Ion conduction pore is conserved among potassium channels

Loose Coupling between the Voltage Sensor and the Activation Gate in Mammalian HCN Channels Suggests a Gating Mechanism

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels and hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels share similar structures but have opposite gating polarity. Kv channels have a strong coupling (>109) between the voltage sensor (S4) and the activation gate: when S4s are activated, the gate is open to >80% but, when S4s are deactivated, the gate is open <10-9 of the time. Using noise analysis, we show that the coupling between S4 and the gate is <200 in HCN channels. In addition, using voltage clamp fluorometry, locking the gate open in a Kv channel drastically altered the energetics of S4 movement. In contrast, locking the gate open or decreasing the coupling between S4 and the gate in HCN channels had only minor effects on the energetics of S4 movement, consistent with a weak coupling between S4 and the gate. We propose that this loose coupling is a prerequisite for the reversed voltage gating in HCN channels.

Bioelectronic Medicine: a multidisciplinary roadmap from biophysics to precision therapies

Bioelectronic Medicine stands as an emerging field that rapidly evolves and offers distinctive clinical benefits, alongside unique challenges. It consists of the modulation of the nervous system by precise delivery of electrical current for the treatment of clinical conditions, such as post-stroke movement recovery or drug-resistant disorders. The unquestionable clinical impact of Bioelectronic Medicine is underscored by the successful translation to humans in the last decades, and the long list of preclinical studies. Given the emergency of accelerating the progress in new neuromodulation treatments (i.e., drug-resistant hypertension, autoimmune and degenerative diseases), collaboration between multiple fields is imperative. This work intends to foster multidisciplinary work and bring together different fields to provide the fundamental basis underlying Bioelectronic Medicine. In this review we will go from the biophysics of the cell membrane, which we consider the inner core of neuromodulation, to patient care. We will discuss the recently discovered mechanism of neurotransmission switching and how it will impact neuromodulation design, and we will provide an update on neuronal and glial basis in health and disease. The advances in biomedical technology have facilitated the collection of large amounts of data, thereby introducing new challenges in data analysis. We will discuss the current approaches and challenges in high throughput data analysis, encompassing big data, networks, artificial intelligence, and internet of things. Emphasis will be placed on understanding the electrochemical properties of neural interfaces, along with the integration of biocompatible and reliable materials and compliance with biomedical regulations for translational applications. Preclinical validation is foundational to the translational process, and we will discuss the critical aspects of such animal studies. Finally, we will focus on the patient point-of-care and challenges in neuromodulation as the ultimate goal of bioelectronic medicine. This review is a call to scientists from different fields to work together with a common endeavor: accelerate the decoding and modulation of the nervous system in a new era of therapeutic possibilities.

Inactivation of the Kv2.1 channel through electromechanical coupling

The Kv2.1 voltage-activated potassium (Kv) channel is a prominent delayed-rectifier Kv channel in the mammalian central nervous system, where its mechanisms of activation and inactivation are critical for regulating intrinsic neuronal excitability1,2. Here we present structures of the Kv2.1 channel in a lipid environment using cryo-electron microscopy to provide a framework for exploring its functional mechanisms and how mutations causing epileptic encephalopathies3-7 alter channel activity. By studying a series of disease-causing mutations, we identified one that illuminates a hydrophobic coupling nexus near the internal end of the pore that is critical for inactivation. Both functional and structural studies reveal that inactivation in Kv2.1 results from dynamic alterations in electromechanical coupling to reposition pore-lining S6 helices and close the internal pore. Consideration of these findings along with available structures for other Kv channels, as well as voltage-activated sodium and calcium channels, suggests that related mechanisms of inactivation are conserved in voltage-activated cation channels and likely to be engaged by widely used therapeutics to achieve state-dependent regulation of channel activity.

Fifty years of gating currents and channel gating

We celebrate this year the 50th anniversary of the first electrophysiological recordings of the gating currents from voltage-dependent ion channels done in 1973. This retrospective tries to illustrate the context knowledge on channel gating and the impact gating-current recording had then, and how it continued to clarify concepts, elaborate new ideas, and steer the scientific debate in these 50 years. The notion of gating particles and gating currents was first put forward by Hodgkin and Huxley in 1952 as a necessary assumption for interpreting the voltage dependence of the Na and K conductances of the action potential. 20 years later, gating currents were actually recorded, and over the following decades have represented the most direct means of tracing the movement of the gating charges and gaining insights into the mechanisms of channel gating. Most work in the early years was focused on the gating currents from the Na and K channels as found in the squid giant axon. With channel cloning and expression on heterologous systems, other channels as well as voltage-dependent enzymes were investigated. Other approaches were also introduced (cysteine mutagenesis and labeling, site-directed fluorometry, cryo-EM crystallography, and molecular dynamics [MD] modeling) to provide an integrated and coherent view of voltage-dependent gating in biological macromolecules. The layout of this retrospective reflects the past 50 years of investigations on gating currents, first addressing studies done on Na and K channels and then on other voltage-gated channels and non-channel structures. The review closes with a brief overview of how the gating-charge/voltage-sensor movements are translated into pore opening and the pathologies associated with mutations targeting the structures involved with the gating currents.

Cryo-EM structure of the human Kv3.1 channel reveals gating control by the cytoplasmic T1 domain

Kv3 channels have distinctive gating kinetics tailored for rapid repolarization in fast-spiking neurons. Malfunction of this process due to genetic variants in the KCNC1 gene causes severe epileptic disorders, yet the structural determinants for the unusual gating properties remain elusive. Here, we present cryo-electron microscopy structures of the human Kv3.1a channel, revealing a unique arrangement of the cytoplasmic tetramerization domain T1 which facilitates interactions with C-terminal axonal targeting motif and key components of the gating machinery. Additional interactions between S1/S2 linker and turret domain strengthen the interface between voltage sensor and pore domain. Supported by molecular dynamics simulations, electrophysiological and mutational analyses, we identify several residues in the S4/S5 linker which influence the gating kinetics and an electrostatic interaction between acidic residues in α6 of T1 and R449 in the pore-flanking S6T helices. These findings provide insights into gating control and disease mechanisms and may guide strategies for the design of pharmaceutical drugs targeting Kv3 channels.

BK Channel Gating Mechanisms: Progresses Toward a Better Understanding of Variants Linked Neurological Diseases

The large conductance Ca2+-activated potassium (BK) channel is activated by both membrane potential depolarization and intracellular Ca2+ with distinct mechanisms. Neural physiology is sensitive to the function of BK channels, which is shown by the discoveries of neurological disorders that are associated with BK channel mutations. This article reviews the molecular mechanisms of BK channel activation in response to voltage and Ca2+ binding, including the recent progress since the publication of the atomistic structure of the whole BK channel protein, and the neurological disorders associated with BK channel mutations. These results demonstrate the unique mechanisms of BK channel activation and that these mechanisms are important factors in linking BK channel mutations to neurological disorders.

