, Orekhova L, Makhin S, Pavlenko V. Better Language - Faster Helper: The Relation Between Spontaneous Instrumental Helping Action and Language Ability in Family-Reared and Institutionalized Toddlers. PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIA: STATE OF ART 2021; 14:78-93. [PMID: 36733814 PMCID: PMC9888043 DOI: 10.11621/pir.2021.0406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Prosocial behavior is the key component of social and interpersonal relations. One of the elements of prosociality is helping behavior, which emerges already in early childhood. Researchers have identified several domains of helping behavior: instrumental helping, comforting another person, and sharing resources with others. The development of helping behavior can depend on a number of factors: children's age, the social situation of development, communication skills, and the ability to understand the feelings and needs of another person. Objective In Study 1, the main goal was to determine the effects of age and cognitive, language, and motor development on instrumental helping skills in early childhood. The goal of Study 2 was to estimate the effects of rearing in an adverse social environment by comparing the capacity for instrumental helping in family-raised and institutionalized children. Design The authors examined toddlers' (N = 198) ability to initiate spontaneous helping and the factors that may influence it. Cognitive, language, and fine motor skills were measured by the Bayley Scales of Infant and Child Development, 3rd edition. Children's instrumental helping behavior was assessed according to the procedure presented by Warneken and Tomasello, with a few modifications. Results Study 1 demonstrated that children's ability to initiate helping was dependent on their age: the non-helpers were significantly younger than the helpers. Children's language skills also played a significant role in their helping behavior. The children with higher language skills helped the adult more often and more quickly. Study 2 demonstrated that institutional placement per se was not related to toddlers' ability to initiate helping. Language ability was associated with helping behavior both in institution- and family-reared toddlers. Conclusion Instrumental helping in early childhood is related to children's age, language skills, and rearing conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Kochukhova
- Department of Psychology, Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Yulia Dyagileva
- V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Simferopol, Russian Federation
| | - Anna Mikhailova
- V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Simferopol, Russian Federation
| | - Lilia Orekhova
- V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Simferopol, Russian Federation,* Corresponding author. E-mail:
| | - Sergei Makhin
- V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Simferopol, Russian Federation
| | - Vladimir Pavlenko
- V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Simferopol, Russian Federation
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12
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Kärtner J, Giner Torréns M, Schuhmacher N. Parental structuring during shared chores and the development of helping across the second year. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joscha Kärtner
- Department of Psychology University of Münster Münster Germany
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13
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Schmerse D, Hepach R. How socialization goals and peer social climate predict young children's concern for others: Evidence for a development shift between 2 and 4 years of age. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Schmerse
- Department of Educational Research and Educational Psychology Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Kiel Germany
| | - Robert Hepach
- Department of Research Methods in Early Child Development Leipzig University Leipzig Germany
- Department of Experimental Psychology University of Oxford Oxford UK
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14
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Rüther J, Liszkowski U. Ontogenetic Emergence of Cognitive Reference Comprehension. Cogn Sci 2020; 44:e12869. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Rüther
- Department of Developmental Psychology University of Hamburg
| | - Ulf Liszkowski
- Department of Developmental Psychology University of Hamburg
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15
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Paulus M. Is young children's helping affected by helpees' need? Preschoolers, but not infants selectively help needy others. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2020; 84:1440-1450. [PMID: 30758652 PMCID: PMC7270991 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-019-01148-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Infants and toddlers engage in instrumental helping, that is, help others in achieving an action-based goal. The underlying psychological mechanisms are unclear and hotly debated. The present study examined whether young children's helping is affected by others' need. To this end, 1.5- and 3.5-year-old children (n = 101) were simultaneously confronted with a needy and a non-needy other in a variety of helping tasks. The results show that the 3.5-year-old, but not the 1.5-year-old children preferentially helped the needy person. This suggests developmental changes in the psychological mechanisms underlying early instrumental helping. The results are explained by a developmental account according to which helping only gradually becomes an other-oriented and need-based behavior in the first years of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Paulus
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany.
