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Modulation of Neuroinflammation by Low-Dose Radiation Therapy in an Animal Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2021; 111:658-670. [PMID: 34144146 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2021.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Recently, several studies have reported that low-dose radiation therapy (RT) suppresses the release of proinflammatory cytokines in inflammatory-degenerative disorders, including Alzheimer disease (AD). AD is the most common cause of dementia, and neuroinflammation is one of the major contributing factors in AD pathogenesis. Therefore, low-dose RT may be used clinically for treating AD. However, the appropriate doses, effects, and underlying mechanisms of RT in AD have not been determined. In this study, we aimed to determine the appropriate RT dose and schedule for AD treatment and to investigate the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of low-dose RT in AD. METHODS AND MATERIALS We first determined the proper dose and schedule for RT in late-stage AD using 8- to 9-month-old 5x Familial AD (5xFAD) mice, a well-known animal model of AD, by comparing the effects of a low total dose with low dose per fraction (LD-LDRT, 5 × 0.6 Gy) with those of a low moderate total dose with conventional dose per fraction (LMD-CDRT, 5 × 2 Gy). RESULTS LD-LDRT and LMD-CDRT were found to reduce the levels of the proinflammatory cytokines CD54, IL-3, CXCL9/10, and CCL2/4 in the hippocampus of 5xFAD mice. Furthermore, increased microgliosis assessed using Iba-1 and CD68 dual immunostaining was significantly reduced by LD-LDRT and LMD-CDRT in the hippocampus of 5xFAD mice. Moreover, LD-LDRT and LMD-CDRT decreased the amyloid plaque burden in the hippocampus of 5xFAD mice and attenuated their cognitive impairment; these effects persisted for 4 to 5 weeks. CONCLUSIONS The present study showed that LD-LDRT alleviates cognitive impairments and prevents the accumulation of amyloid plaques by regulating neuroinflammation in the late stage of AD in 5xFAD mice, with an efficacy equivalent to that of LMD-CDRT. Furthermore, the findings suggest that compared with LMD-CDRT, LD-LDRT may facilitate accessible and convenient treatment in clinical trials.
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Rawat K, Singh N, Kumari P, Saha L. A review on preventive role of ketogenic diet (KD) in CNS disorders from the gut microbiota perspective. Rev Neurosci 2020; 32:143-157. [PMID: 33070123 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2020-0078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The gut microbiota plays an important role in neurological diseases via the gut-brain axis. Many factors such as diet, antibiotic therapy, stress, metabolism, age, geography and genetics are known to play a critical role in regulating the colonization pattern of the microbiota. Recent studies have shown the role of the low carbohydrate, adequate protein, and high fat "ketogenic diet" in remodeling the composition of the gut microbiome and thereby facilitating protective effects in various central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Gut microbes are found to be involved in the pathogenesis of various CNS disorders like epilepsy, Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and stress, anxiety and depression. In vivo studies have shown an intricate link between gut microbes and KD and specific microbes/probiotics proved useful in in vivo CNS disease models. In the present review, we discuss the gut-brain bidirectional axis and the underlying mechanism of KD-based therapy targeting gut microbiome in in vivo animal models and clinical studies in neurological diseases. Also, we tried to infer how KD by altering the microbiota composition contributes towards the protective role in various CNS disorders. This review helps to uncover the mechanisms that are utilized by the KD and gut microbiota to modulate gut-brain axis functions and may provide novel opportunities to target therapies to the gut to treat neurologic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kajal Rawat
- Department of Pharmacology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research (PGIMER), Research Block B, Chandigarh, India
| | - Neha Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research (PGIMER), Research Block B, Chandigarh, India
| | - Puja Kumari
- Department of Pharmacology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research (PGIMER), Research Block B, Chandigarh, India
| | - Lekha Saha
- Department of Pharmacology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research (PGIMER), Research Block B, Chandigarh, India
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Expression Profiles of Long Noncoding RNAs in Intranasal LPS-Mediated Alzheimer's Disease Model in Mice. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 2019:9642589. [PMID: 30809552 PMCID: PMC6369469 DOI: 10.1155/2019/9642589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and dementia, is a progressive neurodegenerative disease. Although the long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have recently been identified to play a role in the pathogenesis of AD, the specific effects of lncRNAs in AD remain unclear. In present study, we have investigated the expression profiles of lncRNAs in hippocampal of intranasal LPS-mediated Alzheimer's disease models in mice by microarray method. A total of 395 lncRNAs and 123 mRNAs was detected to express differently in AD models and controls (>2.0 folds, p<0.05). The microarray expression was validated by Quantitative Real-Time-PCR (qRT-PCR). The pathway analysis showed the mRNAs that correlated with lncRNAs were involved in inflammation, apoptosis, and nervous system related pathways. The lncRNA-TFs network analysis suggested the lncRNAs were mostly regulated by HMGA2, ONECUT2, FOXO1, and CDC5L. Additionally, lncRNA-target-TFs network analysis indicated the FOXL1, CDC5L, ONECUT2, and CDX1 to be the TFs most likely to regulate the production of these lncRNAs. This is the first study to investigate lncRNAs expression pattern in intranasal LPS-mediated Alzheimer's disease model in mice. And these results may facilitate the understanding of the pathogenesis of AD targeting lncRNAs.
