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Lo YP, Ding H, Whitlock J, Sahakyan L. The role of prior familiarisation and meaningfulness of verbal and visual stimuli on directed forgetting. Memory 2024:1-18. [PMID: 38788120 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2024.2358126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACTIntentional forgetting of unwanted information is a crucial cognitive function that is often studied with directed forgetting (DF) procedure, whereby cuing some study materials with Forget (F) instruction impairs their memory compared to cuing with Remember (R) instruction. This study investigates how the nature of information (verbal or pictorial), its semantic significance (meaningful or meaningless), and the degree of prior episodic familiarity influence DF. Before the DF phase, stimuli were familiarised by pre-exposing them 0, 2, or 6 times in a prior preview phase. Finally, memory for all items was assessed with old/new recognition test. Experiment 1 employed words, Experiment 2 utilised fractal images, Experiment 3 featured both meaningful and meaningless object images, and Experiment 4 used words and nonwords. Our results indicate that materials that produced better memory performance are not always harder to intentionally forget. Previewed items showed reduced DF compared to non-previewed items regardless of the nature of information, and meaningless stimuli are challenging to intentionally forget regardless of their degrees of familiarisation unless they are meaningless verbal materials. Collectively, the results highlight the importance of joint consideration of the stimulus format, its meaningfulness, and its episodic familiarity in understanding conditions that interact with intentional forgetting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Pei Lo
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Huiyu Ding
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Jonathon Whitlock
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Lili Sahakyan
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
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2
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Lionetti F, Calcagnì A, D'Urso G, Spinelli M, Fasolo M, Pluess M, Pastore M. A Bayesian approach for exploring person × environment interaction within the environmental sensitivity meta-framework. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2024. [PMID: 38698763 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.14000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND For investigating the individual-environment interplay and individual differences in response to environmental exposures as captured by models of environmental sensitivity including Diathesis-stress, Differential Susceptibility, and Vantage Sensitivity, over the last few years, a series of statistical guidelines have been proposed. However, available solutions suffer of computational problems especially relevant when sample size is not sufficiently large, a common condition in observational and clinical studies. METHOD In the current contribution, we propose a Bayesian solution for estimating interaction parameters via Monte Carlo Markov Chains (MCMC), adapting Widaman et al. (Psychological Methods, 17, 2012, 615) Nonlinear Least Squares (NLS) approach. RESULTS Findings from an applied exemplification and a simulation study showed that with relatively big samples both MCMC and NLS estimates converged on the same results. Conversely, MCMC clearly outperformed NLS, resolving estimation problems and providing more accurate estimates, particularly with small samples and greater residual variance. CONCLUSIONS As the body of research exploring the interplay between individual and environmental variables grows, enabling predictions regarding the form of interaction and the extent of effects, the Bayesian approach could emerge as a feasible and readily applicable solution to numerous computational challenges inherent in existing frequentist methods. This approach holds promise for enhancing the trustworthiness of research outcomes, thereby impacting clinical and applied understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Lionetti
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, G. d'Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Antonio Calcagnì
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialisation, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Giulio D'Urso
- Department of Psychological, Health and Territorial Sciences, G. d'Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Maria Spinelli
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, G. d'Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Mirco Fasolo
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, G. d'Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Michael Pluess
- School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Massimiliano Pastore
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialisation, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
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3
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Li Y, Liu Z. The effect of lying on memory in daily life: Does motivation matter? Psych J 2024; 13:216-226. [PMID: 38105565 PMCID: PMC10990805 DOI: 10.1002/pchj.709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Recently, there has been renewed interest in the effect of lying on memory. A growing body of studies has documented that lying can impair memories and cause memory disruptions, such as forgetting and false memories, to a greater degree than telling the truth. This study aimed to investigate whether motivation plays a role in the effect of lying on memory. The present study utilized a daily life paradigm and manipulated three conditions: truth telling, internally motivated lying, and externally motivated lying. We asked participants to engage in a shopping task and to tell lies (externally motivated lying group) or to choose between telling the truth (truth-telling group) and telling lies (internally motivated lying group) in the interview. Forty-eight hours later, the participants were instructed to truthfully carry out multiple memory assessments. The principal findings of this research are that lying can result in memory impairments, and internally motivated lying can lead to greater impairment in source memory than externally motivated lying. Moreover, no significant differences between the two lying groups were found in the memory tests. The empirical findings of this study provide new insights into the effect of lying on memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- School of Education and Psychological ScienceSichuan University of Science and EngineeringZigongChina
| | - Zhiwei Liu
- School of Education and Psychological ScienceSichuan University of Science and EngineeringZigongChina
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4
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Whitridge JW, Huff MJ, Ozubko JD, Bürkner PC, Lahey CD, Fawcett JM. Singing Does Not Necessarily Improve Memory More Than Reading Aloud. Exp Psychol 2024; 71:33-50. [PMID: 39078072 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/31/2024]
Abstract
The production effect refers to the finding that words read aloud are better remembered than words read silently. This finding is typically attributed to the presence of additional sensorimotor features appended to the memory trace by the act of reading aloud, which are not present for items read silently. Supporting this perspective, the production effect tends to be larger for singing (the singing superiority effect) than reading aloud, possibly due to the inclusion of further sensorimotor features (e.g., more pronounced tone). However, the singing superiority effect has not always replicated. Across four experiments, we demonstrate a production effect for items read aloud but observe a singing superiority effect only when items are tested in the same color in which they were studied (with foils randomized to color). A series of meta-analytic models revealed the singing superiority effect to be smaller than previously thought and to emerge only when test items are presented in the same color in which they were studied. This outcome is inconsistent with common distinctiveness-based theoretical accounts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jedidiah W Whitridge