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Donohue MR, Williamson RA, Tully EC. Toddlers imitate prosocial demonstrations in bystander but not transgressor contexts. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 192:104776. [PMID: 31955060 PMCID: PMC7397716 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Although prosocial abilities are associated with a wide range of healthy outcomes, few studies have experimentally examined socialization practices that may cause increased prosocial responding. The purpose of this study was to investigate conditions under which 2- and 3-year-old children can acquire prosocial behaviors through imitation. In Study 1 (N = 53), toddlers in the experimental condition watched a video of an adult comfort a woman in distress by performing a novel prosocial action without depicting how the woman was hurt. Parents then pretended they hurt their own finger and feigned distress. Children in the experimental condition were more likely to imitate the novel action relative to two control groups: (a) children who did not watch the video but witnessed a distressed parent, and (b) children who watched the video but witnessed parents engage in a neutral interaction. Thus, in a bystander context where children witnessed parent distress, toddlers imitated a general demonstration of how to respond prosocially to distress and applied this information to a specific distress scenario. In Study 2 (N = 54), the procedures were identical to those in the first study except that children were led to believe that they had transgressed to cause parent distress. In a transgressor context, children in the experimental condition were not more likely to imitate the prosocial behavior relative to children in either control group. These studies demonstrate that whether or not children have caused a victim's distress greatly affects their ability to apply a socially learned prosocial behavior, possibly due to self-conscious emotions such as guilt and shame.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Rose Donohue
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | | | - Erin C Tully
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
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Lee W, Kim EY, Song H. Do infants expect others to be helpful? BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020; 38:478-490. [DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wooyeol Lee
- Chungbuk National University Cheongju South Korea
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Abstract
Humans rely heavily on their prosocial relationships. We propose that the experience and display of prosocial emotions evolved to regulate such relationships through inhibiting individual selfishness in service of others. Two emotions in particular serve to meet two central requirements for upholding prosociality: gratitude motivates maintenance of ongoing prosocial interactions, and guilt motivates repair of ruptured prosocial interactions. We further propose, and review developmental evidence, that nascent forms of these two emotions serve their respective functions from early in ontogeny. The remarkably early emergence of these prosocial emotions allows even very young children to participate in and benefit from prosociality. We discuss the implications of and challenges to this conclusion and identify pressing future directions for this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrisha Vaish
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, USA
| | - Robert Hepach
- Department of Research Methods in Early Child Development, University of Leipzig, Germany
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19
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Aitken J, Ruffman T, Taumoepeau M. Toddlers' Self-Recognition and Progression From Goal- to Emotion-Based Helping: A Longitudinal Study. Child Dev 2019; 91:1219-1236. [PMID: 31429069 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Research has typically used cross-sectional designs to draw conclusions on the development of helping. This study aimed to examine the development of instrumental and empathic helping behaviors as they emerge, and assess how self-recognition might moderate this progression. Seventy-two children (14- to 25-months at T1) were assessed over four monthly sessions. Participants' individual response patterns showed instrumental helping to be a necessary precursor to empathic helping for 55.77%-67.92% of children who helped during the study. Self-recognition emerged before empathic but not instrumental helping, yet did not directly influence helping behavior.
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Abstract
From early in life, children help, comfort, and share with others. Recent research has deepened scientific understanding of the development of prosociality - efforts to promote the welfare of others. This article discusses two key insights about the emergence and early development of prosocial behavior, focusing on the development of helping. First, children's motivations and capabilities for helping change in quality as well as quantity over the opening years of life. Specifically, helping begins in participatory activities without prosocial intent in the first year of life, becoming increasingly autonomous and motivated by prosocial intent over the second year. Second, helping emerges through bidirectional social interactions, starting at birth, in which caregivers and others support the development of helping in a variety of ways and young children play active roles, often influencing caregiver behavior. The question now is not whether, but how social interactions contribute to the development of prosocial behavior. Recent methodological and theoretical advances provide exciting avenues for future research on the social and emotional origins of human prosociality.