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Shi J, Zhang X, Ni J, Wei M, Li T, Zhou B, Liu X, Zhang L, Wang P, Tian J, Wang Y. The influence of GAPT extraction on synapse loss of APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mice via adjusting Bcl-2/Bax balance. ALZHEIMERS & DEMENTIA-TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH & CLINICAL INTERVENTIONS 2018; 4:724-736. [PMID: 30581978 PMCID: PMC6295930 DOI: 10.1016/j.trci.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Introduction The degeneration of memory-focused synapses play important roles in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis, while it is not well known how β amyloid interferes neuron apoptosis and how a herbal combination GAPT influence synapse loss and neuronal apoptosis pathways of APP/PS1 transgenic mice. Methods Three-month and six-month APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mice were used. Spatial and memory ability were measured by Morris Water Maze, Neuron and synapse number were assessed by electron microscope; Aβ, Bcl-2/Bax were determined by immunohistochemistry and western blot. Results APP/PS1 mice not only had increased Aβ accumulation, impaired memory performance, less synapse number, and much more necrosed neurons, but also had significant reduction in the Bcl-2/Bax ratio. However, GAPT and donepezil showed improved memory performance, less Aβ accumulation, increased neuron and synapse number, as well as restored balance of Bcl-2/Bax. Discussion GAPT may improve cognitive functions via both reducing Aβ deposition and restoring Bcl-2/Bax balance of neuron.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Shi
- Third Department of Neurology, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Xuekai Zhang
- Third Department of Neurology, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Jingnian Ni
- Third Department of Neurology, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Mingqing Wei
- Third Department of Neurology, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Ting Li
- Third Department of Neurology, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Bingling Zhou
- Third Department of Neurology, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Xiawei Liu
- Third Department of Neurology, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Liping Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Pengwen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Chinese Internal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Jinzhou Tian
- Third Department of Neurology, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yongyan Wang
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
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Saba K, Rajnala N, Veeraiah P, Tiwari V, Rana RK, Lakhotia SC, Patel AB. Energetics of Excitatory and Inhibitory Neurotransmission in Aluminum Chloride Model of Alzheimer's Disease: Reversal of Behavioral and Metabolic Deficits by Rasa Sindoor. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:323. [PMID: 29089867 PMCID: PMC5651029 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by progressive loss of cognitive functions and memory. Excessive intake of aluminum chloride in drinking water is associated with amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain, which are the hallmark of AD. We have evaluated brain energy metabolism in aluminum chloride (AlCl3) mouse model of AD. In addition, effectiveness of Rasa Sindoor (RS), a formulation used in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, for alleviation of symptoms of AD was evaluated. Mice were administered AlCl3 (40 mg/kg) intraperitoneally once a day for 60 days. The memory of mice was measured using Morris Water Maze test. The 13C labeling of brain amino acids was measured ex vivo in tissue extracts using 1H-[13C]-NMR spectroscopy with timed infusion of [1,6-13C2]glucose. The 13C turnover of brain amino acids was analyzed using a three-compartment metabolic model to derive the neurotransmitter cycling and TCA cycle rates associated with glutamatergic and GABAergic pathways. Exposure of AlCl3 led to reduction in memory of mice. The glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmitter cycling and glucose oxidation were found to be reduced in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and striatum following chronic AlCl3 treatment. The perturbation in metabolic rates was highest in the cerebral cortex. However, reduction in metabolic fluxes was higher in hippocampus and striatum following one month post AlCl3 treatment. Most interestingly, oral administration of RS (2 g/kg) restored memory as well as the energetics of neurotransmission in mice exposed to AlCl3. These data suggest therapeutic potential of RS to manage cognitive functions and memory in preclinical AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamal Saba
- NMR Microimaging and Spectroscopy, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Habsiguda, India
| | - Niharika Rajnala
- NMR Microimaging and Spectroscopy, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Habsiguda, India
| | - Pandichelvam Veeraiah
- NMR Microimaging and Spectroscopy, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Habsiguda, India
| | - Vivek Tiwari
- NMR Microimaging and Spectroscopy, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Habsiguda, India
| | - Rohit K Rana
- CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Tarnaka, India
| | - Subhash C Lakhotia
- Cytogenetics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Anant B Patel
- NMR Microimaging and Spectroscopy, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Habsiguda, India
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Cited references and Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) as two different knowledge representations: clustering and mappings at the paper level. Scientometrics 2016; 109:2077-2091. [PMID: 27942085 PMCID: PMC5124055 DOI: 10.1007/s11192-016-2119-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
For the biomedical sciences, the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) make available a rich feature which cannot currently be merged properly with widely used citing/cited data. Here, we provide methods and routines that make MeSH terms amenable to broader usage in the study of science indicators: using Web-of-Science (WoS) data, one can generate the matrix of citing versus cited documents; using PubMed/MEDLINE data, a matrix of the citing documents versus MeSH terms can be generated analogously. The two matrices can also be reorganized into a 2-mode matrix of MeSH terms versus cited references. Using the abbreviated journal names in the references, one can, for example, address the question whether MeSH terms can be used as an alternative to WoS Subject Categories for the purpose of normalizing citation data. We explore the applicability of the routines in the case of a research program about the amyloid cascade hypothesis in Alzheimer’s disease. One conclusion is that referenced journals provide archival structures, whereas MeSH terms indicate mainly variation (including novelty) at the research front. Furthermore, we explore the option of using the citing/cited matrix for main-path analysis as a by-product of the software.
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Zhong X, Liu MY, Sun XH, Wei MJ. Association between ABCB1 polymorphisms and haplotypes and Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:32708. [PMID: 27600024 PMCID: PMC5013326 DOI: 10.1038/srep32708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Although several epidemiological studies have investigated the association between ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (ABCB1) gene polymorphisms and Alzheimer's disease (AD) susceptibility, controversial results exist. Here, we performed a meta-analysis to assess whether ABCB1 polymorphisms 3435C > T (rs1045642), 2677G > T/A (rs2032582), 1236C > T (rs1128503) and haplotypes were associated with AD risk. Nine independent publications were included and analyzed. Crude odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were applied to investigate the strength of the association. Sensitivity analysis was conducted to measure the robustness of our analysis. A funnel plot and trim and fill method were used to test and adjust for publication bias. The results showed a significant association between the 3435C > T single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and AD susceptibility (CT vs. CC: OR = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.06-1.45, P = 0.01; CT + TT vs. CC: OR = 1.21, 95% CI = 1.04-1.41, P = 0.01) in the total population, as well as in Caucasian subgroup. The 2677G > T/A SNP was related to a decreased AD risk in Caucasian subgroup (TT + TA + AA vs. GT + GA + GG: OR = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.47-0.98, P = 0.04). Moreover, the ABCB1 haplotype analysis showed that the 1236T/2677T/3435C haplotype was associated with a higher risk of AD (OR = 1.99, 95% CI = 1.24-3.18, P = 0.00). Our results suggest that the ABCB1 3435C > T SNP, the 2677G > T/A SNP and 1236T/2677T/3435C haplotype are significantly associated with AD susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhong
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Ming-Yan Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Xiao-Hong Sun
- Department of Neurology, the Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110032, China
| | - Min-Jie Wei
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
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Abstract
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are typically defined as transcripts longer than 200 nucleotides. lncRNAs can regulate gene expression at epigenetic, transcriptional, and posttranscriptional levels. Recent studies have shown that lncRNAs are involved in many neurological diseases such as epilepsy, neurodegenerative conditions, and genetic disorders. Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disease, which accounts for >80% of dementia in elderly subjects. In this review, we will highlight recent studies investigating the role of lncRNAs in Alzheimer's disease and focus on some specific lncRNAs that may underlie Alzheimer's disease pathophysiology and therefore could be potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Luo
- Department of Neurology, Jinshan Hospital
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yinghui Chen
- Department of Neurology, Jinshan Hospital
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
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Nicolau Jr. DV, Paszek E, Fulga F, Nicolau DV. Mapping hydrophobicity on the protein molecular surface at atom-level resolution. PLoS One 2014; 9:e114042. [PMID: 25462574 PMCID: PMC4252106 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A precise representation of the spatial distribution of hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity and charges on the molecular surface of proteins is critical for the understanding of the interaction with small molecules and larger systems. The representation of hydrophobicity is rarely done at atom-level, as this property is generally assigned to residues. A new methodology for the derivation of atomic hydrophobicity from any amino acid-based hydrophobicity scale was used to derive 8 sets of atomic hydrophobicities, one of which was used to generate the molecular surfaces for 35 proteins with convex structures, 5 of which, i.e., lysozyme, ribonuclease, hemoglobin, albumin and IgG, have been analyzed in more detail. Sets of the molecular surfaces of the model proteins have been constructed using spherical probes with increasingly large radii, from 1.4 to 20 Å, followed by the quantification of (i) the surface hydrophobicity; (ii) their respective molecular surface areas, i.e., total, hydrophilic and hydrophobic area; and (iii) their relative densities, i.e., divided by the total molecular area; or specific densities, i.e., divided by property-specific area. Compared with the amino acid-based formalism, the atom-level description reveals molecular surfaces which (i) present an approximately two times more hydrophilic areas; with (ii) less extended, but between 2 to 5 times more intense hydrophilic patches; and (iii) 3 to 20 times more extended hydrophobic areas. The hydrophobic areas are also approximately 2 times more hydrophobicity-intense. This, more pronounced "leopard skin"-like, design of the protein molecular surface has been confirmed by comparing the results for a restricted set of homologous proteins, i.e., hemoglobins diverging by only one residue (Trp37). These results suggest that the representation of hydrophobicity on the protein molecular surfaces at atom-level resolution, coupled with the probing of the molecular surface at different geometric resolutions, can capture processes that are otherwise obscured to the amino acid-based formalism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan V. Nicolau Jr.