CNG channel structure, function, and gating: a tale of conformational flexibility

Cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels are key to the signal transduction machinery of certain sensory modalities both in vertebrate and invertebrate organisms. They translate a chemical change in cyclic nucleotide concentration into an electrical signal that can spread through sensory cells. Despite CNG and voltage-gated potassium channels sharing a remarkable amino acid sequence homology and basic architectural plan, their functional properties are dramatically different. While voltage-gated potassium channels are highly selective and require membrane depolarization to open, CNG channels have low ion selectivity and are not very sensitive to voltage. In the last few years, many high-resolution structures of intact CNG channels have been released. This wealth of new structural information has provided enormous progress toward the understanding of the molecular mechanisms and driving forces underpinning CNG channel activation. In this review, we report on the current understanding and controversies surrounding the gating mechanism in CNG channels, as well as the deep intertwining existing between gating, the ion permeation process, and its modulation by membrane voltage. While the existence of this powerful coupling was recognized many decades ago, its direct structural demonstration, and ties to the CNG channel inherent pore flexibility, is a recent achievement.

Mapping Electromechanical Coupling Pathways in Voltage-Gated Ion Channels: Challenges and the Way Forward

Inter- and intra-molecular allosteric interactions underpin regulation of activity in a variety of biological macromolecules. In the voltage-gated ion channel superfamily, the conformational state of the voltage-sensing domain regulates the activity of the pore domain via such long-range allosteric interactions. Although the overall structure of these channels is conserved, allosteric interactions between voltage-sensor and pore varies quite dramatically between the members of this superfamily. Despite the progress in identifying key residues and structural interfaces involved in mediating electromechanical coupling, our understanding of the biophysical mechanisms remains limited. Emerging new structures of voltage-gated ion channels in various conformational states will provide a better three-dimensional view of the process but to conclusively establish a mechanism, we will also need to quantitate the energetic contribution of various structural elements to this process. Using rigorous unbiased metrics, we want to compare the efficiency of electromechanical coupling between various sub-families in order to gain a comprehensive understanding. Furthermore, quantitative understanding of the process will enable us to correctly parameterize computational approaches which will ultimately enable us to predict allosteric activation mechanisms from structures. In this review, we will outline the challenges and limitations of various experimental approaches to measure electromechanical coupling and highlight the best practices in the field.

Tethered peptide toxins for ion channels

In this method paper, we describe protocols for using membrane-tethered peptide toxins (T-toxins) to study the structure/function and biophysics of toxin-channel interactions with two-electrode voltage clamp (TEVC). Here, we show how T-toxins can be used to determine toxin equilibrium affinity, to quantify toxin surface level by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and/or single-molecule total internal reflection fluorescence (smTIRF) microscopy, to assess toxin association and dissociations rate, to identify toxin residues critical to binding via scanning mutagenesis, and to study of toxin blocking mechanism. The sea anemone type I (SAK1) toxin HmK and a potassium channel are used to demonstrate the strategies. T-toxins offer experimental flexibility that facilitates studies of toxin variants by mutation of the expression plasmid, avoiding the need to synthesize and purify individual peptides, speeding and reducing the cost of studies. T-toxins can be applied to peptide toxins that target pores or regulatory domains, that inhibit or activate, that are derived from different species, and that bind to different types of ion channels.

Structural Pharmacology of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels

Voltage-gated sodium (Na_V) channels initiate and propagate action potentials in excitable tissues to mediate key physiological processes including heart contraction and nervous system function. Accordingly, Na_V channels are major targets for drugs, toxins and disease-causing mutations. Recent breakthroughs in cryo-electron microscopy have led to the visualization of human Na_V1.1, Na_V1.2, Na_V1.4, Na_V1.5 and Na_V1.7 channel subtypes at high-resolution. These landmark studies have greatly advanced our structural understanding of channel architecture, ion selectivity, voltage-sensing, electromechanical coupling, fast inactivation, and the molecular basis underlying Na_V channelopathies. Na_V channel structures have also been increasingly determined in complex with toxin and small molecule modulators that target either the pore module or voltage sensor domains. These structural studies have provided new insights into the mechanisms of pharmacological action and opportunities for subtype-selective Na_V channel drug design. This review will highlight the structural pharmacology of human Na_V channels as well as the potential use of engineered and chimeric channels in future drug discovery efforts.

Cryo-EM Structure of K+-Bound hERG Channel Complexed with the Blocker Astemizole

The hERG channel is a voltage-gated potassium channel involved in cardiac repolarization. Off-target hERG inhibition by drugs has become a critical issue in the pharmaceutical industry. The three-dimensional structure of the hERG channel was recently reported at 3.8-Å resolution using cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM). However, the drug inhibition mechanism remains unclear because of the scarce structural information regarding the drug- and potassium-bound hERG channels. In this study, we obtained the cryo-EM density map of potassium-bound hERG channel complexed with astemizole, a well-known hERG inhibitor that increases risk of potentially fatal arrhythmia, at 3.5-Å resolution. The structure suggested that astemizole inhibits potassium conduction by binding directly below the selectivity filter. Furthermore, we propose a possible binding model of astemizole to the hERG channel and provide insights into the unusual sensitivity of hERG to several drugs.

Identification and Expression of Inward-Rectifying Potassium Channel Subunits in Plutella xylostella

In insects, inward-rectifying potassium (Kir) channels regulate vital physiological functions, such as feeding behavior, silk secretion, renal excretion, and immune function. Therefore, they offer promising potential as targets for insecticides. Three types of Kir subunits have been identified in Diptera and Hemiptera, but the Kir subunits of Lepidoptera still remain unclear. This study identified five Kir subunit genes (pxkir1, pxkir2, pxkir3A, pxkir3B, and pxkir4) in the transcriptome of Plutella xylostella. Phylogenetic analysis identified pxkir1, pxkir2, pxkir3A, and pxkir3B as orthologous genes of kir1–3 in other insects. Interestingly, pxkir4 may be encoding a new class of Kir subunit in Lepidoptera that has not been reported to date. To identify further Kir channel subunits of P. xylostella, the gene expression profiles of five pxkir genes were studied by quantitative real-time PCR. These pxkir genes are expressed throughout the development of P. xylostella. pxkir1 and pxkir2 were highly expressed in thoraxes and legs, while pxkir3 (3A and 3B) and pxkir4 had high expression levels in the midgut and Malpighian tubules. This study identified the composition and distribution of Kir subunits in P. xylostella for the first time, and provides useful information for the further study of Kir channel subunits in Lepidoptera.