- Department of Psychology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada
| | - Mark J Huff
- School of Psychology, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA
| | - Jason D Ozubko
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Geneseo, Geneseo, NY, USA
| | - Paul C Bürkner
- Department of Statistics, TU Dortmund University, Germany
| | - Chelsea D Lahey
- Department of Psychology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada
| | - Jonathan M Fawcett
- Department of Psychology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada
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5
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Wakeham-Lewis RM, Ozubko J, Fawcett JM. Characterizing production: the production effect is eliminated for unusual voices unless they are frequent at study. Memory 2022; 30:1319-1333. [DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2022.2115075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason Ozubko
- Department of Psychology, SUNY Geneseo, Geneseo, NY, USA
| | - Jonathan M. Fawcett
- Department of Psychology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
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6
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Dampening effect of unethical experience on memory. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-03334-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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7
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Production can enhance semantic encoding: Evidence from forced-choice recognition with homophone versus synonym lures. Psychon Bull Rev 2022; 29:2256-2263. [PMID: 35819588 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02140-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The production effect-better memory for words read aloud rather than silently-has been attributed to responses at test being guided by memory for the act of production. In Experiment 1, we evaluated this distinctiveness account by comparing production effects in forced-choice recognition when lures were either homophones of the targets (toad or towed?) or unrelated words (toad or seam?). If the production effect at test was driven solely by memory for the productive act (e.g., articulation, auditory processing), then the effect should be reduced with homophone lures. Contrary to that prediction, the production effect did not differ credibly between homophone-lure and unrelated-lure groups. Experiment 1 led us to hypothesize that production may also boost semantic encoding, and that participants use memory of semantic encoding to guide their forced-choice responses. Consistent with these hypotheses, using synonym lures to interfere with semantic-based decisions (poison or venom?) reduced the production effect relative to using unrelated lures (poison or ethics?) in Experiment 2. Our findings suggest that enhanced conceptual encoding may be another useful product of production.
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8
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Murphy DH, Castel AD. Selective remembering and directed forgetting are influenced by similar stimulus properties. Memory 2022; 30:1130-1147. [PMID: 35730700 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2022.2092152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Do the properties of to-be-remembered events influence the ability to remember, and also intentionally forget, these events in similar ways? Prior work has examined how the font size, animacy, emotionality, concreteness (the degree to which a word denotes something perceptible), frequency (how often a word appears in language), and length of to-be-remembered words influence memory. However, it was previously unclear whether the forgetting of information is also influenced by these characteristics. In six experiments, we used an item-method directed forgetting task where we presented participants with to-be-remembered and to-be-forgotten words varying in font size (large or small), animacy (animate or inanimate), emotionality (negative or neutral), concreteness (high or low), frequency (high or low), and word length (long or short). Results revealed that animacy, emotionality, concreteness, frequency, and word length (but not font size) influenced both remembering and forgetting. Together, the present findings indicate that the characteristics of presented words can influence remembering as well as directed forgetting, providing further evidence that the remembering and forgetting processes are governed by similar properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dillon H Murphy
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alan D Castel
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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9
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Kliegl O, Bäuml KHT. The Mechanisms Underlying Interference and Inhibition: A Review of Current Behavioral and Neuroimaging Research. Brain Sci 2021; 11:1246. [PMID: 34573266 PMCID: PMC8467325 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11091246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The memory literature has identified interference and inhibition as two major sources of forgetting. While interference is generally considered to be a passive cause of forgetting arising from exposure to additional information that impedes subsequent recall of target information, inhibition concerns a more active and goal-directed cause of forgetting that can be achieved intentionally. Over the past 25 years, our knowledge of the neural mechanisms underlying both interference-induced and inhibition-induced forgetting has expanded substantially. The present paper gives a critical overview of this research, pointing out empirical gaps in the current work and providing suggestions for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Kliegl
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Regensburg University, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Karl-Heinz T Bäuml
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Regensburg University, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
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10
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Neural correlates of the production effect: An fMRI study. Brain Cogn 2021; 152:105757. [PMID: 34130081 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2021.105757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Recognition memory is improved for items produced at study (e.g., by reading them aloud) relative to a non-produced control condition (e.g., silent reading). This production effect is typically attributed to the extra elements in the production task (e.g., motor activation, auditory perception) enhancing item distinctiveness. To evaluate this claim, the present study examined the neural mechanisms underlying the production effect. Prior to a recognition memory test, different words within a study list were read either aloud, silently, or while saying "check" (as a sensorimotor control condition). Production improved recognition, and aloud words yielded higher rates of both recollection and familiarity judgments than either silent or control words. During encoding, fMRI revealed stronger activation in regions associated with motor, somatosensory, and auditory processing for aloud items than for either silent or control items. These activations were predictive of recollective success for aloud items at test. Together, our findings are compatible with a distinctiveness-based account of the production effect, while also pointing to the possible role of other processing differences during the aloud trials as compared to silent and control.