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Ewa Paszek
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Florin Fulga
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Dan V. Nicolau
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Bioengineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Feng J, Meng C, Xing D. Aβ induces PUMA activation: a new mechanism for Aβ-mediated neuronal apoptosis. Neurobiol Aging 2014; 36:789-800. [PMID: 25457551 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2014] [Revised: 09/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis (PUMA) is a promising tumor therapy target because it elicits apoptosis and profound sensitivity to radiation and chemotherapy. However, inhibition of PUMA may be beneficial for curbing excessive apoptosis associated with neurodegenerative disorders. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a representative neurodegenerative disease in which amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition causes neurotoxicity. The regulation of PUMA during Aβ-induced neuronal apoptosis remains poorly understood. Here, we reported that PUMA expression was significantly increased in the hippocampus of transgenic mice models of AD and hippocampal neurons in response to Aβ. PUMA knockdown protected the neurons against Aβ-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, besides p53, PUMA transactivation was also regulated by forkhead box O3a through p53-independent manner following Aβ treatment. Notably, PUMA contributed to neuronal apoptosis through competitive binding of apoptosis repressor with caspase recruitment domain to activate caspase-8 that cleaved Bid into tBid to accelerate Bax mitochondrial translocation, revealing a novel pathway of Bax activation by PUMA to mediate Aβ-induced neuronal apoptosis. Together, we demonstrated that PUMA activation involved in Aβ-induced apoptosis, representing a drug target to antagonize AD progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Feng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science and Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chengbo Meng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science and Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Da Xing
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science and Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.
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Mosser S, Alattia JR, Dimitrov M, Matz A, Pascual J, Schneider BL, Fraering PC. The adipocyte differentiation protein APMAP is an endogenous suppressor of Aβ production in the brain. Hum Mol Genet 2014; 24:371-82. [PMID: 25180020 PMCID: PMC4275069 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddu449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The deposition of amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregates in the brain is a major pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Aβ is generated from the cleavage of C-terminal fragments of the amyloid precursor protein (APP-CTFs) by γ-secretase, an intramembrane-cleaving protease with multiple substrates, including the Notch receptors. Endogenous modulation of γ-secretase is pointed to be implicated in the sporadic, age-dependent form of AD. Moreover, specifically modulating Aβ production has become a priority for the safe treatment of AD because the inhibition of γ-secretase results in adverse effects that are related to impaired Notch cleavage. Here, we report the identification of the adipocyte differentiation protein APMAP as a novel endogenous suppressor of Aβ generation. We found that APMAP interacts physically with γ-secretase and its substrate APP. In cells, the partial depletion of APMAP drastically increased the levels of APP-CTFs, as well as uniquely affecting their stability, with the consequence being increased secretion of Aβ. In wild-type and APP/ presenilin 1 transgenic mice, partial adeno-associated virus-mediated APMAP knockdown in the hippocampus increased Aβ production by ∼20 and ∼55%, respectively. Together, our data demonstrate that APMAP is a negative regulator of Aβ production through its interaction with APP and γ-secretase. All observed APMAP phenotypes can be explained by an impaired degradation of APP-CTFs, likely caused by an altered substrate transport capacity to the lysosomal/autophagic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastien Mosser
- Brain Mind Institute and School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH1015, Switzerland
| | - Jean-René Alattia
- Brain Mind Institute and School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH1015, Switzerland
| | - Mitko Dimitrov
- Brain Mind Institute and School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH1015, Switzerland
| | - Alexandre Matz
- Brain Mind Institute and School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH1015, Switzerland
| | - Justine Pascual
- Brain Mind Institute and School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH1015, Switzerland
| | - Bernard L Schneider
- Brain Mind Institute and School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH1015, Switzerland
| | - Patrick C Fraering
- Brain Mind Institute and School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH1015, Switzerland
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12
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Nicolau DV, Paszek E, Fulga F, Nicolau DV. Protein molecular surface mapped at different geometrical resolutions. PLoS One 2013; 8:e58896. [PMID: 23516572 PMCID: PMC3597524 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2012] [Accepted: 02/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Many areas of biochemistry and molecular biology, both fundamental and applications-orientated, require an accurate construction, representation and understanding of the protein molecular surface and its interaction with other, usually small, molecules. There are however many situations when the protein molecular surface gets in physical contact with larger objects, either biological, such as membranes, or artificial, such as nanoparticles. The contribution presents a methodology for describing and quantifying the molecular properties of proteins, by geometrical and physico-chemical mapping of the molecular surfaces, with several analytical relationships being proposed for molecular surface properties. The relevance of the molecular surface-derived properties has been demonstrated through the calculation of the statistical strength of the prediction of protein adsorption. It is expected that the extension of this methodology to other phenomena involving proteins near solid surfaces, in particular the protein interaction with nanoparticles, will result in important benefits in the understanding and design of protein-specific solid surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan V Nicolau
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
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Mustroph M, King M, Klein R, Ramirez J. Adult-onset focal expression of mutated human tau in the hippocampus impairs spatial working memory of rats. Behav Brain Res 2012; 233:141-8. [PMID: 22561128 PMCID: PMC3378764 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Revised: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Tauopathy in the hippocampus is one of the earliest cardinal features of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a condition characterized by progressive memory impairments. In fact, density of tau neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the hippocampus strongly correlates with severity of cognitive impairments in AD. In the present study, we employed a somatic cell gene transfer technique to create a rodent model of tauopathy by injecting a recombinant adeno-associated viral vector with a mutated human tau gene (P301L) into the hippocampus of adult rats. The P301L mutation is causal for frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism-17 (FTDP-17), but it has been used for studying memory effects characteristic of AD in transgenic mice. To ascertain if P301L-induced mnemonic deficits are persistent, animals were tested for 6 months. It was hypothesized that adult-onset, spatially restricted tau expression in the hippocampus would produce progressive spatial working memory deficits on a learned alternation task. Rats injected with the tau vector exhibited persistent impairments on the hippocampal-dependent task beginning at about 6 weeks post-transduction compared to rats injected with a green fluorescent protein vector. Histological analysis of brains for expression of human tau revealed hyperphosphorylated human tau and NFTs in the hippocampus in experimental animals only. Thus, adult-onset, vector-induced tauopathy spatially restricted to the hippocampus progressively impaired spatial working memory in rats. We conclude that the model faithfully reproduces histological and behavioral findings characteristic of dementing tauopathies. The rapid onset of sustained memory impairment establishes a preclinical model particularly suited to the development of potential tauopathy therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- M.L. Mustroph