Structures Illuminate Cardiac Ion Channel Functions in Health and in Long QT Syndrome

The cardiac action potential is critical to the production of a synchronized heartbeat. This electrical impulse is governed by the intricate activity of cardiac ion channels, among them the cardiac voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels KCNQ1 and hERG as well as the voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channel encoded by SCN5A. Each channel performs a highly distinct function, despite sharing a common topology and structural components. These three channels are also the primary proteins mutated in congenital long QT syndrome (LQTS), a genetic condition that predisposes to cardiac arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death due to impaired repolarization of the action potential and has a particular proclivity for reentrant ventricular arrhythmias. Recent cryo-electron microscopy structures of human KCNQ1 and hERG, along with the rat homolog of SCN5A and other mammalian sodium channels, provide atomic-level insight into the structure and function of these proteins that advance our understanding of their distinct functions in the cardiac action potential, as well as the molecular basis of LQTS. In this review, the gating, regulation, LQTS mechanisms, and pharmacological properties of KCNQ1, hERG, and SCN5A are discussed in light of these recent structural findings.

Tethered peptide neurotoxins display two blocking mechanisms in the K+ channel pore as do their untethered analogs

We show here that membrane-tethered toxins facilitate the biophysical study of the roles of toxin residues in K⁺ channel blockade to reveal two blocking mechanisms in the K⁺ channel pore. The structure of the sea anemone type I (SAK1) toxin HmK is determined by NMR. T-HmK residues are scanned by point mutation to map the toxin surface, and seven residues are identified to be critical to occlusion of the KcsA channel pore. T-HmK-Lys²² is shown to interact with K⁺ ions traversing the KcsA pore from the cytoplasm conferring voltage dependence on the toxin off rate, a classic mechanism that we observe as well with HmK in solution and for Kv1.3 channels. In contrast, two related SAK1 toxins, Hui1 and ShK, block KcsA and Kv1.3, respectively, via an arginine rather than the canonical lysine, when tethered and as free peptides.

Two-stage electro-mechanical coupling of a KV channel in voltage-dependent activation

In voltage-gated potassium (K_V) channels, the voltage-sensing domain (VSD) undergoes sequential activation from the resting state to the intermediate state and activated state to trigger pore opening via electro-mechanical (E-M) coupling. However, the spatial and temporal details underlying E-M coupling remain elusive. Here, utilizing K_V7.1's unique two open states, we report a two-stage E-M coupling mechanism in voltage-dependent gating of K_V7.1 as triggered by VSD activations to the intermediate and then activated state. When the S4 segment transitions to the intermediate state, the hand-like C-terminus of the VSD-pore linker (S4-S5L) interacts with the pore in the same subunit. When S4 then proceeds to the fully-activated state, the elbow-like hinge between S4 and S4-S5L engages with the pore of the neighboring subunit to activate conductance. This two-stage hand-and-elbow gating mechanism elucidates distinct tissue-specific modulations, pharmacology, and disease pathogenesis of K_V7.1, and likely applies to numerous domain-swapped K_V channels.

Voltage-dependent gating in K channels: experimental results and quantitative models

Voltage-dependent K channels open and close in response to voltage changes across the cell membrane. This voltage dependence was postulated to depend on the presence of charged particles moving through the membrane in response to voltage changes. Recording of gating currents originating from the movement of these particles fully confirmed this hypothesis, and gave substantial experimental clues useful for the detailed understanding of the process. In the absence of structural information, the voltage-dependent gating was initially investigated using discrete Markov models, an approach only capable of providing a kinetic and thermodynamic comprehension of the process. The elucidation of the crystal structure of the first voltage-dependent channel brought in a dramatic change of pace in the understanding of channel gating, and in modeling the underlying processes. It was now possible to construct quantitative models using molecular dynamics, where all the interactions of each individual atom with the surroundings were taken into account, and its motion predicted by Newton's laws. Unfortunately, this modeling is computationally very demanding, and in spite of the advances in simulation procedures and computer technology, it is still limited in its predictive ability. To overcome these limitations, several groups have developed more macroscopic voltage gating models. Their approaches understandably require a number of approximations, which must however be physically well justified. One of these models, based on the description of the voltage sensor as a Brownian particle, that we have recently developed, is able to simultaneously describe the behavior of a single voltage sensor and to predict the macroscopic gating current originating from a population of sensors. The basics of this model are here described, and a typical application using the Kv1.2/2.1 chimera channel structure is also presented.

Voltage vs. Ligand II: Structural insights of the intrinsic flexibility in cyclic nucleotide-gated channels

In the preceding article, we present a flexibility analysis of the voltage-gated ion channel (VGIC) superfamily. In this study, we describe in detail the flexibility profile of the voltage-sensor domain (VSD) and the pore domain (PD) concerning the evolution of 6TM ion channels. In particular, we highlight the role of flexibility in the emergence of CNG channels and describe a significant level of sequence similarity between the archetypical VSD and the TolQ proteins. A highly flexible S4-like segment exhibiting Lys instead Arg for these membrane proteins is reported. Sequence analysis indicates that, in addition to this S4-like segment, TolQ proteins also show similarity with specific motifs in S2 and S3 from typical V-sensors. Notably, S3 flexibility profiles from typical VSDs and S3-like in TolQ proteins are also similar. Interestingly, TolQ from early divergent prokaryotes are comparatively more flexible than those in modern counterparts or true V-sensors. Regarding the PD, we also found that 2TM K+-channels in early prokaryotes are considerably more flexible than the ones in modern microbes, and such flexibility is comparable to the one present in CNG channels. Voltage dependence is mainly exhibited in prokaryotic CNG channels whose VSD is rigid whereas the eukaryotic CNG channels are considerably more flexible and poorly V-dependent. The implication of the flexibility present in CNG channels, their sensitivity to cyclic nucleotides and the cation selectivity are discussed. Finally, we generated a structural model of the putative cyclic nucleotide-modulated ion channel, which we coined here as AqK, from the thermophilic bacteria Aquifex aeolicus, one of the earliest diverging prokaryotes known. Overall, our analysis suggests that V-sensors in CNG-like channels were essentially rigid in early prokaryotes but raises the possibility that this module was probably part of a very flexible stator protein of the bacterial flagellum motor complex.

