The G protein G alpha12 stimulates Bruton's tyrosine kinase and a rasGAP through a conserved PH/BM domain

Mind the GAP: RASA2 and RASA3 GTPase-activating proteins as gatekeepers of T cell activation and adhesion

Following stimulation, the T cell receptor (TCR) and its coreceptors integrate multiple intracellular signals to initiate T cell proliferation, migration, gene expression, and metabolism. Among these signaling molecules are the small GTPases RAS and RAP1, which induce MAPK pathways and cellular adhesion to activate downstream effector functions. Although many studies have helped to elucidate the signaling intermediates that mediate T cell activation, the molecules and pathways that keep naive T cells in check are less understood. Several recent studies provide evidence that RASA2 and RASA3, which are GAP1-family GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) that inactivate RAS and RAP1, respectively, are crucial molecules that limit T cell activation and adhesion. In this review we describe recent data on the roles of RASA2 and RASA3 as gatekeepers of T cell activation and migration.

Ibrutinib in the Treatment of Solid Tumors: Current State of Knowledge and Future Directions

Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase (BTK) is considered crucial in the activation and survival of both physiological and malignant B-cells. In recent years, ibrutinib, an oral BTK inhibitor, became a breakthrough therapy for hematological malignancies, such as chronic lymphocytic. However, ibrutinib's feasibility might not end there. Several other kinases with established involvement with solid malignancies (i.e., EGFR, HER2) have been found to be inhibited by this agent. Recent discoveries indicate that BTK is a potential anti-solid tumor therapy target. Consequently, ibrutinib, a BTK-inhibitor, has been studied as a therapeutic option in solid malignancies. While most preclinical studies indicate ibrutinib to be an effective therapeutic option in some specific indications, such as NSCLC and breast cancer, clinical trials contradict these observations. Nevertheless, while ibrutinib failed as a monotherapy, it might become an interesting part of a multidrug regime: not only has a synergism between ibrutinib and other compounds, such as trametinib or dactolisib, been observed in vitro, but this BTK inhibitor has also been established as a radio- and chemosensitizer. This review aims to describe the milestones in translating BTK inhibitors to solid tumors in order to understand the future potential of this agent better.

G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs): Signaling Pathways, Characterization, and Functions in Insect Physiology and Toxicology

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are known to play central roles in the physiology of many organisms. Members of this seven α-helical transmembrane protein family transduce the extracellular signals and regulate intracellular second messengers through coupling to heterotrimeric G-proteins, adenylate cyclase, cAMPs, and protein kinases. As a result of the critical function of GPCRs in cell physiology and biochemistry, they not only play important roles in cell biology and the medicines used to treat a wide range of human diseases but also in insects’ physiological functions. Recent studies have revealed the expression and function of GPCRs in insecticide resistance, improving our understanding of the molecular complexes governing the development of insecticide resistance. This article focuses on the review of G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathways in insect physiology, including insects’ reproduction, growth and development, stress responses, feeding, behaviors, and other physiological processes. Hormones and polypeptides that are involved in insect GPCR regulatory pathways are reviewed. The review also gives a brief introduction of GPCR pathways in organisms in general. At the end of the review, it provides the recent studies on the function of GPCRs in the development of insecticide resistance, focusing in particular on our current knowledge of the expression and function of GPCRs and their downstream regulation pathways and their roles in insecticide resistance and the regulation of resistance P450 gene expression. The latest insights into the exciting technological advances and new techniques for gene expression and functional characterization of the GPCRs in insects are provided.

The Role of the CXCL12/CXCR4/CXCR7 Chemokine Axis in Cancer

Chemokines are a family of small, secreted cytokines which regulate a variety of cell functions. The C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) binds to C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) and C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR7). The interaction of CXCL12 and its receptors subsequently induces downstream signaling pathways with broad effects on chemotaxis, cell proliferation, migration, and gene expression. Accumulating evidence suggests that the CXCL12/CXCR4/CXCR7 axis plays a pivotal role in tumor development, survival, angiogenesis, metastasis, and tumor microenvironment. In addition, this chemokine axis promotes chemoresistance in cancer therapy via complex crosstalk with other pathways. Multiple small molecules targeting CXCR4/CXCR7 have been developed and used for preclinical and clinical cancer treatment. In this review, we describe the roles of the CXCL12/CXCR4/CXCR7 axis in cancer progression and summarize strategies to develop novel targeted cancer therapies.

C-Src is Activated by the EGF Receptor in a Pathway that Mediates JNK and ERK Activation by Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone in COS7 Cells

The key participants in G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling are the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascades. The mechanisms involved in the activation of the above cascades by GPCRs are not fully elucidated. The prototypical GPCR is the receptor for gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRHR), which serves as a key regulator of the reproductive system. Here, we expressed GnRHR in COS7 cells and found that GnRHR transmits its signals to MAPKs mainly via Gαi and the EGF receptor, without the involvement of Hb-EGF or PKCs. The main pathway that leads to JNK activation downstream of the EGF receptor involves a sequential activation of c-Src and PI3K. ERK activation by GnRHR is mediated by the EGF receptor, which activates Ras either directly or via c-Src. Beside the main pathway, the dissociated Gβγ and β-arrestin may initiate additional (albeit minor) pathways that lead to MAPK activation in the transfected COS7 cells. The pathways detected are significantly different from those in other GnRHR-bearing cells, indicating that GnRH can utilize various signaling mechanisms for MAPK activation. The unique pathway elucidated here, in which c-Src and PI3K are sequentially activated downstream of the EGF receptor, may serve as a prototype of signaling mechanisms by GnRHR and additional GPCRs in various cell types.

Evolutionary relationship between the cysteine and histidine rich domains (CHORDs) and Btk-type zinc fingers

Summary

Cysteine and histidine rich domains (CHORDs), implicated in immunity and disease resistance signaling in plants, and in development and signal transduction in muscles and tumorigenesis in animals, are seen to have a cylindrical three-dimensional structure stabilized by the tetrahedral chelation of two zinc ions. CHORDs are regarded as novel zinc-binding domains and classified independently in Pfam and ECOD. Our sequence and structure analysis reveals that both the zinc-binding sites in CHORD possess a zinc ribbon fold and are likely related to each other by duplication and circular permutation. Interestingly, we also detect an evolutionary relationship between each of the CHORD zinc fingers (ZFs) and the Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk)-type ZF of the zinc ribbon fold group. Btk_ZF is found in eukaryotic Tec kinase family proteins that are also implicated in signaling pathways in several lineages of hematopoietic cells involved in mammalian immunity. Our analysis suggests that the unique zinc-stabilized fold seen only in the CHORD and Btk_ZFs likely emerged specifically in eukaryotes to mediate diverse signaling pathways.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Somatostatin receptors as a new active targeting sites for nanoparticles

The delivery of nanoparticles through receptor-mediated cell interactions has nowadays a major attention in the area of drug targeting applications. This specific kind of targeting is mediated by localized receptors impeded into the target site with subsequent drugs internalization. Hence, this type of interaction would diminish side effects and enhance drug delivery efficacy to the target site. Somatostatin receptors (SSTRs) are one type of G protein-coupled receptors, which could be active targeted for various purposes. There are five SSTRs types (SSTR1-5) which are localized at various organs in the body and spread into different tissues. SSTRs could be considered as a promising target to various nanoparticles which is facilitated when nanoparticles are modified through specific ligand or coating to allow better binding. This review discusses the exploration of SSTRs for active targeting of nanoparticles with certain emphasize on their interaction at the cellular level.