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Davidson College, Davidson, NC, USA
| | - M.A. King
- Pharmacology & Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Malcom Randall VA Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - R.L. Klein
- Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Neuroscience, LSUHSC, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - J.J. Ramirez
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Davidson College, Davidson, NC, USA
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Xiao F, Li XG, Zhang XY, Hou JD, Lin LF, Gao Q, Luo HM. Combined administration of D-galactose and aluminium induces Alzheimer-like lesions in brain. Neurosci Bull 2011; 27:143-55. [PMID: 21614097 PMCID: PMC5560362 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-011-1028-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2010] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE It has been reported that D-galactose (D-gal) can model subacute aging, and aluminum (Al) acts as a neurotoxin, but combined effects of them have not been reported. The present work aimed to reveal the effect of combined administration of D-gal and Al in mice and compare the effect of D-gal treatment with that of Al treatment. METHODS Al was intragastrically administered and D-gal was subcutaneously injected into Kunming mice for 10 consecutive weeks. Learning and memory, cholinergic systems, as well as protein levels of amyloid β (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau were determined using Morri water maze test, biochemical assays and immunohistochemical staining, respectively. RESULTS The mice with combined treatment had obvious learning and memory deficits, and showed decreases in brain acetylcholine (ACh) level and in activities of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Formation of senile plaque (SP)-like and neurofibrillary tangle (NFT)-like structures was also observed. The behavioral and pathological changes persisted for at least 6 weeks after withdrawal of D-gal and Al. CONCLUSION Combined use of D-gal and Al is an effective way to establish the non-transgenic Alzheimer's disease (AD) animal model, and is useful for studies of AD pathogenesis and therapeutic evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Xiao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
| | - Xiao-Guang Li
- Institute of Brain Science, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
- Joint Laboratory for Brain Function and Health, Jinan University and The University of Hong Kong, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
| | - Xiao-Yu Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
| | - Jun-Dai Hou
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
| | - Lian-Feng Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
| | - Qin Gao
- Institute of Brain Science, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
- Joint Laboratory for Brain Function and Health, Jinan University and The University of Hong Kong, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
| | - Huan-Min Luo
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
- Institute of Brain Science, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
- Joint Laboratory for Brain Function and Health, Jinan University and The University of Hong Kong, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
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Dosunmu R, Wu J, Adwan L, Maloney B, Basha MR, McPherson CA, Harry GJ, Rice DC, Zawia NH, Lahiri DK. Lifespan profiles of Alzheimer's disease-associated genes and products in monkeys and mice. J Alzheimers Dis 2010; 18:211-30. [PMID: 19584442 DOI: 10.3233/jad-2009-1138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by plaques of amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide, cleaved from amyloid-beta protein precursor (AbetaPP). Our hypothesis is that lifespan profiles of AD-associated mRNA and protein levels in monkeys would differ from mice and that differential lifespan expression profiles would be useful to understand human AD pathogenesis. We compared profiles of AbetaPP mRNA, AbetaPP protein, and Abeta levels in rodents and primates. We also tracked a transcriptional regulator of the AbetaPP gene, specificity protein 1 (SP1), and the beta amyloid precursor cleaving enzyme (BACE1). In mice, AbetaPP and SP1 mRNA and their protein products were elevated late in life; Abeta levels declined in old age. In monkeys, SP1, AbetaPP, and BACE1 mRNA declined in old age, while protein products and Abeta levels rose. Proteolytic processing in both species did not match production of Abeta. In primates, AbetaPP and SP1 mRNA levels coordinate, but an inverse relationship exists with corresponding protein products as well as Abeta levels. Comparison of human DNA and mRNA sequences to monkey and mouse counterparts revealed structural features that may explain differences in transcriptional and translational processing. These findings are important for selecting appropriate models for AD and other age-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remi Dosunmu
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
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Williams M, Shiosaki K, Puttfarcken P. Editorial Central & Peripheral Nervous Systems: Amyloid β Peptide in Alzheimer's Disease Pathology: Towards a Rational Basis for Drug Discovery? Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2008. [DOI: 10.1517/13543784.4.4.263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Duyckaerts C, Potier MC, Delatour B. Alzheimer disease models and human neuropathology: similarities and differences. Acta Neuropathol 2008; 115:5-38. [PMID: 18038275 PMCID: PMC2100431 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-007-0312-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 276] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2007] [Revised: 10/13/2007] [Accepted: 10/14/2007] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Animal models aim to replicate the symptoms, the lesions or the cause(s) of Alzheimer disease. Numerous mouse transgenic lines have now succeeded in partially reproducing its lesions: the extracellular deposits of Abeta peptide and the intracellular accumulation of tau protein. Mutated human APP transgenes result in the deposition of Abeta peptide, similar but not identical to the Abeta peptide of human senile plaque. Amyloid angiopathy is common. Besides the deposition of Abeta, axon dystrophy and alteration of dendrites have been observed. All of the mutations cause an increase in Abeta 42 levels, except for the Arctic mutation, which alters the Abeta sequence itself. Overexpressing wild-type APP alone (as in the murine models of human trisomy 21) causes no Abeta deposition in most mouse lines. Doubly (APP x mutated PS1) transgenic mice develop the lesions earlier. Transgenic mice in which BACE1 has been knocked out or overexpressed have been produced, as well as lines with altered expression of neprilysin, the main degrading enzyme of Abeta. The APP transgenic mice have raised new questions concerning the mechanisms of neuronal loss, the accumulation of Abeta in the cell body of the neurons, inflammation and gliosis, and the dendritic alterations. They have allowed some insight to be gained into the kinetics of the changes. The connection between the symptoms, the lesions and the increase in Abeta oligomers has been found to be difficult to unravel. Neurofibrillary tangles are only found in mouse lines that overexpress mutated tau or human tau on a murine tau -/- background. A triply transgenic model (mutated APP, PS1 and tau) recapitulates the alterations seen in AD but its physiological relevance may be discussed. A number of modulators of Abeta or of tau accumulation have been tested. A transgenic model may be analyzed at three levels at least (symptoms, lesions, cause of the disease), and a reading key is proposed to summarize this analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Duyckaerts
- Laboratoire de Neuropathologie Raymond Escourolle, Hôpital de La Salpêtrière, 47 Boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75651, Paris Cedex 13, France.