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Köster M, Kärtner J. Why do infants help? A simple action reveals a complex phenomenon. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2018.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Hepach R, Vaish A, Müller K, Tomasello M. The relation between young children's physiological arousal and their motivation to help others. Neuropsychologia 2019; 126:113-119. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Dahl A. The Science of Early Moral Development: on Defining, Constructing, and Studying Morality from Birth. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2018; 56:1-35. [PMID: 30846044 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The first 4 years of moral development are perhaps the most transformative. Helpless neonates become infants who routinely help and harm others; infants develop into preschoolers who make moral judgments based on moral concerns with welfare. Over the past two decades, there has been tremendous empirical progress, but also theoretical stalemates, in research on early moral development. To advance the field, this chapter argues for providing definitions of key terms, adopting an interactionist and constructivist approach (eschewing the dichotomy between innate and learned characteristics), and combining naturalistic and experimental methods. On this basis, the chapter reviews research on how children's orientations toward helping and harming others develop gradually through everyday social interactions in the early years. In these interactions, children play active roles through initiation, negotiation, protest, and construction. The chapter concludes with key questions for future research on early moral development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audun Dahl
- University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, United States.
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Fonseca BR, Cavalcante LIC, Kärtner J, Köster M. Maternal socialization goals and the spontaneous prosocial behavior of children in rural contexts. PSICOLOGIA-REFLEXAO E CRITICA 2018; 31:27. [PMID: 32026194 PMCID: PMC6967175 DOI: 10.1186/s41155-018-0108-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this descriptive-correlational study was to investigate possible associations between maternal socialization goals and prosocial behavior (spontaneous helping) among children living in a rural context. This study involved 39 dyads of mothers, aged 17 to 48 years (M = 24.28 years, SD = 5.97), and their children, with a mean age of 24 months. The data collection included a Sociocultural Sociodemographic Characterization Questionnaire (SSCQ), a Socialization Goals Questionnaire (SGQ), and a Spontaneous Prosocial Behavior Task (SPBT). Most importantly, we found that the maternal socialization goal to "Learning to support others" exhibited a significant correlation (r = 0.40, p < 0.05) with the helping task performed by the children. This finding sustains the hypothesis that maternal goals, which emphasize the importance of their children in learning to help others, are correlated with an increased frequency of prosocial behavior in young children, around their second birthday.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Moritz Köster
- University of Münster and University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
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Dahl A. New Beginnings: An Interactionist and Constructivist Approach to Early Moral Development. Hum Dev 2018; 61:232-247. [PMID: 30983600 PMCID: PMC6456060 DOI: 10.1159/000492801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Orientations toward harming and helping others are central to morality. These orientations undergo major transformations in early life. This paper proposes an interactionist and constructivist approach to early moral development, and discusses how children construct orientations toward harming and helping through everyday social interactions. A major developmental acquisition - typically evident by age three - is the ability to make judgments of right and wrong based on concerns with others' welfare. The paper concludes by outlining issues for future research on the development of morality from infancy to childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audun Dahl
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz
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Foster-Hanson E, Cimpian A, Leshin RA, Rhodes M. Asking Children to "Be Helpers" Can Backfire After Setbacks. Child Dev 2018; 91:236-248. [PMID: 30230532 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Describing behaviors as reflecting categories (e.g., asking children to "be helpers") has been found to increase pro-social behavior. The present studies (N = 139, ages 4-5) tested whether such effects backfire if children experience setbacks while performing category-relevant actions. In Study 1, children were asked either to "be helpers" or "to help," and then pretended to complete a series of successful scenarios (e.g., pouring milk) and unsuccessful scenarios (e.g., spilling milk while trying to pour). After the unsuccessful trials, children asked to "be helpers" had more negative attitudes. In Study 2, asking children to "be helpers" impeded children's helping behavior after they experienced difficulties while trying to help. Implications for how category labels shape beliefs and behavior are discussed.