Ibrutinib resistance in mantle cell lymphoma: clinical, molecular and treatment aspects

Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a lymphoproliferative disorder comprising about 6-10% of all B cell lymphoma cases. Ibrutinib is an inhibitor of Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK), a key component of early B-cell receptor (BCR) signalling pathways. Although treatment with ibrutinib has significantly improved the outcome of MCL patients, approximately one-third of the patients have primary drug resistance while others appear to develop acquired resistance. Understanding the molecular events leading to the primary and acquired resistance to ibrutinib is essential for achieving better outcomes in patients with MCL. In this review, we describe the biology of the BCR signalling pathway and summarize the landmark clinical trials that have led to the approval of ibrutinib. We review the molecular mechanisms underlying primary and acquired ibrutinib resistance as well as recent studies dealing with overcoming ibrutinib resistance.

G-Protein Gα13 Functions with Abl Kinase to Regulate Actin Cytoskeletal Reorganization

Heterotrimeric G-proteins are essential cellular signal transducers. One of the G-proteins, Gα₁₃, is critical for actin cytoskeletal reorganization, cell migration, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. Previously, we have shown that Gα₁₃ is essential for both G-protein-coupled receptor and receptor tyrosine kinase-induced actin cytoskeletal reorganization such as dynamic dorsal ruffle turnover and cell migration. However, the mechanism by which Gα₁₃ signals to actin cytoskeletal reorganization is not completely understood. Here we show that Gα₁₃ directly interacts with Abl tyrosine kinase, which is a critical regulator of actin cytoskeleton. This interaction is critical for Gα₁₃-induced dorsal ruffle turnover, endothelial cell remodeling, and cell migration. Our data uncover a new molecular signaling pathway by which Gα₁₃ controls actin cytoskeletal reorganization.

Gα12 regulates osteoclastogenesis by modulating NFATc1 expression

The G12 family of G protein alpha subunits has been shown to participate in the regulation of various physiological processes. However, the role of Gα12 in bone physiology has not been well described. Here, by micro‐CT analysis, we discovered that Gα12‐knockout mice have an osteopetrotic phenotype. Histological examination showed lower osteoclast number in femoral tissue of Gα12‐knockout mice compared to wild‐type mice. Additionally, in vitro osteoclastic differentiation of precursor cells with receptor activator of nuclear factor‐κB ligand (RANKL) showed that Gα12 deficiency decreased the number of osteoclast generated and the bone resorption activity. The induction of nuclear factor of activated T‐cell c1 (NFATc1), the key transcription factor of osteoclastogenesis, and the activation of RhoA by RANKL was also significantly suppressed by Gα12 deficiency. We further found that the RANKL induction of NFATc1 was not dependent on RhoA signalling, while osteoclast precursor migration and bone resorption required RhoA in the Gα12‐mediated regulation of osteoclasts. Therefore, Gα12 plays a role in differentiation through NFATc1 and in cell migration and resorption activity through RhoA during osteoclastogenesis.

Regulation, Signaling, and Physiological Functions of G-Proteins

Heterotrimeric guanine-nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins (G-proteins) mainly relay the information from G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) on the plasma membrane to the inside of cells to regulate various biochemical functions. Depending on the targeted cell types, tissues, and organs, these signals modulate diverse physiological functions. The basic schemes of heterotrimeric G-proteins have been outlined. In this review, we briefly summarize what is known about the regulation, signaling, and physiological functions of G-proteins. We then focus on a few less explored areas such as the regulation of G-proteins by non-GPCRs and the physiological functions of G-proteins that cannot be easily explained by the known G-protein signaling pathways. There are new signaling pathways and physiological functions for G-proteins to be discovered and further interrogated. With the advancements in structural and computational biological techniques, we are closer to having a better understanding of how G-proteins are regulated and of the specificity of G-protein interactions with their regulators.

REQUIREMENT OF THE TEC FAMILY TYROSINE KINASE BTK29A FOR COURTSHIP MEMORY IN Drosophila MALES

A male Drosophila that is not successful in courtship will reduce his courtship efforts in the next encounter with a female. This courtship suppression persists for more than 1 h in wild-type males. The Btk29A(ficP) mutant males null for the Btk29A type 2 isoform, a fly homolog of the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase Btk, show no courtship suppression, while Btk29A hypomorphic males exhibit a rapid decline in courtship suppression, leading to its complete loss within 30 min. The males of a revertant stock or Btk29A(ficP) males that are also mutant for parkas, a gene encoding the presumptive negative regulator of Btk29A, exhibit normal courtship suppression. Since another behavioral assay has shown that Btk29A(ficP) mutants are sensitization-defective, we hypothesize that the mutant flies are unable to maintain the neural excitation state acquired by experience, resulting in the rapid loss of courtship suppression.

BTK inhibition results in impaired CXCR4 chemokine receptor surface expression, signaling and function in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) is involved in the regulation of B-cell growth, migration and adhesion. The importance of BTK in cell trafficking is emphasized by the clonal contraction proceeded by lymphocytosis typical for the enzyme inhibitor, ibrutinib, in B-cell malignancies, including chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Here, we investigated BTK regulation of leukemic B-cell trafficking in a mouse model of aggressive TCL1 CLL-like disease. Inhibiting BTK by ibrutinib reduced surface membrane (sm) levels of CXCR4 but not CXCR5, CD49d and other adhesion/homing receptors. Decreased smCXCR4 levels resulted from blocking receptor signal transduction, which in turn aborted cycling from and to the membrane. This resulted in rapid re-distribution of CLL cells from spleens and lymph nodes into the circulation. CLL cells with impaired smCXCR4 from BTK inhibition failed to home to spleens. These functional changes mainly resulted from inhibition of CXCR4 phosphorylation at Ser339, mediated directly by blocking BTK enzymatic activity and indirectly by affecting the function of downstream targets PLCγ2 and PKCμ, and eventually synthesis of PIM-1 and BTK itself. Our data identify CXCR4 as a key regulator in BTK-mediated CLL-cell retention and have elucidated a complex set of not previously described mechanisms responsible for these effects.