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18
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Liron T, Seraya CB, Ish-Shalom M, Souroujon MC, Neumann D. Overexpression of amyloid precursor protein reduces epsilon protein kinase C levels. Neuroscience 2007; 146:152-9. [PMID: 17321053 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2006] [Revised: 12/12/2006] [Accepted: 01/07/2007] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by extracellular deposits of amyloid beta peptide (Abeta), a peptide that is generated upon proteolytic cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP). The events leading to the development of AD and their sequence are not yet fully understood. Protein kinase C (PKC) has been suggested to have a significant role in controlling neuronal degeneration and in the aberrant signal transduction taking place in AD. Several studies document a deficit in PKC levels and activity in brains of AD patients when compared with those of normal controls. Such a decrease in PKC could have serious implications since certain PKC isozymes were shown to drive the APP proteolytic cleavage into a non-amyloidogenic pathway. Reduced levels of distinct PKC isozymes could thus contribute to driving APP processing toward an amyloidogenic pathway. The direct cause for the down-regulation of PKC in AD brains is still unknown. In that respect, we tested in this study whether APP may play a role in PKC reduction. We show in three different cell lines (CHO, COS and BOSC) that overexpression of APP leads to decreased PKC levels. This decrease was found to be specific for the epsilon PKC isozyme whereas the levels of delta, alpha and conventional PKC remained unchanged. Furthermore, we observed this decrease for both active, membrane-associated and inactive, cytosolic epsilon PKC. APP-driven decrease in epsilon PKC is most likely mediated by a factor in the culture medium, since transfer of medium from cultured cells overexpressing APP to naïve, non-overexpressing cells, has also led to the selective decrease in epsilon PKC levels. Taken together, our results suggest that APP expression levels may play a role in the decrease of epsilon PKC levels in AD brains and could thus affect the responsiveness of AD brain tissues to growth factors and neurotransmitters.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Liron
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, 69978 Tel-Aviv, Israel
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19
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Heaney JD, Bronson SK. Artificial chromosome-based transgenes in the study of genome function. Mamm Genome 2006; 17:791-807. [PMID: 16897340 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-006-0023-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2006] [Accepted: 04/06/2006] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The transfer of large DNA fragments to the mouse genome in the form of bacterial, yeast or phage artificial chromosomes is an important process in the definition of transcription units, the modeling of inherited disease states, the dissection of candidate regions identified by linkage analysis and the construction of in vivo reporter genes. However, as with small recombinant transgenes, the transferred sequences are usually integrated randomly often with accompanying genomic alterations and variable expression of the introduced genes due to the site of integration and/or copy number. Therefore, alternative methods of integrating large genomic transgenes into the genome have been developed to avoid the variables associated with random integration. This review encourages the reader to imagine the large variety of applications where artificial chromosome transgenes can facilitate in vivo and ex vivo studies in the mouse and provides a context for making the necessary decisions regarding the specifics of experimental design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason D Heaney
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, The Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, 500 University Drive, Hershey, PA 17033-0850, USA
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20
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Abstract
As the scope of the problem of Alzheimer's disease (AD) grows due to an aging population, research into the devastating condition has taken on added urgency. Rare inherited forms of AD provide insight into the molecular pathways leading to degeneration and have made possible the development of transgenic animal models. Several of these models are based on the overexpression of amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilins, or tau to cause production and accumulation of amyloid-beta into plaques or hyperphosphorylated tau into neurofibrillary tangles. Producing these characteristic neuropathological lesions in animals causes progressive neurodegeneration and in some cases similar behavioral disruptions to those seen in AD patients. Knockout models of proteins involved in AD have also been generated to explore the native functions of these genes and examine whether pathogenesis is due to loss of function or toxic gain of function in these systems. Although none of the transgenic lines models the human condition exactly, the ability to study similar pathological processes in living animals have provided numerous insights into disease mechanisms and opportunities to test therapeutic agents. This chapter reviews animal models of AD and their contributions to developing therapeutic approaches for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara L Spires
- Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, USA
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21
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Swaab DF, Lucassen PJ, Salehi A, Scherder EJ, van Someren EJ, Verwer RW. Reduced neuronal activity and reactivation in Alzheimer's disease. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 1999; 117:343-77. [PMID: 9932420 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(08)64027-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
1. Alzheimer's disease is a multifactorial disease in which age and APOE-epsilon 4 are important risk factors. Various mutations and even viral infections such as herpes simplex (Itzhaki et al., 1997) may play an additional role. 2. The neuropathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD), i.e. amorphous plaques, neuritic plaques (NPs), pretangles, neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) and cell death are not part of a single pathogenetic cascade but are basically independent phenomena. 3. Pretangles can occur in neurons from which the metabolic rate is not altered. However, in brain areas where classical AD changes, i.e. NPs and NFTs, are present, such as the CA1 area of the hippocampus, the nucleus basalis of Meynert and the tuberomamillary nucleus, a decreased metabolic rate is found. Decreased metabolic rate appears to be an independent phenomenon in Alzheimer's disease. It is not induced by the presence of pretangles, NFT or NPs. 4. Decreased metabolic rate may precede cognitive impairment and is thus an early occurring hallmark of Alzheimer's disease, which, in principle, may be reversible. The observation that the administration of glucose or insulin enhances memory in Alzheimer patients also supports the view that Alzheimer's disease is basically a metabolic disease. Moreover, several observations indicate that activated neurons are better able to withstand aging and AD, a phenomenon paraphrased by us as "use it or lose it". It is, therefore, attractive to direct the development of therapeutic strategies towards restimulation of neuronal metabolic rate in order to improve cognition and other symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. A number of pharmacological and non-pharmacological studies support the concept that activation of the brain indeed has beneficial effects on several aspects of cognition and other central functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- D F Swaab
- Netherlands Institute for Brain Research, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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22
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Shibayama Y, Joseph K, Nakazawa Y, Ghebreihiwet B, Peerschke EI, Kaplan AP. Zinc-dependent activation of the plasma kinin-forming cascade by aggregated beta amyloid protein. Clin Immunol 1999; 90:89-99. [PMID: 9884356 DOI: 10.1006/clim.1998.4621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Beta Amyloid proteins (Abeta) of 38, 40, and 42 amino acids long were assessed for their ability to activate the plasma kinin-forming cascade in vitro. Incubation with a mixture of Factor XII (Hageman Factor), prekallikrein, and high-molecular-weight kininogen (HK) led to conversion of prekallikrein to kallikrein that was dependent on zinc ion. No activation occurred if Factor XII was omitted. There was rapid generation of bradykinin equal to the molar HK input indicating complete cleavage. Incubation of aggregated Abeta with diluted human plasma also led to prekallikrein activation and HK cleavage. Activation of the cascade by Abeta (1-38) was dependent upon its preincubation time in buffer, suggesting that aggregation of Abeta is required, and studies with Abeta (1-40) revealed time-dependent aggregation by microscopy and augmented zinc-dependent binding of both Factor XII and HK to aggregated Abeta. These data demonstrate that aggregated Abeta can bind and activate proenzymes of the plasma kinin-forming cascade in a zinc-dependent reaction to release bradykinin and is of sufficient potency to do so at physiologic concentrations of each protein and in the presence of naturally occurring protease inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Shibayama
- The Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
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23