Upgraded molecular models of the human KCNQ1 potassium channel

The voltage-gated potassium channel KCNQ1 (K_V7.1) assembles with the KCNE1 accessory protein to generate the slow delayed rectifier current, I_KS, which is critical for membrane repolarization as part of the cardiac action potential. Loss-of-function (LOF) mutations in KCNQ1 are the most common cause of congenital long QT syndrome (LQTS), type 1 LQTS, an inherited genetic predisposition to cardiac arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. A detailed structural understanding of KCNQ1 is needed to elucidate the molecular basis for KCNQ1 LOF in disease and to enable structure-guided design of new anti-arrhythmic drugs. In this work, advanced structural models of human KCNQ1 in the resting/closed and activated/open states were developed by Rosetta homology modeling guided by newly available experimentally-based templates: X. leavis KCNQ1 and various resting voltage sensor structures. Using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, the capacity of the models to describe experimentally established channel properties including state-dependent voltage sensor gating charge interactions and pore conformations, PIP2 binding sites, and voltage sensor–pore domain interactions were validated. Rosetta energy calculations were applied to assess the utility of each model in interpreting mutation-evoked KCNQ1 dysfunction by predicting the change in protein thermodynamic stability for 50 experimentally characterized KCNQ1 variants with mutations located in the voltage-sensing domain. Energetic destabilization was successfully predicted for folding-defective KCNQ1 LOF mutants whereas wild type-like mutants exhibited no significant energetic frustrations, which supports growing evidence that mutation-induced protein destabilization is an especially common cause of KCNQ1 dysfunction. The new KCNQ1 Rosetta models provide helpful tools in the study of the structural basis for KCNQ1 function and can be used to generate hypotheses to explain KCNQ1 dysfunction.

Genetic intolerance analysis as a tool for protein science

Recent advances in whole genome and exome sequencing have dramatically increased the database of human gene variations. There are now enough sequenced human exomes and genomes to begin to identify gene variations that are notable because they are NOT observed in sequenced human genomes, apparently because they are subject to "purifying selection", exemplifying genetic intolerance. Such "dysprocreative" gene variations are embryonic lethal or prevent reproduction through any one of a number of possible mechanisms. Here we review an emerging quantitative approach, "Missense Tolerance Ratio" (MTR) analysis, that is used to assess protein-encoding gene (cDNA) sequence intolerance to missense mutations based on analysis of the >100 K and growing number of currently available human genome and exome sequences. This approach is already useful for analyzing intolerance to mutations in cDNA segments with a resolution on the order of 90 bases. Moreover, as the number of sequenced genomes/exomes increases by orders of magnitude it may eventually be possible to assess mutational tolerance in a statistically robust manner at or near single site resolution. Here we focus on how cDNA intolerance analysis complements other bioinformatic methods to illuminate structure-folding-function relationships for the encoded proteins. A set of disease-linked membrane proteins is employed to provide examples.

Noncanonical mechanism of voltage sensor coupling to pore revealed by tandem dimers of Shaker

In voltage-gated potassium channels (VGKC), voltage sensors (VSD) endow voltage-sensitivity to pore domains (PDs) through a not fully understood mechanism. Shaker-like VGKC show domain-swapped configuration: VSD of one subunit is covalently connected to its PD by the protein backbone (far connection) and non-covalently to the PD of the next subunit (near connection). VSD-to-PD coupling is not fully explained by far connection only, therefore an additional mechanistic component may be based on near connection. Using tandem dimers of Shaker channels we show functional data distinguishing VSD-to-PD far from near connections. Near connections influence both voltage-dependence of C-type inactivation at the selectivity filter and overall PD open probability. We speculate a conserved residue in S5 (S412 in Shaker), within van der Waals distance from next subunit S4 residues is key for the noncanonical VSD-to-PD coupling. Natural mutations of S412-homologous residues in brain and heart VGKC are related to neurological and cardiac diseases.

Medicinal Chemistry of Potassium Channel Modulators: An Update of Recent Progress (2011-2017)

BACKGROUND

Potassium (K+) channels participate in many physiological processes, cardiac function, cell proliferation, neuronal signaling, muscle contractility, immune function, hormone secretion, osmotic pressure, changes in gene expression, and are involved in critical biological functions, and in a variety of diseases. Potassium channels represent a large family of tetrameric membrane proteins. Potassium channels activation reduces excitability, whereas channel inhibition increases excitability.

OBJECTIVE

Small molecule K+ channel activators and inhibitors interact with voltage-gated, inward rectifying, and two-pore tandem potassium channels. Due to their involvement in biological functions, and in a variety of diseases, small molecules as potassium channel modulators have received great scientific attention.

METHODS

In this review, we have compiled the literature, patents and patent applications (2011 to 2017) related to different chemical classes of potassium channel openers and blockers as therapeutic agents for the treatment of various diseases. Many different chemical classes of selective small molecule have emerged as potassium channel modulators over the past years.

CONCLUSION

This review discussed the current understanding of medicinal chemistry research in the field of potassium channel modulators to update the key advances in this field.

Diverse Structural Features of Potassium Channels Characterized by Scorpion Toxins as Molecular Probes

Scorpion toxins are well-known as the largest potassium channel peptide blocker family. They have been successfully proven to be valuable molecular probes for structural research on diverse potassium channels. The potassium channel pore region, including the turret and filter regions, is the binding interface for scorpion toxins, and structural features from different potassium channels have been identified using different scorpion toxins. According to the spatial orientation of channel turrets with differential sequence lengths and identities, conformational changes and molecular surface properties, the potassium channel turrets can be divided into the following three states: open state with less hindering effects on toxin binding, half-open state or half-closed state with certain effects on toxin binding, and closed state with remarkable effects on toxin binding. In this review, we summarized the diverse structural features of potassium channels explored using scorpion toxin tools and discuss future work in the field of scorpion toxin-potassium channel interactions.

Structural basis of α-scorpion toxin action on Nav channels

Fast inactivation of voltage-gated sodium (Na_v) channels is essential for electrical signaling, but its mechanism remains poorly understood. Here we determined the structures of a eukaryotic Na_v channel alone and in complex with a lethal α-scorpion toxin, AaH2, by electron microscopy, both at 3.5-angstrom resolution. AaH2 wedges into voltage-sensing domain IV (VSD4) to impede fast activation by trapping a deactivated state in which gating charge interactions bridge to the acidic intracellular carboxyl-terminal domain. In the absence of AaH2, the S4 helix of VSD4 undergoes a ~13-angstrom translation to unlatch the intracellular fast-inactivation gating machinery. Highlighting the polypharmacology of α-scorpion toxins, AaH2 also targets an unanticipated receptor site on VSD1 and a pore glycan adjacent to VSD4. Overall, this work provides key insights into fast inactivation, electromechanical coupling, and pathogenic mutations in Na_v channels.