Gα13 Stimulates the Tyrosine Phosphorylation of Ric-8A

The G12 family of heterotrimeric G proteins is defined by their α-subunits, Gα₁₂ and Gα₁₃. These α-subunits regulate cellular homeostasis, cell migration, and oncogenesis in a context-specific manner primarily through their interactions with distinct proteins partners that include diverse effector molecules and scaffold proteins. With a focus on identifying any other novel regulatory protein(s) that can directly interact with Gα₁₃, we subjected Gα₁₃ to tandem affinity purification-coupled mass spectrometric analysis. Our results from such analysis indicate that Gα₁₃ potently interacts with mammalian Ric-8A. Our mass spectrometric analysis data also indicates that Ric-8A, which was tandem affinity purified along with Gα₁₃, is phosphorylated at Ser-436, Thr-441, Thr-443 and Tyr-435. Using a serial deletion approach, we have defined that the C-terminus of Gα₁₃ containing the guanine-ring interaction site is essential and sufficient for its interaction with Ric-8A. Evaluation of Gα₁₃-specific signaling pathways in SKOV3 or HeyA8 ovarian cancer cell lines indicate that Ric-8A potentiates Gα₁₃-mediated activation of RhoA, Cdc42, and the downstream p38MAPK. We also establish that the tyrosine phosphorylation of Ric-8A, thus far unidentified, is potently stimulated by Gα₁₃. Our results also indicate that the stimulation of tyrosine-phosphorylation of Ric-8A by Gα₁₃ is partially sensitive to inhibitors of Src-family of kinases, namely PP2 and SI. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Gα₁₃ promotes the translocation of Ric-8A to plasma membrane and this translocation is attenuated by the Src-inhibitors, SI1 and PP2. Thus, our results demonstrate for the first time that Gα₁₃ stimulates the tyrosine phosphorylation of Ric-8A and Gα₁₃-mediated tyrosine-phosphorylation plays a critical role in the translocation of Ric-8A to plasma membrane.

BTK inhibitors in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a glimpse to the future

The treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) with inhibitors targeting B cell receptor signaling and other survival mechanisms holds great promise. Especially the early clinical success of Ibrutinib, an irreversible inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK), has received widespread attention. In this review we will focus on the fundamental and clinical aspects of BTK inhibitors in CLL, with emphasis on Ibrutinib as the best studied of this class of drugs. Furthermore, we summarize recent laboratory as well as clinical findings relating to the first cases of Ibrutinib resistance. Finally, we address combination strategies with Ibrutinib, and attempt to extrapolate its current status to the near future in the clinic.

Bruton's tyrosine kinase: from X-linked agammaglobulinemia toward targeted therapy for B-cell malignancies

Discovery of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) mutations as the cause for X-linked agammaglobulinemia was a milestone in understanding the genetic basis of primary immunodeficiencies. Since then, studies have highlighted the critical role of this enzyme in B-cell development and function, and particularly in B-cell receptor signaling. Because its deletion affects mostly B cells, BTK has become an attractive therapeutic target in autoimmune disorders and B-cell malignancies. Ibrutinib (PCI-32765) is the most advanced BTK inhibitor in clinical testing, with ongoing phase III clinical trials in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia and mantle-cell lymphoma. In this article, we discuss key discoveries related to BTK and clinically relevant aspects of BTK inhibitors, and we provide an outlook into clinical development and open questions regarding BTK inhibitor therapy.

Breaking good: the inexorable rise of BTK inhibitors in the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia

Although expressed in several haematological lineages and involved in multiple different signalling pathways, Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) plays an indispensible role in B cells in signalling from the B cell receptor (BCR) for antigen. Many B cell malignancies remain dependent on constitutive BCR signalling, making BTK a functional therapeutic target. Several BTK inhibitors (BTKi) with different kinomes and modes of action are being assessed clinically. This review documents the efficacy and toxicity of BTKi in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL). Clinically, the furthest in development is ibrutinib (trade name, Imbruvica), an irreversible BTKi, which has shown spectacular preliminary efficacy, with rapid reductions in lymph nodes accompanied by peripheral blood lymphocytosis. The lymphocytosis resolves slowly and most patients do not enter a complete remission. Nevertheless, it is possible to maintain many CLL patients, even those with adverse cytogenetic features, on drug for many months with minimal toxicities, thus potentially transforming the therapeutic paradigms for CLL. The efficacy, lack of toxicity and oral administration of BTKi will ensure their adoption in a wide range of B cell malignancies. An outstanding challenge is to incorporate BTKi with other precision medicines in a mechanism-based manner in order to dispense with conventional chemotherapy.

Targeting Bruton's tyrosine kinase in B cell malignancies

Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) is a key component of B cell receptor (BCR) signalling and functions as an important regulator of cell proliferation and cell survival in various B cell malignancies. Small-molecule inhibitors of BTK have shown antitumour activity in animal models and, recently, in clinical studies. High response rates were reported in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and mantle cell lymphoma. Remarkably, BTK inhibitors have molecular effects that cannot be explained by the classic role of BTK in BCR signalling. In this Review, we highlight the importance of BTK in various signalling pathways in the context of its therapeutic inhibition.

The zinc-binding region of IL-2 inducible T cell kinase (Itk) is required for interaction with Gα13 and activation of serum response factor

Tec family kinases play critical roles in the activation of immune cells. In particular, Itk is important for the activation of T cells via the T cell Receptor (TcR), however, molecules that cooperate with Itk to activate downstream targets remain little explored. Here we show that Itk interacts with the heterotrimeric G-protein α subunit Gα13 during TcR triggering. This interaction requires membrane localization of both partners, and is partially dependent on GDP- and GTP-bound states of Gα13. Furthermore, we find that Itk interacts with Gα13 via the zinc binding regions within its Tec homology domain. The interaction between Itk and Gα13 also results in tyrosine phosphorylation of Gα13, however this is not required for the interaction. Itk enhances Gα13 mediated activation of serum response factor (SRF) transcriptional activity dependent on its ability to interact with Gα13, but its kinase activity is not required to enhance SRF activity. These data reveal a new pathway regulated by Itk in cells, and suggest cross talk between Itk and G-protein signaling downstream of the TcR.

Quantitative Proteomics Identifies Activation of Hallmark Pathways of Cancer in Patient Melanoma

Molecular pathways regulating melanoma initiation and progression are potential targets of therapeutic development for this aggressive cancer. Identification and molecular analysis of these pathways in patients has been primarily restricted to targeted studies on individual proteins. Here, we report the most comprehensive analysis of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded human melanoma tissues using quantitative proteomics. From 61 patient samples, we identified 171 proteins varying in abundance among benign nevi, primary melanoma, and metastatic melanoma. Seventy-three percent of these proteins were validated by immunohistochemistry staining of malignant melanoma tissues from the Human Protein Atlas database. Our results reveal that molecular pathways involved with tumor cell proliferation, motility, and apoptosis are mis-regulated in melanoma. These data provide the most comprehensive proteome resource on patient melanoma and reveal insight into the molecular mechanisms driving melanoma progression.