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Grossmann T, Missana M, Krol KM. The neurodevelopmental precursors of altruistic behavior in infancy. PLoS Biol 2018; 16:e2005281. [PMID: 30252842 PMCID: PMC6155440 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2005281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Altruistic behavior is considered a key feature of the human cooperative makeup, with deep ontogenetic roots. The tendency to engage in altruistic behavior varies between individuals and has been linked to differences in responding to fearful faces. The current study tests the hypothesis that this link exists from early in human ontogeny. Using eye tracking, we examined whether attentional responses to fear in others at 7 months of age predict altruistic behavior at 14 months of age. Our analysis revealed that altruistic behavior in toddlerhood was predicted by infants' attention to fearful faces but not happy or angry faces. Specifically, infants who showed heightened initial attention to (i.e., prolonged first look) followed by greater disengagement (i.e., reduced attentional bias over 15 seconds) from fearful faces at 7 months displayed greater prosocial behavior at 14 months of age. Our data further show that infants' attentional bias to fearful faces and their altruistic behavior was predicted by brain responses in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), measured through functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). This suggests that, from early in ontogeny, variability in altruistic helping behavior is linked to our responsiveness to seeing others in distress and brain processes implicated in attentional control. These findings critically advance our understanding of the emergence of altruism in humans by identifying responsiveness to fear in others as an early precursor contributing to variability in prosocial behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Grossmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Manuela Missana
- Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Educational Sciences, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Kathleen M. Krol
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
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Schuhmacher N, Köster M, Kärtner J. Modeling Prosocial Behavior Increases Helping in 16‐Month‐Olds. Child Dev 2018; 90:1789-1801. [DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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The multidimensional nature of early prosocial behavior: a motivational perspective. Curr Opin Psychol 2018; 20:111-116. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Dahl A. How , not whether : contributions of others in the development of infant helping. Curr Opin Psychol 2018; 20:72-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Aime H, Broesch T, Aknin LB, Warneken F. Evidence for proactive and reactive helping in two- to five-year-olds from a small-scale society. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0187787. [PMID: 29141009 PMCID: PMC5687751 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are unique in their propensity for helping. Not only do we help others in need by reacting to their requests, we also help proactively by assisting in the absence of a request. Proactive helping requires the actor to detect the need for help, recognize the intention of the other, and remedy the situation. Very little is known about the development of this social phenomenon beyond an urban, industrialized setting. We examined helping in nineteen two- to five-year old children in small-scale rural villages of Vanuatu. In the experimental condition, the intentions of the experimenter were made salient, whereas in the control condition they were ambiguous. Children helped more often in the experimental compared to the control condition, suggesting that the propensity to monitor others' goals and act accordingly can be detected in different cultural contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary Aime
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Tanya Broesch
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Lara B. Aknin
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Felix Warneken
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
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Dahl A. Ecological Commitments: Why Developmental Science Needs Naturalistic Methods. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2017; 11:79-84. [PMID: 28584562 PMCID: PMC5455774 DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Much of developmental science aims to explain how or whether children's experiences influence their thoughts and actions. Developmental theories make assumptions and claims-what I call ecological commitments-about events outside research contexts. In this article, I argue that most developmental theories make ecological commitments about children's thoughts, actions, and experiences outside research contexts, and that these commitments sometimes go unstated and untested. I also argue that naturalistic methods can provide evidence for or against ecological commitments, and that naturalistic and experimental studies address unique yet complementary questions. Rather than argue for increasing the ecological validity of experiments or abandoning laboratory research, I propose reconsidering the relations among developmental theories, naturalistic methods, and laboratory experiments.
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