New Structures and Gating of Voltage-Dependent Potassium (Kv) Channels and Their Relatives: A Multi-Domain and Dynamic Question

Voltage-dependent potassium channels (Kv channels) are crucial regulators of cell excitability that participate in a range of physiological and pathophysiological processes. These channels are molecular machines that display a mechanism (known as gating) for opening and closing a gate located in a pore domain (PD). In Kv channels, this mechanism is triggered and controlled by changes in the magnitude of the transmembrane voltage sensed by a voltage-sensing domain (VSD). In this review, we consider several aspects of the VSD–PD coupling in Kv channels, and in some relatives, that share a common general structure characterized by a single square-shaped ion conduction pore in the center, surrounded by four VSDs located at the periphery. We compile some recent advances in the knowledge of their architecture, based in cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) data for high-resolution determination of their structure, plus some new functional data obtained with channel variants in which the covalent continuity between the VSD and PD modules has been interrupted. These advances and new data bring about some reconsiderations about the use of exclusively a classical electromechanical lever model of VSD–PD coupling by some Kv channels, and open a view of the Kv-type channels as allosteric machines in which gating may be dynamically influenced by some long-range interactional/allosteric mechanisms.

Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia is associated with mutations in the KCNA1 gene

Paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) is a heterogeneous movement disorder characterized by recurrent dyskinesia attacks triggered by sudden movement. PRRT2 has been identified as the first causative gene of PKD. However, it is only responsible for approximately half of affected individuals, indicating that other loci are most likely involved in the etiology of this disorder. To explore the underlying causative gene of PRRT2-negative PKD, we used a combination strategy including linkage analysis, whole-exome sequencing and copy number variations analysis to detect the genetic variants within a family with PKD. We identified a linkage locus on chromosome 12 (12p13.32-12p12.3) and detected a novel heterozygous mutation c.956 T>G (p.319 L>R) in the potassium voltage-gated channel subfamily A member 1, KCNA1. Whole-exome sequencing in another 58 Chinese patients with PKD who lacked mutations in PRRT2 revealed another novel mutation in the KCNA1 gene [c.765 C>A (p.255 N>K)] within another family. Biochemical analysis revealed that the L319R mutant accelerated protein degradation via the proteasome pathway and disrupted membrane expression of the Kv1.1 channel. Electrophysiological examinations in transfected HEK293 cells showed that both the L319R and N255K mutants resulted in reduced potassium currents and respective altered gating properties, with a dominant negative effect on the Kv1.1 wild-type channel. Our study suggests that these mutations in KCNA1 cause the Kv1.1 channel dysfunction, which leads to familial PKD. The current study further extended the genotypic spectrum of this disorder, indicating that Kv1.1 channel dysfunction maybe one of the underlying defects in PKD.

Bipolar switching by HCN voltage sensor underlies hyperpolarization activation

Hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels show an inverted voltage response compared with virtually all other voltage-gated channels, opening on hyperpolarization rather than depolarization. Although the structure of the HCN1 channel was recently solved, the structural element(s) responsible for the inverted gating polarity of HCN is not known. Here, we use a hierarchical approach, by first characterizing the functional contribution of each structural element to channel gating, and then identifying the critical interactions between these elements. Our studies reveal that the HCN voltage sensor can gate the same pore open on both depolarization and hyperpolarization, thereby acting as a bipolar switch. Elements in the pore domain shut off the depolarization-activation pathway in wild-type channels.

Despite sharing a common architecture with archetypal voltage-gated ion channels (VGICs), hyperpolarization- and cAMP-activated ion (HCN) channels open upon hyperpolarization rather than depolarization. The basic motions of the voltage sensor and pore gates are conserved, implying that these domains are inversely coupled in HCN channels. Using structure-guided protein engineering, we systematically assembled an array of mosaic channels that display the full complement of voltage-activation phenotypes observed in the VGIC superfamily. Our studies reveal that the voltage sensor of the HCN channel has an intrinsic ability to drive pore opening in either direction and that the extra length of the HCN S4 is not the primary determinant for hyperpolarization activation. Tight interactions at the HCN voltage sensor–pore interface drive the channel into an hERG-like inactivated state, thereby obscuring its opening upon depolarization. This structural element in synergy with the HCN cyclic nucleotide-binding domain and specific interactions near the pore gate biases the channel toward hyperpolarization-dependent opening. Our findings reveal an unexpected common principle underpinning voltage gating in the VGIC superfamily and identify the essential determinants of gating polarity.

Defensins, a novel type of animal toxin-like potassium channel inhibitor

The classical potassium channel inhibitors are toxin peptides from venomous animals, and whether there are peptide inhibitors from other species is an open question. Due to both the independent and interdependent relationships between the spear (peptide inhibitors) and the shield (potassium channels), human defensins were first identified by our group as endogenous potassium channel inhibitors. Encouraged by the discovery of human defensins as potassium channel inhibitors, defensins from invertebrates and fungi were successively found by our group to be potassium channel inhibitors. In addition, a plant defensin was reported to be a potassium channel inhibitor. Since defensins are widely produced by vertebrate, invertebrate, plant and fungi species, the recent work established a new research field on defensin-potassium channel interactions. Here, we review the current work on defensins from vertebrate, invertebrate, plant and fungi species as inhibitors of potassium channels and discuss future work in this research field.

Insights into the molecular mechanism for hyperpolarization-dependent activation of HCN channels

Hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) ion channels are both voltage- and ligand-activated membrane proteins that contribute to electrical excitability and pace-making activity in cardiac and neuronal cells. These channels are members of the voltage-gated Kv channel superfamily and cyclic nucleotide-binding domain subfamily of ion channels. HCN channels have a unique feature that distinguishes them from other voltage-gated channels: the HCN channel pore opens in response to hyperpolarizing voltages instead of depolarizing voltages. In the canonical model of electromechanical coupling, based on Kv channels, a change in membrane voltage activates the voltage-sensing domains (VSD) and the activation energy passes to the pore domain (PD) through a covalent linker that connects the VSD to the PD. In this investigation, the covalent linkage between the VSD and PD, the S4-S5 linker, and nearby regions of spHCN channels were mutated to determine the functional role each plays in hyperpolarization-dependent activation. The results show that: (i) the S4-S5 linker is not required for hyperpolarization-dependent activation or ligand-dependent gating; (ii) the S4 C-terminal region (S4_C-term) is not necessary for ligand-dependent gating but is required for hyperpolarization-dependent activation and acts like an autoinhibitory domain on the PD; (iii) the S5_N-term region is involved in VSD-PD coupling and holding the pore closed; and (iv) spHCN channels have two voltage-dependent processes, a hyperpolarization-dependent activation and a depolarization-dependent recovery from inactivation. These results are inconsistent with the canonical model of VSD-PD coupling in Kv channels and elucidate the mechanism for hyperpolarization-dependent activation of HCN channels.