Mitogenic Signaling by the gep Oncogene Involves the Upregulation of S-Phase Kinase-Associated Protein 2

The gep oncogene, defined by the activated mutant of the α-subunit of the G protein G(12) (Gα(12)Q229L or Gα(12)QL), potently stimulates the proliferation of many different cell types in addition to inducing neoplastic transformation of several fibroblast cell lines. While it has been demonstrated that Gα(12)QL accelerates G1- to S-phase cell cycle progression, the precise mechanism through which Gα(12) communicates to cell cycle machinery is largely unknown. In the present study, we report that the activated-mutational as well as receptor-mediated-Gα(12) transmits its proliferative signals to cell cycle machinery by modulating the levels of the S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 (Skp2), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, involved in the regulation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor (CKI), p27(Kip1). Our results show that the expression of Gα(12)QL leads to an increase in the levels of Skp2 with a correlatable decrease in p27(Kip1) levels and subsequent increase in the activities of specific CDKs. By demonstrating that the transient expression of Gα(12)QL induces an increase in Skp2 levels with resultant downregulation of p27(Kip1) in both NIH3T3 and human astrocytoma 1321N1 cells, we establish here that the effect of Gα(12) on Skp2/p27(Kip1) is cell type independent. In addition, we demonstrate that LPA-stimulated proliferation and changes in Skp2 and p27(Kip1) levels in 1321N1 cells could be inhibited by the expression of a dominant-negative mutant of Gα(12), thereby pointing to the critical role of Gα(12) in LPA-mediated mitogenic signaling. Our findings also indicate that LPA as well as Gα(12)-mediated upregulation of Skp2 requires a yet to be characterized mechanism involving JNK. Since Skp2 has been identified as an oncogene, and it is overexpressed in many cancers, our results presented here describe for the first time that Skp2 is a novel target in the cell cycle machinery through which Gα(12) and its cognate receptors transmit their oncogenic signals.

Signalling mechanisms of RhoGTPase regulation by the heterotrimeric G proteins G12 and G13

G protein-mediated signal transduction can transduce signals from a large variety of extracellular stimuli into cells and is the most widely used mechanism for cell communication at the membrane. The RhoGTPase family has been well established as key regulators of cell growth, differentiation and cell shape changes. Among G protein-mediated signal transduction, G12/13-mediated signalling is one mechanism to regulate RhoGTPase activity in response to extracellular stimuli. The alpha subunits of G12 or G13 have been shown to interact with members of the RH domain containing guanine nucleotide exchange factors for Rho (RH-RhoGEF) family of proteins to directly connect G protein-mediated signalling and RhoGTPase signalling. The G12/13-RH-RhoGEF signalling mechanism is well conserved over species and is involved in critical steps for cell physiology and disease conditions, including embryonic development, oncogenesis and cancer metastasis. In this review, we will summarize current progress on this important signalling mechanism.

Resistance to inhibitors of cholinesterase-8A (Ric-8A) is critical for growth factor receptor-induced actin cytoskeletal reorganization

Heterotrimeric G proteins are critical transducers of cellular signaling. In addition to their classic roles in relaying signals from G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), heterotrimeric G proteins also mediate physiological functions from non-GPCRs. Previously, we have shown that Gα(13), a member of the heterotrimeric G proteins, is essential for growth factor receptor-induced actin cytoskeletal reorganization such as dynamic dorsal ruffle turnover and cell migration. These Gα(13)-mediated dorsal ruffle turnover and cell migration by growth factors acting on their receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are independent of GPCRs. However, the mechanism by which RTKs signal to Gα(13) is not known. Here, we show that cholinesterase-8A (Ric-8A), a nonreceptor guanine nucleotide exchange factor for some heterotrimeric G proteins, is critical for coupling RTKs to Gα(13). Down-regulation of Ric-8A protein levels in cells by RNA interference slowed down platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-induced dorsal ruffle turnover and inhibited PDGF-initiated cell migration. PDGF was able to increase the activity of Ric-8A in cells. Furthermore, purified Ric-8A proteins interact directly with purified Gα(13) protein in a nucleotide-dependent manner. Deficiency of Ric-8A prevented the translocation of Gα(13) to the cell cortex. Hence, Ric-8A is critical for growth factor receptor-induced actin cytoskeletal reorganization.

Etk/Bmx regulates proteinase-activated-receptor1 (PAR1) in breast cancer invasion: signaling partners, hierarchy and physiological significance

BACKGROUND

While protease-activated-receptor 1 (PAR(1)) plays a central role in tumor progression, little is known about the cell signaling involved.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We show here the impact of PAR(1) cellular activities using both an orthotopic mouse mammary xenograft and a colorectal-liver metastasis model in vivo, with biochemical analyses in vitro. Large and highly vascularized tumors were generated by cells over-expressing wt hPar1, Y397Z hPar1, with persistent signaling, or Y381A hPar1 mutant constructs. In contrast, cells over-expressing the truncated form of hPar1, which lacks the cytoplasmic tail, developed small or no tumors, similar to cells expressing empty vector or control untreated cells. Antibody array membranes revealed essential hPar1 partners including Etk/Bmx and Shc. PAR(1) activation induces Etk/Bmx and Shc binding to the receptor C-tail to form a complex. Y/A mutations in the PAR(1) C-tail did not prevent Shc-PAR(1) association, but enhanced the number of liver metastases compared with the already increased metastases obtained with wt hPar1. We found that Etk/Bmx first binds via the PH domain to a region of seven residues, located between C378-S384 in PAR(1) C-tail, enabling subsequent Shc association. Importantly, expression of the hPar1-7A mutant form (substituted A, residues 378-384), which is incapable of binding Etk/Bmx, resulted in inhibition of invasion through Matrigel-coated membranes. Similarly, knocking down Etk/Bmx inhibited PAR(1)-induced MDA-MB-435 cell migration. In addition, intact spheroid morphogenesis of MCF10A cells is markedly disrupted by the ectopic expression of wt hPar1. In contrast, the forced expression of the hPar1-7A mutant results in normal ball-shaped spheroids. Thus, by preventing binding of Etk/Bmx to PAR(1) -C-tail, hPar1 oncogenic properties are abrogated.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

This is the first demonstration that a cytoplasmic portion of the PAR(1) C-tail functions as a scaffold site. We identify here essential signaling partners, determine the hierarchy of binding and provide a platform for therapeutic vehicles via definition of the critical PAR(1)-associating region in the breast cancer signaling niche.

The Tec family kinase Itk exists as a folded monomer in vivo

Tec family tyrosine kinases transduce signals from antigen and other receptors. In particular, Itk plays an important role in T-cell development and activation. Itk has an N-terminal pleckstrin homology domain, a Tec Homology domain with a proline-rich region, SH3 and SH2 domains and a kinase domain, the structure each of which has been determined. However, the full structure of Itk and other Tec kinases remain elusive. Models of Itk suggest either a head to tail dimer, with the SH2 domain interacting with the SH3 domain, or a folded monomer with the SH3 domain interacting with the proline-rich region. We show here that in vivo Itk exists as a monomer, with the pleckstrin homology domain less than 80 A from the C terminus. Zn2+ coordinating residues in the Tec Homology domain, not the proline-rich region, are critical for this intramolecular interaction. These data have implications for our understanding of Tec family kinase structure.