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11
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Goernert PN, Corenblum B, Watier N. Mood states effect retrieval not encoding in item-method directed forgetting. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2021.1903013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Barry Corenblum
- Department of Psychology, Brandon University, Brandon, Canada
| | - Nicholas Watier
- Department of Psychology, Brandon University, Brandon, Canada
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12
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Emotional memories are (usually) harder to forget: A meta-analysis of the item-method directed forgetting literature. Psychon Bull Rev 2021; 28:1313-1326. [PMID: 33846935 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-021-01914-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The current meta-analysis explored whether emotional memories are less susceptible to item-method directed forgetting than neutral memories. Basic analyses revealed superior memory for remember (R) than forget (F) items in both the neutral, M = 19.6%, CI95% [16.1, 23.1], and the emotional, M = 15.1%, CI95% [12.4, 17.7], conditions. Directed forgetting in either valence condition was larger for (a) words than for other stimuli; (b) recall than recognition tests; (c) studies that used recall prior to recognition testing; (d) shorter lists; and (e) studies that included buffer items. Direct comparison of the magnitude of the directed forgetting effect across neutral and emotional conditions within studies revealed relatively diminished directed forgetting of emotional items compared to neutral items, with an average difference of 4.2%, CI95% [2.0, 6.4]. However, the nature of this finding varied broadly across studies, meaning that whether - and to what degree - emotional memories are more resilient than neutral memories likely depends on the methodological features of the study in question. Moderator analyses revealed larger differences (a) in studies for which the emotional items were more arousing than the neutral items, and (b) when buffer items were included. Together, these findings suggest that emotional memories are often more resilient to intentional forgetting than neutral memories, although further research is necessary to characterize the circumstances under which these differences emerge.
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13
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Indirect modulation of human visual memory. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7274. [PMID: 33790311 PMCID: PMC8012571 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-86550-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Conditions in which memories become maladaptive have inspired extensive research geared to modulate memory by targeting it directly and explicitly. Given limitations of direct memory modulation, we asked the following: can the target memories be modulated indirectly? To address this question, we uniquely targeted visual memories, and leveraged a paradigm utilizing instructions to either forget or remember newly encoded memories. We used a multi-domain approach, and applied the instructions to embedded verbal information presented during encoding (words), with the intention to indirectly modulate recognition of the target visual context memory itself (pictures). Accordingly, participants were presented with two lists of words, where each word was preceded and followed by pictures. Participants were instructed to either remember or forget the first list of words. As expected, the instruction to either remember or forget the words differentially influenced word memory strength. Importantly, the instruction regarding the words, indirectly modulated picture memory strength. Better memory for words resulted in reduced picture memory strength and vice versa, with the instruction to remember the words reducing picture memory strength. Together with a negative correlation between word and picture memory strength, the results suggest a competition for shared resources between memory for content and context. These findings may open new avenues to indirectly modulate maladaptive memories.
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14
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Forgetting under difficult conditions: Item-method directed forgetting under perceptual processing constraints. Mem Cognit 2021; 49:1101-1118. [PMID: 33650022 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-021-01149-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Intentional forgetting of unwanted items is effortful, yet directed forgetting seems to improve when a secondary task is performed. According to the cognitive load hypothesis of directed forgetting, allocating attentional resources to another task improves forgetting by restricting unwanted encoding of to-be-forgotten (TBF) items. Alternatively, it might be that anything that makes studying more difficult will encourage greater effort to perform the task well and therefore lead to improved intentional forgetting. To assess these proposals we imposed data-processing limitations on study words in an item-method directed forgetting paradigm. Across six experiments, the perceptual quality of study words was manipulated by varying: (1) the duration of study word presentation (Experiments 1-4); (2) the contrast of the displayed word against its visual background (Experiment 5); or (3) the amount of visual background noise on which the word was presented (Experiment 6). In Experiments 4-6, a lexical decision task corroborated the difficulty of study word processing. Despite evidence that relatively low visual contrast and relatively high visual background noise, in particular, create challenging conditions, we found no evidence that perceptual quality impacts the magnitude of the directed forgetting effect. This work suggests that data limitations have no discernible effect on forgetting and corroborate that only attentional resource limitations improve directed forgetting.
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15
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Responsible remembering and forgetting as contributors to memory for important information. Mem Cognit 2021; 49:895-911. [PMID: 33474691 PMCID: PMC8238741 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-021-01139-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The ability to control both what we remember and what is forgotten can enhance memory. The present study used an item-method directed forgetting paradigm to investigate whether participants strategically remembered items they were responsible for remembering rather than items a hypothetical friend was responsible for remembering. Specifically, participants were presented with a 20-word list (either unrelated words or items to pack for a camping trip) with each word followed by a cue indicating whether the participant (You) or their "friend" (Friend) was responsible for remembering the word. When asked to recall all of the words, regardless of the cue, recall was sensitive to the You and Friend instructions such that participants demonstrated elevated recall for the items they were responsible for remembering, and participants also strategically organized retrieval by recalling You items before Friend items. Additionally, when asked to judge the importance of remembering each item, participants' recall and recognition were sensitive to item importance regardless of cue. Taken together, the present experiments revealed that the strategic encoding of important information and the forgetting of less important, goal-irrelevant information can maximize memory utility and minimize negative consequences for forgetting. Thus, we provide evidence for a metacognitive process we are calling responsible forgetting, where people attempt to forget less consequential information and focus on remembering what is most important.