S4-S5 linker movement during activation and inactivation in voltage-gated K+ channels

The S4-S5 linker physically links voltage sensor and pore domain in voltage-gated ion channels and is essential for electromechanical coupling between both domains. Little dynamic information is available on the movement of the cytosolic S4-S5 linker due to lack of a direct electrical or optical readout. To understand the movements of the gating machinery during activation and inactivation, we incorporated fluorescent unnatural amino acids at four positions along the linker of the Shaker K_V channel. Using two-color voltage-clamp fluorometry, we compared S4-S5 linker movements with charge displacement, S4 movement, and pore opening. We found that the proximal S4-S5 linker moves with the S4 helix throughout the gating process, whereas the distal portion undergoes a separate motion related to late gating transitions. Both pore and S4-S5 linker undergo rearrangements during C-type inactivation. In presence of accelerated C-type inactivation, the energetic coupling between movement of the distal S4-S5 linker and pore opening disappears.

Gating interaction maps reveal a noncanonical electromechanical coupling mode in the Shaker K+ channel

Membrane potential regulates the activity of voltage-dependent ion channels via specialized voltage-sensing modules but the mechanisms involved in coupling voltage-sensor movement to pore opening remain unclear due to lack of resting state structures and robust methods to identify allosteric pathways. Here, using a newly developed interaction energy analysis, we probe the interfaces of the voltage-sensing and pore modules in the drosophila Shaker K⁺ channel. Our measurements reveal unexpectedly strong equilibrium gating interactions between contacts at the S4 and S5 helices in addition to those between S6 and S4–S5 linker. Network analysis of MD trajectories shows that the voltage-sensor and pore motions are linked by two distinct pathways- canonical one through the S4–S5 linker and a hitherto unknown pathway akin to rack and pinion coupling involving S4 and S5 helices. Our findings highlight the central role of the S5 helix in electromechanical transduction in the VGIC superfamily.

Functional characterization of Kv11.1 (hERG) potassium channels split in the voltage-sensing domain

Voltage-dependent KCNH family potassium channel functionality can be reconstructed using non-covalently linked voltage-sensing domain (VSD) and pore modules (split channels). However, the necessity of a covalent continuity for channel function has not been evaluated at other points within the two functionally independent channel modules. We find here that by cutting Kv11.1 (hERG, KCNH2) channels at the different loops linking the transmembrane spans of the channel core, not only channels split at the S4–S5 linker level, but also those split at the intracellular S2–S3 and the extracellular S3–S4 loops, yield fully functional channel proteins. Our data indicate that albeit less markedly, channels split after residue 482 in the S2–S3 linker resemble the uncoupled gating phenotype of those split at the C-terminal end of the VSD S4 transmembrane segment. Channels split after residues 514 and 518 in the S3–S4 linker show gating characteristics similar to those of the continuous wild-type channel. However, breaking the covalent link at this level strongly accelerates the voltage-dependent accessibility of a membrane impermeable methanethiosulfonate reagent to an engineered cysteine at the N-terminal region of the S4 transmembrane helix. Thus, besides that of the S4–S5 linker, structural integrity of the intracellular S2–S3 linker seems to constitute an important factor for proper transduction of VSD rearrangements to opening and closing the cytoplasmic gate. Furthermore, our data suggest that the short and probably rigid characteristics of the extracellular S3–S4 linker are not an essential component of the Kv11.1 voltage sensing machinery.

Heat activation is intrinsic to the pore domain of TRPV1

The TRPV1 channel is an important detector of noxious heat, yet the location of the heat sensor and the mechanism of heat activation remain poorly understood. Here we used structure-based engineering between the heat-activated TRPV1 channel and the Shaker Kv channel to demonstrate that transplantation of the pore domain of TRPV1 into Shaker gives rise to functional channels that can be activated by a TRPV1-selective tarantula toxin and by noxious heat, demonstrating that the pore of TRPV1 contains the structural elements sufficient for activation by temperature.

The TRPV1 channel is a sensitive detector of pain-producing stimuli, including noxious heat, acid, inflammatory mediators, and vanilloid compounds. Although binding sites for some activators have been identified, the location of the temperature sensor remains elusive. Using available structures of TRPV1 and voltage-activated potassium channels, we engineered chimeras wherein transmembrane regions of TRPV1 were transplanted into the Shaker Kv channel. Here we show that transplanting the pore domain of TRPV1 into Shaker gives rise to functional channels that can be activated by a TRPV1-selective tarantula toxin that binds to the outer pore of the channel. This pore-domain chimera is permeable to Na⁺, K⁺, and Ca²⁺ ions, and remarkably, is also robustly activated by noxious heat. Our results demonstrate that the pore of TRPV1 is a transportable domain that contains the structural elements sufficient for activation by noxious heat.

Inactivation of KCNQ1 potassium channels reveals dynamic coupling between voltage sensing and pore opening

In voltage-activated ion channels, voltage sensor (VSD) activation induces pore opening via VSD-pore coupling. Previous studies show that the pore in KCNQ1 channels opens when the VSD activates to both intermediate and fully activated states, resulting in the intermediate open (IO) and activated open (AO) states, respectively. It is also well known that accompanying KCNQ1 channel opening, the ionic current is suppressed by a rapid process called inactivation. Here we show that inactivation of KCNQ1 channels derives from the different mechanisms of the VSD-pore coupling that lead to the IO and AO states, respectively. When the VSD activates from the intermediate state to the activated state, the VSD-pore coupling has less efficacy in opening the pore, producing inactivation. These results indicate that different mechanisms, other than the canonical VSD-pore coupling, are at work in voltage-dependent ion channel activation.

KCNQ1 is a voltage-gated potassium channel that is important in cardiac and epithelial function. Here the authors present a mechanism for KCNQ1 activation and inactivation in which voltage sensor activation promotes pore opening more effectively in the intermediate open state than the fully open state, generating inactivation.