Role of G12 proteins in oncogenesis and metastasis

The G12 subfamily of heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding proteins consists of two alpha subunits, G alpha12 and G alpha13. These proteins mediate signalling via G protein-coupled receptors and have been implicated in various physiological and pathophysiological processes. A number of direct and indirect effectors of G alpha12 and G alpha13 have been identified that mediate, or have been proposed to mediate, the diverse cellular responses accompanying activation of G12 proteins. This review describes the signalling pathways and cellular events stimulated by G12 proteins, with a particular emphasis on processes that are important in regulating cell migration and invasion, and could potentially be involved in the pathophysiology of cancer metastasis. Experimental findings directly implicating G12 proteins in the spread of metastatic disease are also summarized, indicating the importance of targeted inhibition of G12 signalling as a potential therapeutic option for locally advanced and metastatic disease.

Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk): function, regulation, and transformation with special emphasis on the PH domain

Bruton's agammaglobulinemia tyrosine kinase (Btk) is a cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase important in B-lymphocyte development, differentiation, and signaling. Btk is a member of the Tec family of kinases. Mutations in the Btk gene lead to X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) in humans and X-linked immunodeficiency (Xid) in mice. Activation of Btk triggers a cascade of signaling events that culminates in the generation of calcium mobilization and fluxes, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and transcriptional regulation involving nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT). In B cells, NF-kappaB was shown to bind to the Btk promoter and induce transcription, whereas the B-cell receptor-dependent NF-kappaB signaling pathway requires functional Btk. Moreover, Btk activation is tightly regulated by a plethora of other signaling proteins including protein kinase C (PKC), Sab/SH3BP5, and caveolin-1. For example, the prolyl isomerase Pin1 negatively regulates Btk by decreasing tyrosine phosphorylation and steady state levels of Btk. It is intriguing that PKC and Pin1, both of which are negative regulators, bind to the pleckstrin homology domain of Btk. To this end, we describe here novel mutations in the pleckstrin homology domain investigated for their transforming capacity. In particular, we show that the mutant D43R behaves similar to E41K, already known to possess such activity.

Chemokine signaling in cancer: one hump or two?

Chemokines and their receptors play essential roles in the development and function of multiple tissues. Chemokine expression, particularly CXCL12 and its receptor CXCR4, has prognostic significance in several cancers apparently due to chemokine mediated growth and metastatic spread. These observations provide the rationale for pursuing CXCR4 inhibition for cancer chemotherapy. However, the multiple homeostatic functions of CXCR4 may preclude global inhibition as a therapeutic strategy. Here I review CXCR4 signaling and how it might differ in normal and transformed cells with special emphasis on the role that altered CXCR4 counter-regulation might play in tumor biology. I propose that CXCR4 mediates unique signals in cancer cells as a consequence of abnormal counter-regulation and that this results in novel biological responses. The importance of testing this hypothesis lies in the possibility that targeting abnormal CXCR4 signaling might provide an anti-tumor effect without disturbing normal CXCR4 functions.

Regulation and physiological functions of G12/13-mediated signaling pathways

Accumulating data indicate that G12 subfamily (Galpha12/13)-mediated signaling pathways play pivotal roles in a variety of physiological processes, while aberrant regulation of this pathway has been identified in various human diseases. It has been demonstrated that Galpha12/13-mediated signals form networks with other signaling proteins at various levels, from cell surface receptors to transcription factors, to regulate cellular responses. Galpha12/13 have slow rates of nucleotide exchange and GTP hydrolysis, and specifically target RhoGEFs containing an amino-terminal RGS homology domain (RH-RhoGEFs), which uniquely function both as a GAP and an effector for Galpha12/13. In this review, we will focus on the mechanisms regulating the Galpha12/13 signaling system, particularly the Galpha12/13-RH-RhoGEF-Rho pathway, which can regulate a wide variety of cellular functions from migration to transformation.

GAP1(IP4BP)/RASA3 mediates Galphai-induced inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase

The dopamine D2S receptor (short isoform) couples to inhibitory Galphai/o proteins to inhibit thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)-stimulated p42/p44 mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK1/2) phosphorylation in GH4ZR7 rat pituitary cells, consistent with its actions to inhibit prolactin gene transcription and cell proliferation. However, the underlying mechanism is unclear. To identify novel Galphai effectors, yeast two-hybrid screening of a GH4ZR7 cDNA library was done using constitutively active Galphai3-Q204L, and multiple clones of the RasGAP cDNA GAP1(IP4BP)/RASA3 were identified. In yeast mating assay, RASA3 preferentially interacted with activated forms of Galphai/o/z proteins, but not with Galphas. A direct interaction was indicated by in vitro pull-down assay, in which S-His-RASA3 preferentially bound guanosine 5'-O-(gamma-thio)triphosphate-activated Galphai3 and Galphai2 compared with guanosine 5'-O-(beta-thio)diphosphate-inactivated proteins. Similarly, in co-immunoprecipitation studies in HEK-293 cells, FLAG-tagged RASA3 preferentially interacted with activated mutants of Galphai3 and Galphai2 compared with wild type proteins. In GH4ZR7 cells, co-immunoprecipitation studies of endogenous proteins demonstrated a Galphai3-RASA3 complex that was induced upon TRH/D2S receptor co-activation. To address RASA3 function in dopamine D2S receptor-induced inhibition of ERK1/2 activity, endogenous RASA3 protein expression was suppressed (70% knockdown) in GH4ZR7 cells stably transfected with full-length antisense cDNA of RASA3. The selected antisense clones had similar levels of dopamine D2S receptor binding and D2S-induced inhibition of cAMP formation compared with parental GH4ZR7 cells. In these clones, D2S-mediated inhibition of TRH-induced phospho-ERK1/2 was reversed by 70-80% compared with parental GH4ZR7 cells. Our results provide a novel mechanism for dopamine D2S-induced inhibition of ERK1/2 and indicate that RASA3 links Galphai proteins to inhibit Gq-induced Ras/ERK1/2 activation.

G(12)/G(13)-mediated signalling in mammalian physiology and disease

The human genome encodes hundreds of G-protein-coupled receptors. Their intracellular effects, however, are mediated by only four families of heterotrimeric G proteins: G(s), G(i)/G(o), G(q)/G(11) and G(12)/G(13). Progress in the knowledge about the G(12)/G(13) family has somewhat lagged behind because their downstream effectors remained unknown for several years, and tools to specifically interfere with G(12)/G(13)-mediated signalling were, therefore, missing. However, with the identification of G(12)/G(13)-regulated signalling pathways and the recent application of new techniques, such as conditional gene inactivation, RNA interference or expression of inhibitory proteins, new insights into the in vivo functions of this G-protein family have been gained. It has become clear that this pathway regulates cellular proliferation, movement and morphology in many different organs and that it is centrally involved in various diseases including cancer and cardiovascular disorders. Here, we focus on recent progress made in the analyses of the in vivo functions of mammalian G(12)/G(13)-mediated signalling.