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Allain H, Bentué-Ferrer D, Zekri O, Schück S, Lebreton S, Reymann JM. Experimental and clinical methods in the development of anti-Alzheimer drugs. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 1998; 12:13-29. [PMID: 9523180 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-8206.1998.tb00919.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Methodology used for the development of anti-Alzheimer's disease (AD) drugs raises specific problems which are rarely examined in the literature. While the general development scheme is similar to that required for most drugs, some specific aspects must be analyzed, highly dominated by the dual goal of pharmacology, i.e., to obtain both symptomatic and etiopathogenic drugs. During preclinical studies, aged or lesioned animals are mainly useful for symptomatic drugs, whereas transgenic models or neurodegeneration-induced techniques would probably lead to etiopathogenic drugs potentially slowing down the process of AD. The first administrations of a new compound to human beings raise the question of the activity measurement techniques. Psychometry remains the most informative procedure to detect and analyze the activity of the drugs on the different components of cognition. Electrophysiology and neuroimaging need some complementary studies before they can be proposed as surrogate criteria in phase III trials. At this stage of development, American and the recently published European guidelines are of great help while insisting on long-term (6 months) placebo controlled trials with the use of the triple efficacy criterion: an objective cognition scale, a global assessment, and the opinion of the caregiver. In the long term, pharmacoepidemiology and pharmacoeconomy will have to confirm the rationale of this recent progress in the methodology of anti-AD drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Allain
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie Expérimentale et Clinique, Faculté de Médecine, Rennes, France
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24
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Abstract
In the past, structural changes in the brain with aging have been studied using a variety of animal models, with rats and nonhuman primates being the most popular. With the rapid evolution of mouse genetics, murine models have gained increased attention in the neurobiology of aging. The genetic contribution of age-related traits as well as specific mechanistic hypotheses underlying brain aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases can now be assessed by using genetically-selected and genetically-manipulated mice. Against this background of increased demand for aging research in mouse models, relatively few studies have examined structural alterations with aging in the normal mouse brain, and the data available are almost exclusively restricted to the C57BL/6 strain. Moreover, many older studies have used quantitative techniques which today can be questioned regarding their accuracy. Here we review the state of knowledge about structural changes with aging in outbred, inbred, genetically-selected, and genetically-engineered murine models. Moreover, we suggest several new opportunities that are emerging to study brain aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases using genetically-defined mouse models. By reviewing the literature, it has become clear to us that in light of the rapid progress in genetically-engineered and selected mouse models for brain aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases, there is a great and urgent need to study and define morphological changes in the aging brain of normal inbred mice and to analyze the structural changes in genetically-engineered mice more carefully and completely than accomplished to date. Such investigations will broaden knowledge in the neurobiology of aging, particularly regarding the genetics of aging, and possibly identify the most useful murine models.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Jucker
- Gerontology Research Centre, Nathan W. Shock Laboratories, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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26
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Greenberg BD, Savage MJ, Howland DS, Ali SM, Siedlak SL, Perry G, Siman R, Scott RW. APP transgenesis: approaches toward the development of animal models for Alzheimer disease neuropathology. Neurobiol Aging 1996; 17:153-71. [PMID: 8744397 DOI: 10.1016/0197-4580(96)00001-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Roth GS, Joseph JA, Mason RP. Membrane alterations as causes of impaired signal transduction in Alzheimer's disease and aging. Trends Neurosci 1995; 18:203-6. [PMID: 7610488 DOI: 10.1016/0166-2236(95)93902-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Changes in cell-membrane composition in normal aging and in Alzheimer's and other age-related diseases appear to result in impaired neurotransmitter-triggered signal transduction. The impaired signal transduction seems to be related to dysfunctions in the coupling of G proteins to their receptors and effectors. Direct demonstration of altered physiochemical properties of brain tissue of patients with Alzheimer's disease has been achieved by small-angle X-ray diffraction. In this disease, thinner membranes correlate with a 30% decrease in moles of cholesterol:phospholipid. Such changes can affect directly the coupling and uncoupling properties of G proteins, and can account for signal transduction deficits. These findings offer a complementary alternative to the beta-amyloid hypothesis, and an opportunity to consider new types of therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- G S Roth
- Molecular Physiology and Genetics Section, National Institute on Aging, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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29
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Abstract
The etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is poorly understood, and no effective therapies are available. Although histopathology of the disease has been studied thoroughly, the relationship of various AD lesions to pathological processes and to dementia are debated. Progress would be greatly enhanced by existence of manipulable small animal models of the disease. Recently, transgenic strategies to developing such a model have been extensively explored. The approach has proved to be difficult and has yielded some disappointments, but also some encouraging results. Transgenic strategies for obtaining a model for AD are surveyed in this review and, as an illustration, early AD-like features of transgenic mice produced in our laboratory are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- L S Higgins
- Scios Nova Inc., Mountain View, CA 94043, USA
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LaFerla FM, Tinkle BT, Bieberich CJ, Haudenschild CC, Jay G. The Alzheimer's A beta peptide induces neurodegeneration and apoptotic cell death in transgenic mice. Nat Genet 1995; 9:21-30. [PMID: 7704018 DOI: 10.1038/ng0195-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 371] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
To test whether the hypothesis that the Alzheimer's A beta peptide is neurotoxic, we introduced a transgene into mice to direct expression of this peptide to neurons. We show that the transgene is expressed in brain regions which are severely affected in Alzheimer's disease resulting in extensive neuronal degeneration. Morphological and biochemical evidence indicates that the eventual death of these cells occurs by apoptosis. Coincident with the cell degeneration and cell death is the presence of a striking reactive gliosis. Over 50% of the transgenic mice die by 12 months of age, half the normal life span of control mice. These data show that A beta is neurotoxic in vivo and suggest that apoptosis may be responsible for the accompanying neuronal loss, the principal underlying cellular feature of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- F M LaFerla
- Department of Virology, Jerome H. Holland Laboratory, Rockville, Maryland 20855
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33
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Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common dementing disorder of late life, is a major cause of disability and death in the elderly. Neurobiological, genetic, and molecular studies have defined the vulnerable neural systems, abnormalities in cytoskeletal proteins in neurons, the biology of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and beta-amyloid (A beta, beta A4), and several APP mutations linked to the disease. More recently, investigators have begun to develop animal models essential for delineating pathogenetic mechanisms and for developing and testing new therapies for treating AD in humans. This review focuses primarily on recent progress in investigation of animal models of AD (including aged nonhuman primates and transgenic mice), which have begun to clarify some of the questions raised by investigation of the disease in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Price
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205-2196
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Roses AD, Pericak-Vance MA, Saunders AM, Schmechel D, Goldgaber D, Strittmatter W. Complex genetic disease: can genetic strategies in Alzheimer's disease and new genetic mechanisms be applied to epilepsy? Epilepsia 1994; 35 Suppl 1:S20-8. [PMID: 8293721 DOI: 10.1111/j.1528-1157.1994.tb05925.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Strategies used in molecular genetics have changed modern neurology. The gene or genes responsible for several major neurologic diseases have now been identified using "reverse" or positional genetics. Unexpected new genetic mechanisms have been discovered in human neurologic diseases, including (a) identical mutations of the prion protein gene in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and fatal familial insomnia with the phenotypic expression directed by an accompanying polymorphism; (b) stable duplications of chromosome 17 in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (type 1A) that involve many genes, only one of which appears to cause neuropathy; and (c) highly variable, dynamic mutations in myotonic dystrophy, fragile X syndrome, and Kennedy's syndrome that modulate variable expressivity in multiple tissues. There is growing recognition that neurologic diseases are often complex genetic diseases with multifactorial rather than simple modes of inheritance. For example, genetic association/linkage strategies have interacted with biochemistry and immunopathology studies to produce new insights into the disease mechanism of late-onset Alzheimer's disease. The role of apolipoprotein E in late-onset Alzheimer's disease is an example of how new analytical techniques of genetic disease can be applied to dissect multiple genes. Similar research strategies are suggested for the study of epilepsy as a complex disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Roses