Regulation of Proliferation by a Mitochondrial Potassium Channel in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Cells

Previous results link the mitochondrial potassium channel Kv1.3 (mitoKv1.3) to the regulation of apoptosis. By synthesizing new, mitochondria-targeted derivatives (PAPTP and PCARBTP) of PAP-1, a specific membrane-permeant Kv1.3 inhibitor, we have recently provided evidence that both drugs acting on mitoKv1.3 are able to induce apoptosis and reduce tumor growth in vivo without affecting healthy tissues and cells. In the present article, by exploiting these new drugs, we addressed the question whether mitoKv1.3 contributes to the regulation of cell proliferation as well. When used at low concentrations, which do not compromise cell survival, both drugs slightly increased the percentage of cells in S phase while decreased the population at G0/G1 stage of cells from two different pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma lines. Our data suggest that the observed modulation is related to ROS levels within the cells, opening the way to link mitochondrial ion channel function to downstream, ROS-related signaling events that might be important for cell cycle progression.

Improving a genetically encoded voltage indicator by modifying the cytoplasmic charge composition

An improved genetically encoded voltage indicator (GEVI) was achieved by altering the charge composition of the region linking the voltage-sensing domain of the GEVI to a pH-sensitive fluorescent protein. Negatively charged linker segments reduced the voltage-dependent optical signal while positively charged linkers increased the signal size. Arginine scanning mutagenesis of the linker region improved the signal size of the GEVI, Bongwoori, yielding fluorescent signals as high as 20% ΔF/F during the firing of action potentials. The speed of this new sensor was also capable of optically resolving action potentials firing at 65 Hz. This large signal size enabled individual pixels to become surrogate electrodes. Plotting the highest correlated pixels based only on fluorescence changes reproduced the image of the neuron exhibiting activity. Furthermore, the use of a pH-sensitive fluorescent protein facilitated the detection of the acidification of the neuron during the firing of action potentials.

Cryo-EM Structure of the Open Human Ether-à-go-go-Related K+ Channel hERG

The human ether-à-go-go-related potassium channel (hERG, Kv11.1) is a voltage-dependent channel known for its role in repolarizing the cardiac action potential. hERG alteration by mutation or pharmacological inhibition produces Long QT syndrome and the lethal cardiac arrhythmia torsade de pointes. We have determined the molecular structure of hERG to 3.8 Å using cryo-electron microscopy. In this structure, the voltage sensors adopt a depolarized conformation, and the pore is open. The central cavity has an atypically small central volume surrounded by four deep hydrophobic pockets, which may explain hERG's unusual sensitivity to many drugs. A subtle structural feature of the hERG selectivity filter might correlate with its fast inactivation rate, which is key to hERG's role in cardiac action potential repolarization.

Joint-based description of protein structure: its application to the geometric characterization of membrane proteins

A macroscopic description of a protein structure allows an understanding of the protein conformations in a more simplistic manner. Here, a new macroscopic approach that utilizes the joints of the protein secondary structures as a basic descriptor for the protein structure is proposed and applied to study the arrangement of secondary structures in helical membrane proteins. Two types of dihedral angle, Ω and λ, were defined based on the joint points of the transmembrane (TM) helices and loops, and employed to analyze 103 non-homologous membrane proteins with 3 to 14 TM helices. The Ω-λ plot, which is a distribution plot of the dihedral angles of the joint points, identified the allowed and disallowed regions of helical arrangement. Analyses of consecutive dihedral angle patterns indicated that there are preferred patterns in the helical alignment and extension of TM proteins, and helical extension pattern in TM proteins is varied as the size of TM proteins increases. Finally, we could identify some symmetric protein pairs in TM proteins under the joint-based coordinate and 3-dimensional coordinates. The joint-based approach is expected to help better understand and model the overall conformational features of complicated large-scale proteins, such as membrane proteins.

hERG S4-S5 linker acts as a voltage-dependent ligand that binds to the activation gate and locks it in a closed state

Delayed-rectifier potassium channels (hERG and KCNQ1) play a major role in cardiac repolarization. These channels are formed by a tetrameric pore (S5–S6) surrounded by four voltage sensor domains (S1-S4). Coupling between voltage sensor domains and the pore activation gate is critical for channel voltage-dependence. However, molecular mechanisms remain elusive. Herein, we demonstrate that covalently binding, through a disulfide bridge, a peptide mimicking the S4-S5 linker (S4-S5_L) to the channel S6 C-terminus (S6_T) completely inhibits hERG. This shows that channel S4-S5_L is sufficient to stabilize the pore activation gate in its closed state. Conversely, covalently binding a peptide mimicking S6_T to the channel S4-S5_L prevents its inhibiting effect and renders the channel almost completely voltage-independent. This shows that the channel S4-S5_L is necessary to stabilize the activation gate in its closed state. Altogether, our results provide chemical evidence that S4-S5_L acts as a voltage-controlled ligand that binds S6_T to lock the channel in a closed state, elucidating the coupling between voltage sensors and the gate in delayed rectifier potassium channels and potentially other voltage-gated channels.

Gating energetics of a voltage-dependent K+ channel pore domain

We used targeted molecular dynamics, informed by experimentally determined inter-atomic distances defining the pore region of open and closed states of the KvAP voltage-gated potassium channel, to generate a gating pathway of the pore domain in the absence of the voltage-sensing domains. We then performed umbrella sampling simulations along this pathway to calculate a potential of mean force that describes the free energy landscape connecting the closed and open conformations of the pore domain. The resulting energetic landscape displays three minima, corresponding to stable open, closed, and intermediate conformations with roughly similar stabilities. We found that the extent of hydration of the interior of the pore domain could influence the free energy landscape for pore opening/closing. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

NMR investigation of the isolated second voltage-sensing domain of human Nav1.4 channel

Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels are essential for the functioning of cardiovascular, muscular, and nervous systems. The α-subunit of eukaryotic Na⁺ channel consists of ~2000 amino acid residues and encloses 24 transmembrane (TM) helices, which form five membrane domains: four voltage-sensing (VSD) and one pore domain. The structural complexity significantly impedes recombinant production and structural studies of full-sized Na⁺ channels. Modular organization of voltage-gated channels gives an idea for studying of the isolated second VSD of human skeletal muscle Nav1.4 channel (VSD-II). Several variants of VSD-II (~150a.a., four TM helices) with different N- and C-termini were produced by cell-free expression. Screening of membrane mimetics revealed low stability of VSD-II samples in media containing phospholipids (bicelles, nanodiscs) associated with the aggregation of electrically neutral domain molecules. The almost complete resonance assignment of ¹³C,¹⁵N-labeled VSD-II was obtained in LPPG micelles. The secondary structure of VSD-II showed similarity with the structures of bacterial Na⁺ channels. The fragment of S4 TM helix between the first and second conserved Arg residues probably adopts 3₁₀-helical conformation. Water accessibility of S3 helix, observed by the Mn²⁺ titration, pointed to the formation of water-filled crevices in the micelle embedded VSD-II. ¹⁵N relaxation data revealed characteristic pattern of μs-ms time scale motions in the VSD-II regions sharing expected interhelical contacts. VSD-II demonstrated enhanced mobility at ps-ns time scale as compared to isolated VSDs of K⁺ channels. These results validate structural studies of isolated VSDs of Na⁺ channels and show possible pitfalls in application of this 'divide and conquer' approach.