Galpha12 regulates protein interactions within the MDCK cell tight junction and inhibits tight-junction assembly

The polarized functions of epithelia require an intact tight junction (TJ) to restrict paracellular movement and to separate membrane proteins into specific domains. TJs contain scaffolding, integral membrane and signaling proteins, but the mechanisms that regulate TJs and their assembly are not well defined. Galpha12 (GNA12) binds the TJ protein ZO-1 (TJP1), and Galpha12 activates Src to increase paracellular permeability via unknown mechanisms. Herein, we identify Src as a component of the TJ and find that recruitment of Hsp90 to activated Galpha12 is necessary for signaling. TJ integrity is disrupted by Galpha12-stimulated Src phosphorylation of ZO-1 and ZO-2 (TJP2); this phosphorylation leads to dissociation of occludin and claudin 1 from the ZO-1 protein complex. Inhibiting Hsp90 with geldanamycin blocks Galpha12-stimulated Src activation and phosphorylation, but does not affect protein levels or the Galpha12-ZO-1 interaction. Using the calcium-switch model of TJ assembly and GST-TPR (GST-fused TPR domain of PP5) pull-downs of activated Galpha12, we demonstrate that switching to normal calcium medium activates endogenous Galpha12 during TJ assembly. Thrombin increases permeability and delays TJ assembly by activating Galpha12, but not Galpha13, signaling pathways. These findings reveal an important role for Galpha12, Src and Hsp90 in regulating the TJ in established epithelia and during TJ assembly.

RasGAPs: a crucial regulator of extracellular stimuli for homeostasis of cellular functions

Ras and its GTPase activating proteins (GAPs) are among the crucial regulators of extracelluar ligands. Information about these regulators has been elucidated during the course of studies in signal transduction over the last two decades. RasGAPs such as p120GAP and neurofibromin have been studied extensively for their roles as either "negative" regulators or effectors of Ras. Accumulating evidence suggests that these molecules are crucial regulators of extracellular stimuli that serve to maintain the homeostasis of cellular functions. This compendium highlights cellular functions of RasGAPs and their signaling characteristics from the viewpoint of homeostasis, including our recent finding of the phenotype of R-RasGAP mutant mice whose GAP activity is down-regulated.

The P2Y2 nucleotide receptor requires interaction with alpha v integrins to access and activate G12

The P2Y2 nucleotide receptor (P2Y2R) interacts with alpha v integrins to activate G(o) and induce chemotaxis in human 1321N1 astrocytoma cells. In this study, it was determined that the P2Y2R also requires interaction with alpha v integrins to activate G12 and associated signaling pathways that control chemotaxis in 1321N1 cells. Mutation of the Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) integrin-binding sequence in the first extracellular loop of the human P2Y2R to Arg-Gly-Glu (RGE), which prevents integrin interaction, did not inhibit G(q) or ERK1/2 signaling by the P2Y2R agonist UTP but completely inhibited activation of G12 and G12-mediated events, including Rho activation, cofilin and myosin light chain-2 phosphorylation, stress fiber formation and chemotaxis towards UTP. The involvement of G12 in all these events was verified by using a dominant negative G alpha12 construct. G12 activation by the P2Y2R also was inhibited by anti-alpha v beta5 integrin antibodies and alpha v integrin antisense oligonucleotides, suggesting that alpha v integrin activity and expression are required for the P2Y2R to activate G12. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments confirmed that G alpha12 protein associates with the wild-type P2Y2R and with alpha v integrins but not with the RGE mutant P2Y2R or with alpha3 integrins. Collectively, these results suggest that alpha v integrin complexes provide the P2Y2R with access to G12, thereby allowing activation of this heterotrimeric G protein that controls actin cytoskeletal rearrangements required for chemotaxis.

G protein regulation of MAPK networks

G proteins provide signal-coupling mechanisms to heptahelical cell surface receptors and are critically involved in the regulation of different mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) networks. The four classes of G proteins, defined by the G(s), G(i), G(q) and G(12) families, regulate ERK1/2, JNK, p38MAPK, ERK5 and ERK6 modules by different mechanisms. The alpha- as well as betagamma-subunits are involved in the regulation of these MAPK modules in a context-specific manner. While the alpha- and betagamma-subunits primarily regulate the MAPK pathways via their respective effector-mediated signaling pathways, recent studies have unraveled several novel signaling intermediates including receptor tyrosine kinases and small GTPases through which these G-protein subunits positively as well as negatively regulate specific MAPK modules. Multiple mechanisms together with specific scaffold proteins that can link G-protein-coupled receptors or G proteins to distinct MAPK modules contribute to the context-specific and spatio-temporal regulation of mitogen-activated protein signaling networks by G proteins.

Up-regulation of ras-GAP genes is reversed by a MEK inhibitor and doxorubicin in v-Ki-ras-transformed NIH/3T3 fibroblasts

Ras-GTPase-activating proteins (Ras-GAPs) have been implicated both as suppressors of Ras and as effectors in regulating cellular activities. To study whether Ras-GAPs have roles in tumor cell survival or not, mRNA levels of ras-related genes were measured in v-Ki-ras-transformed (DT) and the parental NIH/3T3 cells, using real-time PCR. mRNA levels of p120-Gap, Gap1(m), and PIK3CA were increased in DT cells compared with NIH/3T3 cells. p120-Gap and PIK3CA genes were induced by addition of serum or epidermal growth factor to serum-starved DT cells. Three anti-cancer drugs, an ERK kinase (MEK) inhibitor PD98059, a topoisomerase II poison doxorubicin (adriamycin), and a histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A, selectively blocked the overexpression of p120-Gap and Gap1(m) genes in DT cells. These drugs also caused reversion of DT cells to the adherent shape associated with growth arrest. Our results suggest that p120-Gap and Gap1(m) genes provide important biomarkers for cancer therapies.

Domains necessary for Galpha12 binding and stimulation of protein phosphatase-2A (PP2A): Is Galpha12 a novel regulatory subunit of PP2A?