- Joseph and Kathleen Bryan Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Department of Medicine (Neurology), Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710-2900
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Dunnett SB. Animal Models of Alzheimer’s Disease. DEMENTIA 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-6805-6_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Terry
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093-0624
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37
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Aguzzi A, Brandner S, Sure U, Rüedi D, Isenmann S. Transgenic and knock-out mice: models of neurological disease. Brain Pathol 1994; 4:3-20. [PMID: 8025701 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.1994.tb00806.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Besides providing useful model systems for basic science, studies based on modification of the mammalian germ line are changing our understanding of pathogenetic principles. In this article, we review the most popular techniques for generating specific germ line mutations in vivo and discuss the impact of various transgenic models on the study of neurodegenerative diseases. The "gain of function" approach, i.e., ectopic expression of exogenous genes in neural structures, has deepened our understanding of neurodegeneration resulting from infection with papova viruses, picorna viruses, and human retroviruses. Further, inappropriate expression of mutated cellular molecules in the nervous system of transgenic mice is proving very useful for studying conditions whose pathogenesis is controversial, such as Alzheimer's disease and motor neuron diseases. As a complementary approach, ablation of entire cell lineages by tissue-specific expression of toxins has been useful in defining the role of specific cellular compartments. Modeling of recessive genetic diseases, such as Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, was helped by the development of techniques for targeted gene deletion (colloquially termed "gene knock-out"). Introduction of subtle homozygous mutations in the mouse genome was made possible by the latter approach. Such "loss of function" mutants have been used for clarifying the role of molecules thought to be involved in development and structural maintenance of the nervous system, such as the receptors for nerve growth factor and the P0 protein of peripheral myelin. In addition, these models are showing their assets also in the study of enigmatic diseases such as spongiform encephalopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Aguzzi
- Department of Pathology, University Hospital Zurich, Switzerland
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Czech C, Masters C, Beyreuther K. Alzheimer's disease and transgenic mice. JOURNAL OF NEURAL TRANSMISSION. SUPPLEMENTUM 1994; 44:219-30. [PMID: 7897394 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-9350-1_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic mice overexpressing the three major neuronal isoforms of the human amyloid precursor protein (APP), APP695, APP751, APP770 may provide an animal model for the analysis of the mechanisms and risk factors leading to amyloid deposition in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Downs syndrome (DS). We have therefore generated transgenic mice expressing these isoforms under the control of the strong metallothionin promoter. Although we can demonstrate expression of transgenic APP in several tissues including brain, expression levels never exceeded those of the endogenous mouse APP. So far we have not been able to detect pathological changes resembling those of AD and DS. However we could demonstrate significant changes in spatial navigation tasks and motor behavior in the transgenic mice. The question remains open whether overexpression of APP is sufficient to induce Alzheimer pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Czech
- Center for Molecular Biology, Heidelberg (ZMBH), University of Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany
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39
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Harrington CR, Wischik CM. Molecular Pathobiology of Alzheimer’s Disease. DEMENTIA 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-6805-6_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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40
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Lannfelt L, Folkesson R, Mohammed AH, Winblad B, Hellgren D, Duff K, Hardy J. Alzheimer's disease: molecular genetics and transgenic animal models. Behav Brain Res 1993; 57:207-13. [PMID: 8117426 DOI: 10.1016/0166-4328(93)90137-f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Disease-causing mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene have been found on chromosome 21 during the last 2 years in some early onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) families. Genetic evidence shows that other genes than the APP are also involved in the aetiology of AD. Linkage to a loci on chromosome 14 has been found in early onset disease. The identification of APP mutation has led to the realization that APP mismetabolism is a central event in the aetiology and pathogenesis of the disease. Experiments to test this in transgenic mice have so far met with little success. There are many possible explanations for the problems to generate transgenic mice. These include the possibilities that mice are incapable of developing AD for reasons dependent on their APP sequence; and that appropriate regulation of APP gene is required for pathology to develop. Current attempts that seem promising to model the disease pathology are the use of homologous recombination to insert the pathogenic mutation and transfection of YACs into transgenic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lannfelt
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden
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41
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Abstract
One of the principal identifying features of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the extracellular deposition of fibrous protein aggregates in the form of amyloid plaques. The major component of these deposits is the amyloid beta (A beta) protein that is a proteolytic fragment of the integral membrane amyloid precursor protein (APP). Understanding the pathways responsible for A beta formation and the mechanism by which it accumulates within the brain could provide key answers to AD pathogenesis. This review will explore the biochemistry of A beta and its precursor, the possible causal relationship between amyloid and AD-associated neuronal death, the role of additional cellular elements in amyloid formation, and the potential application of these components in clinical diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Fraser
- Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Fukuchi K, Ogburn CE, Smith AC, Kunkel DD, Furlong CE, Deeb SS, Nochlin D, Sumi SM, Martin GM. Transgenic animal models for Alzheimer's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1993; 695:217-23. [PMID: 8239285 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb23055.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The neuropathology of Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the deposition of abnormal protein aggregates. The main constituent of the deposition is beta-amyloid protein. A seminal role of this protein is supported by the discovery of point mutations in the gene of its precursor protein in certain forms of familial Alzheimer's disease. In vitro (cultured neuronal cells), overexpression of the precursor protein or a part of the precursor leads to degeneration of neurons, suggesting neurotoxicity of its derivatives. At this time, all of the reported transgenic mice bearing DNA construct for the precursor or a part of the precursor, however, have not developed convincing pathological changes similar to what is observed in patients with Alzheimer's disease. This interesting discrepancy between in vitro and in vivo suggests suppressors in vivo which ameliorate beta-amyloid precursor protein derivative-mediated neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Fukuchi
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle 98195
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43
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Lamb BT, Sisodia SS, Lawler AM, Slunt HH, Kitt CA, Kearns WG, Pearson PL, Price DL, Gearhart JD. Introduction and expression of the 400 kilobase amyloid precursor protein gene in transgenic mice [corrected]. Nat Genet 1993; 5:22-30. [PMID: 8220418 DOI: 10.1038/ng0993-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Overexpression of the gene encoding the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) may have a key role in the pathogenesis of both Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Down Syndrome (DS). We have therefore introduced a 650 kilobase (kb) yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) that contains the entire, unrearranged 400 kb human APP gene into mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells by lipid-mediated transfection. ES lines were generated that contain a stably integrated, unrearranged human APP gene. Moreover, we demonstrate germ line transmission of the APP YAC in transgenic mice and expression of human APP mRNA and protein at levels comparable to endogenous APP. This transgenic strategy may prove invaluable for the development of mouse models for AD and DS.