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16
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Eye movement analyses of strong and weak memories and goal-driven forgetting. Cognition 2020; 204:104391. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Abstract
Over the past century, psychologists have discussed whether forgetting might arise from active mechanisms that promote memory loss to achieve various functions, such as minimizing errors, facilitating learning, or regulating one's emotional state. The past decade has witnessed a great expansion in knowledge about the brain mechanisms underlying active forgetting in its varying forms. A core discovery concerns the role of the prefrontal cortex in exerting top-down control over mnemonic activity in the hippocampus and other brain structures, often via inhibitory control. New findings reveal that such processes not only induce forgetting of specific memories but also can suppress the operation of mnemonic processes more broadly, triggering windows of anterograde and retrograde amnesia in healthy people. Recent work extends active forgetting to nonhuman animals, presaging the development of a multilevel mechanistic account that spans the cognitive, systems, network, and even cellular levels. This work reveals how organisms adapt their memories to their cognitive and emotional goals and has implications for understanding vulnerability to psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Anderson
- Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge. Cambridge CB2 7EF, United Kingdom;
| | - Justin C Hulbert
- Psychology Program, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York 12504, USA
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18
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Scully ID, Hupbach A. Directed forgetting affects how we remember and judge other people. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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19
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Gamoran A, Greenwald-Levin M, Siton S, Halunga D, Sadeh T. It's about time: Delay-dependent forgetting of item- and contextual-information. Cognition 2020; 205:104437. [PMID: 32861981 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Once fiercely rejected, the notion of delay-dependent forgetting from long-term memory has recently resurfaced. By this notion, the duration of the study-test delay predicts the magnitude of memory degradation. Our Representation Theory of Forgetting adopts the notion of delay-dependent forgetting, alongside interference due to similarity of representations as an additional cause of forgetting-rather than its sole cause, as has been largely argued in the past. This theory maintains that the causes of forgetting depend on the underlying memory representations. Because hippocampus-based memory representations are relatively distinct from one another, by the virtue of being associated with distinct contexts, they are not as likely as non-hippocampus representations to be forgotten due to interference from similar memories. Instead, as neurobiological evidence suggests, these representations may be forgotten over the passage of time. Thus, contextual-information should be particularly sensitive to delay-dependent forgetting in comparison to item-information. In the current study we tested this hypothesis by comparing the effects of short study-test delay (~2 min) to long delay (~15 min) on forgetting. In three experiments using three different memory paradigms, we obtained various measures of item- and contextual-information. Results converged to support our predictions: whereas most measures of contextual-information showed forgetting over time, item-information was less affected by delay and, at times, was not affected at all. Finally, different patterns of time-dependent forgetting of contextual-information were observed in recall and recognition, in line with the different roles of context in these tests. Our results provide novel evidence for the specific effects of delay on hippocampus-based, contextual memory representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avi Gamoran
- Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | | | - Stav Siton
- The Department of Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel; Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Dan Halunga
- Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Talya Sadeh
- The Department of Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel; Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel; Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel.
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20
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Novara C, Pardini S, Cardona F, Pastore M. Comparing Models of the Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (CY-BOCS) in an Italian Clinical Sample. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:615. [PMID: 32848897 PMCID: PMC7424057 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder that interferes with daily functioning and may arise during childhood. The current study is the first attempt by Italian researchers to validate the Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (CY-BOCS). AIMS The study's primary aim was to investigate the best CY-BOCS model fit, adopting a Bayesian model comparison strategy, among four different factor models: a one-factor model; a two-factor model based on Obsessions and Compulsions; Storch et al.'s and Mc Kay et al.'s two-factor model based on Disturbance and Severity. The study also aimed to investigate the types of treatments found in a sample of Italian OCD children patients. METHODS The study sample was made up of 53 children with OCD and 14 children with Tourette Syndrome and TIC. RESULTS An analysis of our data demonstrated that the Obsessions and Compulsions model was the most plausible one, as it demonstrated the best fit indices, strong convergent validity, and good reliability. The study results additionally uncovered that 24.5% of the children in the OCD sample had not yet begun any treatment pathway a year after a diagnosis was formulated. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that the Obsessions and Compulsions scales of the CY-BOCS separately represent appropriate instruments to evaluate children with OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Novara
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Susanna Pardini
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Francesco Cardona
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze Umane, Università di Roma “La Sapienza”, Roma, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Pastore
- Dipartimento di Psicologia dello Sviluppo e della Socializzazione, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
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21
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Visual working memory deficits following right brain damage. Brain Cogn 2020; 142:105566. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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22
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The Many Faces of Forgetting: Toward a Constructive View of Forgetting in Everyday Life. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2019.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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23
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Xie H, Chen Y, Lin Y, Hu X, Zhang D. Can’t forget: disruption of the right prefrontal cortex impairs voluntary forgetting in a recognition test. Memory 2019; 28:60-69. [DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2019.1681456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Xie
- College of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yu Chen
- College of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yiqin Lin
- College of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoqing Hu
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
- The State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
- HKU, Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dandan Zhang
- College of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Affective and Social Cognitive Science, Shenzhen University Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
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24
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Lionetti F, Pastore M, Moscardino U, Nocentini A, Pluess K, Pluess M. Sensory Processing Sensitivity and its association with personality traits and affect: A meta-analysis. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2019.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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25
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Not all information in visual working memory is forgotten equally. Conscious Cogn 2019; 74:102782. [PMID: 31336214 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2019.102782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
To improve maintenance of task-relevant information in visual working memory (VWM), previously encoded, but no longer relevant, information can be suppressed or forgotten. However, it is unclear whether a cue directing attention to a subset of stimuli leads to complete forgetting for non-cued stimuli. The current study utilized a novel method of testing to-be forgotten information to determine if the effectiveness of forgetting differs depending on the type of encoded stimuli. Participants performed a directed forgetting change detection task, and importantly, the changed stimulus could be a novel stimulus or a to-be-forgotten stimulus. Stimulus type (colors, objects, or shapes) was manipulated across two experiments. Results suggest that a cue benefits memory for to-be-remembered information, but performance is not equivalent to never encoding to-be-forgotten information. Furthermore, the type of encoded information impacts the extent of forgetting.