Regulation of KCNQ/Kv7 family voltage-gated K+ channels by lipids

Many years of studies have established that lipids can impact membrane protein structure and function through bulk membrane effects, by direct but transient annular interactions with the bilayer-exposed surface of protein transmembrane domains, and by specific binding to protein sites. Here, we focus on how phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) impact ion channel function and how the structural details of the interactions of these lipids with ion channels are beginning to emerge. We focus on the Kv7 (KCNQ) subfamily of voltage-gated K⁺ channels, which are regulated by both PIP₂ and PUFAs and play a variety of important roles in human health and disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Lipid order/lipid defects and lipid-control of protein activity edited by Dirk Schneider.

Voltage-Dependent Gating: Novel Insights from KCNQ1 Channels

Gating of voltage-dependent cation channels involves three general molecular processes: voltage sensor activation, sensor-pore coupling, and pore opening. KCNQ1 is a voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channel whose distinctive properties have provided novel insights on fundamental principles of voltage-dependent gating. 1) Similar to other Kv channels, KCNQ1 voltage sensor activation undergoes two resolvable steps; but, unique to KCNQ1, the pore opens at both the intermediate and activated state of voltage sensor activation. The voltage sensor-pore coupling differs in the intermediate-open and the activated-open states, resulting in changes of open pore properties during voltage sensor activation. 2) The voltage sensor-pore coupling and pore opening require the membrane lipid PIP2 and intracellular ATP, respectively, as cofactors, thus voltage-dependent gating is dependent on multiple stimuli, including the binding of intracellular signaling molecules. These mechanisms underlie the extraordinary KCNE1 subunit modification of the KCNQ1 channel and have significant physiological implications.

The isolated voltage sensing domain of the Shaker potassium channel forms a voltage-gated cation channel

Domains in macromolecular complexes are often considered structurally and functionally conserved while energetically coupled to each other. In the modular voltage-gated ion channels the central ion-conducting pore is surrounded by four voltage sensing domains (VSDs). Here, the energetic coupling is mediated by interactions between the S4-S5 linker, covalently linking the domains, and the proximal C-terminus. In order to characterize the intrinsic gating of the voltage sensing domain in the absence of the pore domain, the Shaker Kv channel was truncated after the fourth transmembrane helix S4 (Shaker-iVSD). Shaker-iVSD showed significantly altered gating kinetics and formed a cation-selective ion channel with a strong preference for protons. Ion conduction in Shaker-iVSD developed despite identical primary sequence, indicating an allosteric influence of the pore domain. Shaker-iVSD also displays pronounced 'relaxation'. Closing of the pore correlates with entry into relaxation suggesting that the two processes are energetically related.

Structure of the voltage-gated K⁺ channel Eag1 reveals an alternative voltage sensing mechanism

Voltage-gated potassium (K(v)) channels are gated by the movement of the transmembrane voltage sensor, which is coupled, through the helical S4-S5 linker, to the potassium pore. We determined the single-particle cryo-electron microscopy structure of mammalian K(v)10.1, or Eag1, bound to the channel inhibitor calmodulin, at 3.78 angstrom resolution. Unlike previous K(v) structures, the S4-S5 linker of Eag1 is a five-residue loop and the transmembrane segments are not domain swapped, which suggest an alternative mechanism of voltage-dependent gating. Additionally, the structure and position of the S4-S5 linker allow calmodulin to bind to the intracellular domains and to close the potassium pore, independent of voltage-sensor position. The structure reveals an alternative gating mechanism for K(v) channels and provides a template to further understand the gating properties of Eag1 and related channels.

Efficient enzymatic cyclization of an inhibitory cystine knot-containing peptide

Disulfide-rich peptides isolated from cone snails are of great interest as drug leads due to their high specificity and potency toward therapeutically relevant ion channels and receptors. They commonly contain the inhibitor cystine knot (ICK) motif comprising three disulfide bonds forming a knotted core. Here we report the successful enzymatic backbone cyclization of an ICK-containing peptide κ-PVIIA, a 27-amino acid conopeptide from Conus purpurascens, using a mutated version of the bacterial transpeptidase, sortase A. Although a slight loss of activity was observed compared to native κ-PVIIA, cyclic κ-PVIIA is a functional peptide that inhibits the Shaker voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channel. Molecular modeling suggests that the decrease in potency may be related to the loss of crucial, but previously unidentified electrostatic interactions between the N-terminus of the peptide and the Shaker channel. This hypothesis was confirmed by testing an N-terminally acetylated κ-PVIIA, which shows a similar decrease in activity. We also investigated the conformational dynamics and hydrogen bond network of cyc-PVIIA, both of which are important factors to be considered for successful cyclization of peptides. We found that cyc-PVIIA has the same conformational dynamics, but different hydrogen bond network compared to those of κ-PVIIA. The ability to efficiently cyclize ICK peptides using sortase A will enable future protein engineering for this class of peptides and may help in the development of novel therapeutic molecules. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 2202-2212. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Grafting voltage and pharmacological sensitivity in potassium channels

A classical voltage-gated ion channel consists of four voltage-sensing domains (VSDs). However, the roles of each VSD in the channels remain elusive. We developed a GVTDT (Graft VSD To Dimeric TASK3 channels that lack endogenous VSDs) strategy to produce voltage-gated channels with a reduced number of VSDs. TASK3 channels exhibit a high host tolerance to VSDs of various voltage-gated ion channels without interfering with the intrinsic properties of the TASK3 selectivity filter. The constructed channels, exemplified by the channels grafted with one or two VSDs from Kv7.1 channels, exhibit classical voltage sensitivity, including voltage-dependent opening and closing. Furthermore, the grafted Kv7.1 VSD transfers the potentiation activity of benzbromarone, an activator that acts on the VSDs of the donor channels, to the constructed channels. Our study indicates that one VSD is sufficient to voltage-dependently gate the pore and provides new insight into the roles of VSDs.