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Affiliation(s)
- B T Lamb
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
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44
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Fournier J, Steinberg R, Gauthier T, Keane PE, Guzzi U, Coudé FX, Bougault I, Maffrand JP, Soubrié P, Le Fur G. Protective effects of SR 57746A in central and peripheral models of neurodegenerative disorders in rodents and primates. Neuroscience 1993; 55:629-41. [PMID: 8413926 DOI: 10.1016/0306-4522(93)90429-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Compounds possessing neurotrophic properties may represent a possible treatment for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. SR 57746A, 1-[2-(naphth-2-yl)ethyl]-4-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-1,2,5,6- tetrahydropyridine hydrochloride, is a new compound with neurotrophic activity in a number of in vitro preparations. The neurotrophic effects of this compound have been evaluated in vivo using four distinct rat models of neurodegeneration: transient global ischaemia produced by a four-vessel occlusion; septohippocampal lesion produced by injection of vincristine sulphate into the medial septum; sciatic nerve crushing; and acrylamide-induced peripheral neuropathy. Rats were administered vehicle or 2.5-10 mg/kg p.o. SR 57746A, after initiation of the degenerative process, then once daily for 10 days in the first two models, 16 days in the third and 26 days in the fourth model. Median scores for ischaemia-induced neuronal damage were reduced by 30-40% by SR 57746A treatment in hippocampal CA1, CA2, and CA3 regions, and in the dorsal striatum. Twelve days after intraseptal vincristine administration, there was a marked loss of septohippocampal cholinergic neurons, as indicated by reduced choline acetyltransferase activity in both the septum and hippocampus. SR 57746A dose-dependently reversed this reduction in both areas. These results were confirmed by histoenzymological evaluation of hippocampal acetylcholinesterase content. SR 57746A also reversed the loss of hippocampal choline acetyltransferase induced by intraseptal vincristine in marmosets. Behavioral deficits in these models (exploratory behaviour in the former and short-term social memory in the latter) were also significantly reduced by SR 57746A treatment. In the sciatic crush model, sensorimotor function improved more rapidly in rats treated with 10 mg/kg SR 57746A. In this same model, SR 57746A (10 mg/kg/day) also significantly increased the length of regenerated nerve eight days after the crush, as measured using the pinch test. Finally, SR 57746A retarded the onset, reduced the amplitude and accelerated the recovery of acrylamide-induced peripheral neuropathy. Thus, SR 57746A possesses notable neurotrophic activity in a variety of neurodegenerative models in vivo, suggesting that the compound may possess therapeutic potential for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Liberski PP. Subacute spongiform encephalopathies--the transmissible brain amyloidoses: a comparison with the non-transmissible brain amyloidoses of Alzheimer type. J Comp Pathol 1993; 109:103-27. [PMID: 8245229 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9975(08)80256-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P P Liberski
- Electron Microscopic Laboratory, Department of Oncology, Medical Academy, Lodz, Poland
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Price DL, Borchelt DR, Sisodia SS. Alzheimer disease and the prion disorders amyloid beta-protein and prion protein amyloidoses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1993; 90:6381-4. [PMID: 8101988 PMCID: PMC46935 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.90.14.6381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer disease and the prion disorders/spongiform encephalopathies share many common features. These chronic, progressive, sometimes familial diseases of the central nervous system are characterized by the presence of different types of amyloid deposits in the brain. This review provides a perspective on these two types of neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Price
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205-2196
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Williams M, Giordano T, Elder RA, Reiser HJ, Neil GL. Biotechnology in the drug discovery process: strategic and management issues. Med Res Rev 1993; 13:399-448. [PMID: 8361254 DOI: 10.1002/med.2610130403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M Williams
- Pharmaceutical Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, Chicago, Illinois 60064
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Ii K, Ito H, Kominami E, Hirano A. Abnormal distribution of cathepsin proteinases and endogenous inhibitors (cystatins) in the hippocampus of patients with Alzheimer's disease, parkinsonism-dementia complex on Guam, and senile dementia and in the aged. VIRCHOWS ARCHIV. A, PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY AND HISTOPATHOLOGY 1993; 423:185-94. [PMID: 8236812 DOI: 10.1007/bf01614769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The immunolocalization of cathepsins B(CB), H and L and cystatins alpha(C alpha) and beta(C beta) were examined in the hippocampus of cases of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (12 cases), parkinsonism-dementia complex on Guam (eight cases), senile dementia of Alzheimer type (two cases), aged subjects with marked senile change (one case) and controls (12 cases, including six normal subjects). CB was lower in most nerve cells in patients than in controls, but markedly increased at the sites of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and degenerative neurites and/or dendrites in and outside senile plaques (SPs), indicating its close involvement in the metabolisms of various proteins in NFT and SPs. Abundant C alpha and C beta were demonstrated in SP amyloid, suggesting that they are amyloid constituents or co-exist with amyloid. The present study indicated that CB, C alpha and C beta are closely involved in abnormal protein metabolism in NFTs and SP amyloid and suggested that degeneration or denaturation of intracellular proteins, including substrates for proteases and lysosomes, from some acquired cause, results in absolute and/or relative overload for these proteolytic systems, including their inhibitors. This results in incomplete and/or abnormal proteolysis related to NFT and/or amyloid formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ii
- First Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Tokushima, Japan
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Abstract
The tools of molecular biology have only been applied to the study of the brain since the early 1980s, but it is already apparent that this approach holds promise for identifying strategies and drugs that are able to modify the activity and function of particular neural pathways. One of the greatest prizes--both for society and commercially--will be the discovery of a safe and effective drug to treat Alzheimer's disease.
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Chapter 6. Perspectives on Amyloid and Alzheimer's Disease: A Critical Review. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-7743(08)60876-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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