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26
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Wang Y, Luppi A, Fawcett J, Anderson MC. Reconsidering unconscious persistence: Suppressing unwanted memories reduces their indirect expression in later thoughts. Cognition 2019; 187:78-94. [PMID: 30852261 PMCID: PMC6446185 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
When we seek to forget unwelcome memories, does the suppressed content still exert an unconscious influence on our thoughts? Although intentionally stopping retrieval of a memory reduces later episodic retention for the suppressed trace, it remains unclear the extent to which suppressed content persists in indirectly influencing mental processes. Here we tested whether inhibitory control processes underlying retrieval suppression alter the influence of a memory's underlying semantic content on later thought. To achieve this, across two experiments, we tested whether suppressing episodic retrieval of to-be-excluded memories reduced the indirect expression of the unwanted content on an apparently unrelated test of problem solving: the remote associates test (RAT). Experiment 1 found that suppressed content was less likely than unsuppressed content to emerge as solutions to RAT problems. Indeed, suppression abolished evidence of conceptual priming, even when participants reported no awareness of the relationship between the memory and the problem solving tasks. Experiment 2 replicated this effect and also found that directing participants to use explicit memory to solve RAT problems eliminated suppression effects. Experiment 2 thus rules out the possibility that suppression effects reflect contamination by covert explicit retrieval strategies. Together, our results indicate that inhibitory control processes underlying retrieval suppression not only disrupt episodic retention, but also reduce the indirect influence of suppressed semantic content during unrelated thought processes. Considered with other recent demonstrations of implicit suppression effects, these findings indicate that historical assumptions about the persisting influence of suppressed thoughts on mental health require closer empirical scrutiny and need to be reconsidered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Wang
- Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, China
| | - Andrea Luppi
- Division of Anaesthesia, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, UK; Department of Psychology, Harvard University, United States
| | - Jonathan Fawcett
- Department of Psychology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada
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27
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Remember to blink: Reduced attentional blink following instructions to forget. Atten Percept Psychophys 2019; 80:1489-1503. [PMID: 29691764 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-018-1528-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This study used rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) to determine whether, in an item-method directed forgetting task, study word processing ends earlier for forget words than for remember words. The critical manipulation required participants to monitor an RSVP stream of black nonsense strings in which a single blue word was embedded. The next item to follow the word was a string of red fs that instructed the participant to forget the word or green rs that instructed the participant to remember the word. After the memory instruction, a probe string of black xs or os appeared at postinstruction positions 1-8. Accuracy in reporting the identity of the probe string revealed an attenuated attentional blink following instructions to forget. A yes-no recognition task that followed the study trials confirmed a directed forgetting effect, with better recognition of remember words than forget words. Considered in the context of control conditions that required participants to commit either all or none of the study words to memory, the pattern of probe identification accuracy following the directed forgetting task argues that an intention to forget releases limited-capacity attentional resources sooner than an instruction to remember-despite participants needing to maintain an ongoing rehearsal set in both cases.
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28
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More Is Less: Increased Processing of Unwanted Memories Facilitates Forgetting. J Neurosci 2019; 39:3551-3560. [PMID: 30858162 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2033-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The intention to forget can produce long-lasting effects. This ability has been linked to suppression of both rehearsal and retrieval of unwanted memories, processes mediated by the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Here, we describe an alternative account in which the intention to forget is associated with increased engagement with the unwanted information. We used pattern classifiers to decode human functional magnetic resonance imaging data from a task in which male and female participants viewed a series of pictures and were instructed to remember or forget each one. Pictures followed by a forget instruction elicited higher levels of processing in the ventral temporal cortex compared with those followed by a remember instruction. This boost in processing led to more forgetting, particularly for items that showed moderate (vs weak or strong) activation. This result is consistent with the nonmonotonic plasticity hypothesis, which predicts weakening and forgetting of memories that are moderately activated.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The human brain cannot remember everything. Forgetting has a critical role in curating memories and discarding unwanted information. Intentional forgetting has traditionally been linked to passive processes, such as the withdrawal of sustained attention or a stoppage of memory rehearsal. It has also been linked to active suppression of memory processes during encoding and retrieval. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging and machine-learning methods, we show new evidence that intentional forgetting involves an enhancement of memory processing in the sensory cortex to achieve desired forgetting of recent visual experiences. This enhancement temporarily boosts the activation of the memory representation and renders it vulnerable to disruption via homeostatic regulation. Contrary to intuition, deliberate forgetting may involve more rather than less attention to unwanted information.