Many cellular signaling pathways share regulation by protein phosphatase-2A (PP2A), a widely expressed serine/threonine phosphatase, and the heterotrimeric G protein Galpha(12). PP2A activity is altered in carcinogenesis and in some neurodegenerative diseases. We have identified binding of Galpha(12) with the Aalpha subunit of PP2A, a trimeric enzyme composed of A (scaffolding), B (regulatory), and C (catalytic) subunits and demonstrated that Galpha(12) stimulated phosphatase activity (J Biol Chem 279: 54983-54986, 2004). We now show in substrate-velocity analysis using purified PP2A that V(max) was stimulated 3- to 4-fold by glutathione transferase (GST)-Galpha(12) with little effect on K(m) values. To identify the binding domains mediating the Aalpha-Galpha(12) interaction, an extensive mutational analysis was performed. Well-characterized mutations of Aalpha were expressed in vitro and tested for binding to GST-Galpha(12) in pull-down assays. Galpha(12) binds to Aalpha along repeats 7 to 10, and PP2A B subunits are not necessary for binding. To identify where Aalpha binds to Galpha(12), a series of 61 Galpha(12) mutants were engineered to contain the sequence Asn-Ala-Ala-Ile-Arg-Ser (NAAIRS) in place of 6 consecutive amino acids. Mutant Galpha(12) proteins were individually expressed in human embryonic kidney cells and analyzed for interaction with GST or GST-Aalpha in pull-down assays. The Aalpha binding sites were localized to regions near the N and C termini of Galpha(12). The expression of constitutively activated Galpha(12) (QLalpha(12)) in Madin Darby canine kidney cells stimulated PP2A activity as determined by decreased phosphorylation of tyrosine 307 on the catalytic subunit. Based on crystal structures of Galpha(12) and PP2A Aalpha, a model describing the binding surfaces and potential mechanisms of Galpha(12)-mediated PP2A activation is presented.

Expansion of signal transduction by G proteins. The second 15 years or so: from 3 to 16 alpha subunits plus betagamma dimers

The first 15 years, or so, brought the realization that there existed a G protein coupled signal transduction mechanism by which hormone receptors regulate adenylyl cyclases and the light receptor rhodopsin activates visual phosphodiesterase. Three G proteins, Gs, Gi and transducin (T) had been characterized as alphabetagamma heterotrimers, and Gsalpha-GTP and Talpha-GTP had been identified as the sigaling arms of Gs and T. These discoveries were made using classical biochemical approaches, and culminated in the purification of these G proteins. The second 15 years, or so, are the subject of the present review. This time coincided with the advent of powerful recombinant DNA techniques. Combined with the classical approaches, the field expanded the repertoire of G proteins from 3 to 16, discovered the superfamily of seven transmembrane G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) -- which is not addressed in this article -- and uncovered an amazing repertoire of effector functions regulated not only by alphaGTP complexes but also by betagamma dimers. Emphasis is placed in presenting how the field developed with the hope of conveying why many of the new findings were made.

Tec kinases in T cell and mast cell signaling

The Tec family of tyrosine kinases consists of five members (Itk, Rlk, Tec, Btk, and Bmx) that are expressed predominantly in hematopoietic cells. The exceptions, Tec and Bmx, are also found in endothelial cells. Tec kinases constitute the second largest family of cytoplasmic protein tyrosine kinases. While B cells express Btk and Tec, and T cells express Itk, Rlk, and Tec, all four of these kinases (Btk, Itk, Rlk, and Tec) can be detected in mast cells. This chapter will focus on the biochemical and cell biological data that have been accumulated regarding Itk, Rlk, Btk, and Tec. In particular, distinctions between the different Tec kinase family members will be highlighted, with a goal of providing insight into the unique functions of each kinase. The known functions of Tec kinases in T cell and mast cell signaling will then be described, with a particular focus on T cell receptor and mast cell Fc epsilon RI signaling pathways.

G Proteins G12 and G13 Control the Dynamic Turnover of Growth Factor-induced Dorsal Ruffles

Growth factors induce massive actin cytoskeletal remodeling in cells. These reorganization events underlie various cellular responses such as cell migration and morphological changes. One major form of actin reorganization is the formation and disassembly of dorsal ruffles (also named waves, dorsal rings, or circular ruffles). Dorsal ruffles are involved in physiological functions including cell migration, invasion, macropinocytosis, plasma membrane recycling, and others. Growth factors initiate rapid formation (within 5 min) of circular membrane ruffles, and these ruffles move along the dorsal side of the cells, constrict, close, and eventually disassemble ( approximately 20 min). Considerable attention has been devoted to the mechanism by which growth factors induce the formation of dorsal ruffles. However, little is known of the mechanism by which these ruffles are disassembled. Here we have shown that G proteins G(12) and G(13) control the rate of disassembly of dorsal ruffles. In Galpha(12)(-/-)Galpha(13)(-/-) fibroblast cells, dorsal ruffles induced by growth factor treatment remain visible substantially longer ( approximately 60 min) than in wild-type cells, whereas the rate of formation of these ruffles was the same with or without Galpha(12) and Galpha(13). Thus, Galpha(12)/Galpha(13) critically regulate dorsal ruffle turnover.

Chemoattractant receptor signaling and the control of lymphocyte migration

This review focuses on mechanisms by which chemoattractant receptors activate downstream signaling pathways in lymphocytes. An emphasis is placed on heterotrimeric G protein signaling with a discussion of the specific heterotrimeric G-proteins involved in lymphocyte chemotaxis and motility and the role of regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins in controlling the activation of downstream effectors. Also considered are those direct downstream effectors known to function in lymphocyte chemotaxis and/or motility. The consequences of targeting genes suspected, known, or serendipitously found to be involved in chemokine receptor signaling pathways form much of a basis for the review. When needed for clarification, reference to studies of chemoattractant signaling in model organisms and in neutrophils will be compared and contrasted to studies in lymphocytes. Finally, the emergence of tools to image lymphocyte in vitro and in vivo will be mentioned as they are increasing helpful for the analysis of lymphocyte trafficking and amendable to the study of chemokine receptor signaling.

The G protein G alpha(13) is required for growth factor-induced cell migration

Heterotrimeric G proteins are critical cellular signal transducers. They are known to directly relay signals from seven-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to downstream effectors. On the other hand, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), a different family of membrane receptors, signal through docking sites in their carboxy-terminal tails created by autophosphorylated tyrosine residues. Here we show that a heterotrimeric G protein, G alpha(13), is essential for RTK-induced migration of mouse fibroblast and endothelial cells. G alpha(13) activity in cell migration is retained in a C-terminal mutant that is defective in GPCR coupling, suggesting that the migration function is independent of GPCR signaling. Thus, G alpha(13) appears to be a critical signal transducer for RTKs as well as GPCRs. This broader role of G alpha(13) in cell migration initiated by two types of receptors could provide a molecular basis for the vascular system defects exhibited by G alpha(13) knockout mice.