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29
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Ahmad FN, Tan P, Hockley WE. Directed forgetting for categorised pictures: recognition memory for perceptual details versus gist. Memory 2019; 27:894-903. [DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2019.1591456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Pelin Tan
- Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada
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30
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Sundby CS, Woodman GF, Fukuda K. Electrophysiological and behavioral evidence for attentional up-regulation, but not down-regulation, when encoding pictures into long-term memory. Mem Cognit 2019; 47:351-364. [PMID: 30341544 PMCID: PMC6401211 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-018-0871-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Visual long-term memory allows us to store a virtually infinite amount of visual information (Brady, Konkle, Alvarez, & Oliva in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(38), 14325-14329, 2008; Standing in Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25(2), 207-222, 1973). However, our ability to encode new visual information fluctuates from moment to moment. In Experiment 1, we tested the hypothesis that we have voluntary control over these periodic fluctuations in our ability to encode representations into visual long-term memory using a precueing paradigm combined with behavioral and electrophysiological indices of memory encoding. We found that visual memory encoding can be up-regulated, but it was much more difficult, if not impossible, to down-regulate encoding on a trial-by-trial basis. In Experiment 2, we tested the hypothesis that voluntary up-regulation of visual memory encoding for an item incurs a cost to memory encoding of other items by manipulating the cueing probability. Here, we found that, although the cueing benefit was constant for both low (20%) and high (50%) cueing probabilities, the benefit in the high cueing probability condition came with the overall impairment of memory encoding. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that top-down control of visual long-term memory encoding may be primarily to prioritize certain memories, but this prioritization has a cost and should not be overused to avoid its negative consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher S Sundby
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Geoffrey F Woodman
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Keisuke Fukuda
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Rd North, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada.
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31
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Decomposing item-method directed forgetting of emotional pictures: Equivalent costs and no benefits. Mem Cognit 2019; 46:132-147. [PMID: 29214552 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-017-0751-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Using an item-method directed forgetting task, we presented negative, neutral, and positive photographic pictures, one at a time, each followed by an instruction to remember or forget. We determined that the directed forgetting effect, defined as better subsequent recognition of to-be-remembered (TBR) items than to-be-forgotten (TBF) items, was equivalent across negative, neutral, and positive pictures. To disentangle the underlying costs (i.e., decrease in memory for TBF items) and benefits (i.e., increase in memory for TBR items), we compared recognition memory performance in the directed forgetting task to that of a novel within-subjects remember-all control condition (Experiment 1) and to a between-subjects remember-all control group (Experiment 2). We observed costs without benefits across all three emotions-negative, neutral, and positive-in both experiments. These results demonstrate that equivalent directed forgetting effects for emotional stimuli are not attributable to different underlying component processes. Instead, our results suggest that selection for encoding is accomplished in similar ways, regardless of emotional content.
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32
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Selection for encoding: No evidence of better endogenous orienting following forget than following remember instructions. Atten Percept Psychophys 2018; 81:237-252. [DOI: 10.3758/s13414-018-1587-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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33
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Retrieval-mediated directed forgetting in the item-method paradigm: the effect of semantic cues. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2018; 84:685-705. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-018-1085-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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34
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Schindler S, Kissler J. Too hard to forget? ERPs to remember, forget, and uninformative cues in the encoding phase of item-method directed forgetting. Psychophysiology 2018; 55:e13207. [PMID: 30112763 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Revised: 04/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In item-method directed forgetting, worse memory performance occurs for to-be-forgotten (TBF) than for to-be-remembered (TBR) items. However, recently TBF items have been found to be recognized more accurately than uninformative (UI) items not associated with any specific task. Here, we compare ERPs elicited by cues signaling the remember or the forget instruction with those elicited by uninformative cues. Participants were presented with a series of complex pictures, each followed by a symbolic TBR, TBF, or UI cue. On a yes-no recognition test, accuracy was higher for TBR than for both TBF and UI items. However, TBF items were recognized more accurately than UI items. ERPs elicited by the TBR cue were larger than ERPs elicited by both TBF and UI cues at the frontal P2, the late frontal negativity, and the late parietal positivity complex. This is consistent with more attention capture, selective rehearsal, and long-term memory encoding of TBR. In contrast, both TBF and UI cues induced a larger frontal N2 than TBR cues. Critically, TBF elicited a larger late right-frontal positivity than both UI and TBR cues and a larger late parietal positivity than UI cues. Moreover, the late right-frontal positivity was correlated with better recognition performance. It may therefore reflect processing orientation rather than inhibition per se. Results suggest that, when compared to UI cues, both TBR and TBF cues are processed actively. Distinct processing is seen at right frontal and centroparietal positive ERPs that may mediate better subsequent recognition of TBF than of UI items.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Schindler
- Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Center of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Cognitive and Affective Psychophysiology Laboratory, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Johanna Kissler
- Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Center of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
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35
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A grand memory for forgetting: Directed forgetting across contextual changes. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 188:39-54. [PMID: 29857288 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Using an item-method directed forgetting task, we presented homographic homophonic nouns embedded in sentences. At study, each sentence was followed by an instruction to remember or forget the embedded word. On a subsequent yes-no recognition test, each word was again embedded within a sentence. In Experiments 1, 2, and 4 we varied the embedding sentence at test so that it was identical to that at study, changed but retained the meaning of the studied word, or changed to alter the meaning of the studied word. Repeated context - whether the sentence and/or the word meaning - proved to be as useful a retrieval cue for TBF items as for TBR items. In Experiment 3, we demonstrated that physical repetition was insufficient to produce context effects for either TBR or TBF items. And, in Experiment 4, we determined that participants were equally accurate in reporting context repetition/change following the correct recognition of TBR and TBF items. When considered in light of the existing literature, our results suggest that when context can be dissociated from the study item, it is encoded in "one shot" and not vulnerable to subsequent efforts to limit unwanted encoding.
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36
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Item-method directed forgetting: Effects at retrieval? Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 183:116-123. [PMID: 29275948 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Revised: 09/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In an item-method directed forgetting paradigm, words are presented one at a time, each followed by an instruction to Remember or Forget; a directed forgetting effect is measured as better subsequent memory for Remember words than Forget words. The dominant view is that the directed forgetting effect arises during encoding due to selective rehearsal of Remember over Forget items. In three experiments we attempted to falsify a strong view that directed forgetting effects in recognition are due only to encoding mechanisms when an item method is used. Across 3 experiments we tested for retrieval-based processes by colour-coding the recognition test items. Black colour provided no information; green colour cued a potential Remember item; and, red colour cued a potential Forget item. Recognition cues were mixed within-blocks in Experiment 1 and between-blocks in Experiments 2 and 3; Experiment 3 added explicit feedback on the accuracy of the recognition decision. Although overall recognition improved with cuing when explicit test performance feedback was added in Experiment 3, in no case was the magnitude of the directed forgetting effect influenced by recognition cueing. Our results argue against a role for retrieval-based strategies that limit recognition of Forget items at test and posit a role for encoding intentions only.
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37
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Marevic I, Arnold NR, Rummel J. Item-method directed forgetting and working memory capacity: A hierarchical multinomial modeling approach. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 71:1070-1080. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1310270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Intentional forgetting of information that has recently been encoded is regarded an active and adaptive process and is widely studied using the item-method or the list-method directed forgetting (DF) paradigm. In the present research, we tested whether inter-individual differences in working-memory capacity (WMC), that have been identified as a relevant predictor of DF within the list method, are also related to stronger DF effects within the item method. Furthermore, we investigated relationships between WMC and item-method DF at different processing stages by applying the multinomial storage–retrieval model hierarchically to our data. Results showed that individuals with high WMC are better able to store to-be-remembered information than individuals with low WMC, whereas WMC was not related to retrieval of to-be-remembered information or to either storage or retrieval of to-be-forgotten information. Implications for theoretical accounts of item-method DF are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Marevic
- Department of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Nina R Arnold
- Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Jan Rummel
- Department of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
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38
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Further evidence in favor of prior entry from endogenous attention to a location in space. Atten Percept Psychophys 2017; 79:1027-1038. [PMID: 28281160 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-017-1290-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Titchener's (1908) law of prior entry states that "the object of attention comes to consciousness more quickly than the objects which we are not attending to," or otherwise, that attended stimuli are perceived earlier than unattended stimuli. Shore, Spence, and Klein (Psychological Science, 12, 205-212. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00337 , 2001) showed that endogenous visuospatial orienting does in fact elicit prior-entry effects, albeit to a smaller degree than does exogenous visuospatial orienting. In disagreement with this finding, Schneider and Bavelier (Cognitive Psychology, 47, 333-366. doi: 10.1016/S0010-0285(03)00035-5 , 2003) found no effect of their instruction to attend. They concluded that nonattentional effects could masquerade as prior entry, which could account for findings such as those in Shore et al.'s endogenous condition. We investigated this empirical and theoretical discord by replicating the temporal-order judgment task used by Shore, Spence, and Klein, while manipulating and measuring endogenous orienting by way of an orthogonal color probe task. We showed evidence of prior entry as a consequence of endogenous orienting, supporting the conclusions of Shore, Spence, and Klein.
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39
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Ramirez G. Motivated Forgetting in Early Mathematics: A Proof-of-Concept Study. Front Psychol 2017; 8:2087. [PMID: 29255439 PMCID: PMC5723142 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Educators assume that students are motivated to retain what they are taught. Yet, students commonly report that they forget most of what they learn, especially in mathematics. In the current study I ask whether students may be motivated to forget mathematics because of academic experiences threaten the self-perceptions they are committed to maintaining. Using a large dataset of 1st and 2nd grade children (N = 812), I hypothesize that math anxiety creates negative experiences in the classroom that threaten children's positive math self-perceptions, which in turn spurs a motivation to forget mathematics. I argue that this motivation to forget is activated during the winter break, which in turn reduces the extent to which children grow in achievement across the school year. Children were assessed for math self-perceptions, math anxiety and math achievement in the fall before going into winter break. During the spring, children's math achievement was measured once again. A math achievement growth score was devised from a regression model of fall math achievement predicting spring achievement. Results show that children with higher math self-perceptions showed reduced growth in math achievement across the school year as a function of math anxiety. Children with lower math interest self-perceptions did not show this relationship. Results serve as a proof-of-concept for a scientific account of motivated forgetting within the context of education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Ramirez
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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40
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Pozzoli T, Gini G, Altoè G. Associations between facial emotion recognition and young adolescents' behaviors in bullying. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0188062. [PMID: 29131871 PMCID: PMC5683572 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated whether different behaviors young adolescents can act during bullying episodes were associated with their ability to recognize morphed facial expressions of the six basic emotions, expressed at high and low intensity. The sample included 117 middle-school students (45.3% girls; mean age = 12.4 years) who filled in a peer nomination questionnaire and individually performed a computerized emotion recognition task. Bayesian generalized mixed-effects models showed a complex picture, in which type and intensity of emotions, students' behavior and gender interacted in explaining recognition accuracy. Results were discussed with a particular focus on negative emotions and suggesting a "neutral" nature of emotion recognition ability, which does not necessarily lead to moral behavior but can also be used for pursuing immoral goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Pozzoli
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Gianluca Gini
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Gianmarco Altoè
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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41
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Davis RL, Zhong Y. The Biology of Forgetting-A Perspective. Neuron 2017; 95:490-503. [PMID: 28772119 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.05.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Pioneering research studies, beginning with those using Drosophila, have identified several molecular and cellular mechanisms for active forgetting. The currently known mechanisms for active forgetting include neurogenesis-based forgetting, interference-based forgetting, and intrinsic forgetting, the latter term describing the brain's chronic signaling systems that function to slowly degrade molecular and cellular memory traces. The best-characterized pathway for intrinsic forgetting includes "forgetting cells" that release dopamine onto engram cells, mobilizing a signaling pathway that terminates in the activation of Rac1/Cofilin to effect changes in the actin cytoskeleton and neuron/synapse structure. Intrinsic forgetting may be the default state of the brain, constantly promoting memory erasure and competing with processes that promote memory stability like consolidation. A better understanding of active forgetting will provide insights into the brain's memory management system and human brain disorders that alter active forgetting mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald L Davis
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, USA.