Roles for phosphoinositide 3-kinases, Bruton's tyrosine kinase, and Jun kinases in B lymphocyte chemotaxis and homing

B lymphocyte chemokine receptors signal to downstream effectors by activating heterotrimeric G proteins. However, many of these effectors remain unknown and the known ones often have ill-defined roles in B cell trafficking. Here we report that pharmacological inhibitors of phosphoinositide 3-kinases (wortmannin, WMN), Bruton's tyrosine kinase (LFM-A13), and Jun kinases (SP600125) all significantly impair CXCL12-induced mouse B cell chemotaxis and that of a human B lymphoma cell line. Examination of two CXCR4-induced signaling pathways revealed that LFM-A13 and WMN blocked Akt activation, while SP600125 and WMN blocked JNK activation. Each of the inhibitors impaired the homing of transferred B cells to peripheral lymph nodes. Intravital imaging of control and inhibitor-treated mouse B cells in the inguinal lymph node high endothelial venules (HEV) demonstrated a 17%, 35%, and 60% reduction in the number of firmly adherent B cells with LFM-A13, SP600125, and WMN, respectively. These results implicate chemokine receptor mediated activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinases in the firm adhesion of mouse B cells within peripheral lymph node HEV, while Bruton's tyrosine kinase and JNK activation are less important and more likely needed during B cell transmigration through the endothelium and/or trafficking into the lymph node parenchyma.

Csk mediates G-protein-coupled lysophosphatidic acid receptor-induced inhibition of membrane-bound guanylyl cyclase activity

Natriuretic peptides (NPs) are involved in many physiological processes, including the regulation of vascular tone, sodium excretion, pressure-volume homeostasis, inflammatory responses, and cellular growth. The two main receptors of NP, membrane-bound guanylyl cyclases A and B (GC-A and GC-B), mediate the effects of NPs via the generation of cGMP. NP-stimulated generation of cGMP can be modulated by intracellular processes, whose exact nature remains to be elucidated. Thus, serum and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), by unknown pathways, have been shown to inhibit the NP-induced generation of cGMP. Here we report that the nonreceptor-tyrosine-kinase Csk is an essential component of the intracellular modulation of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)-stimulated activation of GC-A. The genetic deletion of Csk (Csk(-)(/)(-)) in mouse embryonic fibroblasts blocked the inhibitory effect of both serum and LPA on the ANP-stimulated generation of cGMP. Moreover, using a chemical rescue approach, we also demonstrate that the catalytic activity of Csk is required for its modulatory function. Our data demonstrate that Csk is involved in the control of cGMP levels and that membrane-bound guanylyl cyclases can be critically modulated by other receptor-initiated intracellular signaling pathways.

Defective expression of Gα12 in the testes of azoospermia patients and in the spermatozoa with low motility

Antibody to the Galpha12-subunit of guanine nucleotide regulatory proteins was used to determine whether the Galpha12 is present in adult human spermatogenic cells and to determine its role in dyszoospermia. Immunoblots from testes and spermatozoa demonstrated the presence of Galpha12 in the samples. Immunohistochemical analyses of testes found that Galpha12 was expressed in the cytoplasm of Leydig cells and was expressed in spermatids from the elongating Sb phase to mature sperm. Indirect immunofluorescence of human spermatozoa revealed the presence of Galpha12 in the neck region and the midpiece of the sperm. Galpha12 in spermatids and spermatozoa partially co-localized with F-actin and alpha-tubulin. Immunohistochemical analyses of tissues from three patients with non-obstructive azoospermia showed abnormal expression of Galpha12 in more than 45% of spermatids. Furthermore, Western blots and indirect immunofluorescence found defective expression of Galpha12 in low-motility spermatozoa with midpieces that were bent on themselves. Therefore, it suggests that Galpha12 plays a role in polarity and tail formation as spermatids mature. Furthermore, Galpha12 may be a candidate protein responsible for azoospermia caused by spermatogenic disturbance or midpiece deformities.

Inhibition of a background potassium channel by Gq protein alpha-subunits

Two-pore-domain K(+) channels provide neuronal background currents that establish resting membrane potential and input resistance; their modulation provides a prevalent mechanism for regulating cellular excitability. The so-called TASK channel subunits (TASK-1 and TASK-3) are widely expressed, and they are robustly inhibited by receptors that signal through Galphaq family proteins. Here, we manipulated G protein expression and membrane phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)) levels in intact and cell-free systems to provide electrophysiological and biochemical evidence that inhibition of TASK channels by Galphaq-linked receptors proceeds unabated in the absence of phospholipase C (PLC) activity, and instead involves association of activated Galphaq subunits with the channels. Receptor-mediated inhibition of TASK channels was faster and less sensitive to a PLCbeta1-ct minigene construct than inhibition of PIP(2)-sensitive Kir3.4(S143T) homomeric channels that is known to be dependent on PLC. TASK channels were strongly inhibited by constitutively active Galphaq, even by a mutated version that is deficient in PLC activation. Receptor-mediated TASK channel inhibition required exogenous Galphaq expression in fibroblasts derived from Galphaq/11 knockout mice, but proceeded unabated in a cell line in which PIP(2) levels were reduced by regulated overexpression of a lipid phosphatase. Direct application of activated Galphaq, but not other G protein subunits, inhibited TASK channels in excised patches, and constitutively active Galphaq subunits were selectively coimmunoprecipitated with TASK channels. These data indicate that receptor-mediated TASK channel inhibition is independent of PIP(2) depletion, and they suggest a mechanism whereby channel modulation by Galphaq occurs through direct interaction with the ion channel or a closely associated intermediary.

Mammalian G proteins and their cell type specific functions

Heterotrimeric G proteins are key players in transmembrane signaling by coupling a huge variety of receptors to channel proteins, enzymes, and other effector molecules. Multiple subforms of G proteins together with receptors, effectors, and various regulatory proteins represent the components of a highly versatile signal transduction system. G protein-mediated signaling is employed by virtually all cells in the mammalian organism and is centrally involved in diverse physiological functions such as perception of sensory information, modulation of synaptic transmission, hormone release and actions, regulation of cell contraction and migration, or cell growth and differentiation. In this review, some of the functions of heterotrimeric G proteins in defined cells and tissues are described.

CAPRI and RASAL impose different modes of information processing on Ras due to contrasting temporal filtering of Ca2+

The versatility of Ca²⁺ as a second messenger lies in the complex manner in which Ca²⁺ signals are generated. How information contained within the Ca²⁺ code is interpreted underlies cell function. Recently, we identified CAPRI and RASAL as related Ca²⁺-triggered Ras GTPase-activating proteins. RASAL tracks agonist-stimulated Ca²⁺ oscillations by repetitively associating with the plasma membrane, yet CAPRI displays a long-lasting Ca²⁺-triggered translocation that is refractory to cytosolic Ca²⁺ oscillations. CAPRI behavior is Ca²⁺- and C2 domain–dependent but sustained recruitment is predominantly Ca²⁺ independent, necessitating integration of Ca²⁺ by the C2 domains with agonist-evoked plasma membrane interaction sites for the pleckstrin homology domain. Using an assay to monitor Ras activity in real time, we correlate the spatial and temporal translocation of CAPRI with the deactivation of H-Ras. CAPRI seems to low-pass filter the Ca²⁺ signal, converting different intensities of stimulation into different durations of Ras activity in contrast to the preservation of Ca²⁺ frequency information by RASAL, suggesting sophisticated modes of Ca²⁺-regulated Ras deactivation.