| | - Yi Zhong
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, School for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
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42
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Hennessee JP, Castel AD, Knowlton BJ. Recognizing What Matters: Value Improves Recognition by Selectively Enhancing Recollection. JOURNAL OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE 2017; 94:195-205. [PMID: 28827894 PMCID: PMC5562370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2016.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We examined the effects of value on recognition by assessing its contribution to recollection and familiarity. In three experiments, participants studied English words, each associated with a point-value they would earn for correct recognition, with the goal of maximizing their score. In Experiment 1, participants provided Remember/Know judgments. In Experiment 2 participants indicated whether items were recollected or if not, their degree of familiarity along a 6-point scale. In Experiment 3, recognition of words was accompanied by a test of memory for incidental details. Across all experiments, participants were more likely to recognize items with higher point-value. Furthermore, value appeared to primarily enhance recollection, as effects on familiarity were small and not consistent across experiments. Recollection of high-value items appears to be accompanied by fewer incidental details, suggesting that value increases focus on items at the expense of irrelevant information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph P Hennessee
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 90095, USA
| | - Alan D Castel
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 90095, USA
| | - Barbara J Knowlton
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 90095, USA
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Gamboa OL, Garcia-Campayo J, Müller T, von Wegner F. Suppress to Forget: The Effect of a Mindfulness-Based Strategy during an Emotional Item-Directed Forgetting Paradigm. Front Psychol 2017; 8:432. [PMID: 28382015 PMCID: PMC5360695 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Forgetting is a common phenomenon in everyday life. Although it often has negative connotations, forgetting is an important adaptive mechanism to avoid loading the memory storage with irrelevant information. A very important aspect of forgetting is its interaction with emotion. Affective events are often granted special and priority treatment over neutral ones with regards to memory storage. As a consequence, emotional information is more resistant to extinction than neutral information. It has been suggested that intentional forgetting serves as a mechanism to cope with unwanted or disruptive emotional memories and the main goal of this study was to assess forgetting of emotional auditory material using the item-method directed forgetting (DF) paradigm using a forgetting strategy based on mindfulness as a means to enhance DF. Contrary to our prediction, the mindfulness-based strategy not only did not improve DF but reduced it for neutral material. These results suggest that an interaction between processes such as response inhibition and attention is required for intentional forgetting to succeed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga L. Gamboa
- Department of Neurology and Brain Imaging Center, Goethe University, Frankfurt am MainGermany
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, CologneGermany
| | - Javier Garcia-Campayo
- Red de Investigación en Atención Primaria, BarcelonaSpain
- Miguel Servet Hospital, University of Zaragoza, ZaragozaSpain
| | - Teresa Müller
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, CologneGermany
| | - Frederic von Wegner
- Department of Neurology and Brain Imaging Center, Goethe University, Frankfurt am MainGermany
- Epilepsy Center Rhein-Main and Brain Imaging Center, Goethe University, Frankfurt am MainGermany
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The dynamics of fidelity over the time course of long-term memory. Cogn Psychol 2016; 88:1-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Fawcett JM, Ozubko JD. Familiarity, but not recollection, supports the between-subject production effect in recognition memory. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY = REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHOLOGIE EXPERIMENTALE 2016; 70:99-115. [PMID: 27244352 PMCID: PMC4886847 DOI: 10.1037/cep0000089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Five experiments explored the basis of the between-subjects production effect in recognition memory as represented by differences in the recollection and familiarity of produced (read aloud) and nonproduced (read silently) words. Using remember-know judgments (Experiment 1b) and a dual-process signal-detection approach applied to confidence ratings (Experiments 2b and 3), we observed that production influences familiarity but not recollection when manipulated between-subjects. This is in contrast to within-subject designs, which reveal a clear effect of production on both recollection and familiarity (Experiments 1a and 2a). Our findings resolve contention concerning apparent design effects: Whereas the within-subject production effect is subserved by separable recollective- and familiarity-based components, the between-subjects production effect is subserved by the familiarity-based component alone. Our findings support a role for the relative distinctiveness of production as a means of guiding recognition judgments (at least when manipulated within-subjects), but we also propose that production influences the strength of produced items, explaining the persistence of the effect in between-subjects designs. (PsycINFO Database Record
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