Androgen receptor: structure, role in prostate cancer and drug discovery

The primary role of sebum in the pathophysiology of acne vulgaris and its therapeutic relevance in acne management

BACKGROUND

Sebum physiology and its contributions to acne vulgaris (AV) pathophysiology have been long debated. Within the pilosebaceous unit, androgens drive sebocyte production of sebum, comprising mono-, di-, and triglycerides (the latter converted to fatty acids); squalene; cholesterol; cholesterol esters; and wax esters. Upon release to the skin surface, human sebum has important roles in epidermal water retention, antimicrobial defenses, and innate immune responses.

AIMS

Alterations in sebum alone and with other pathogenic factors (inflammation, follicular hyperkeratinization, and Cutibacterium acnes [C. acnes] proliferation) contribute to AV pathophysiology. Androgen-driven sebum production, mandatory for AV development, propagates C. acnes proliferation and upregulates inflammatory and comedogenic cascades.

RESULTS

Some sebum lipids have comedogenic effects in isolation, and sebum content alterations (including elevations in specific fatty acids) contribute to AV pathogenesis. Regional differences in facial sebum production, coupled with patient characteristics (including sex and age), help exemplify this link between sebum alterations and AV lesion formation.

CONCLUSIONS

To date, only combined oral contraceptives and oral spironolactone (both limited to female patients), oral isotretinoin and topical clascoterone (cortexolone 17α-propionate) modulate sebum production in patients with AV. A better understanding of mechanisms underlying sebaceous gland changes driving AV development is needed to expand the AV treatment armamentarium.

Structural perspectives on the androgen receptor, the elusive shape-shifter

The androgen receptor (AR) is a type I nuclear receptor and master transcription factor responsible for development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics. Aberrant AR activity is associated with numerous diseases, including prostate cancer, androgen insensitivity syndrome, spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy, and androgenic alopecia. Recent studies have shown that AR adopts numerous conformations that can modulate its ability to bind and transcribe its target DNA substrates, a feature that can be hijacked in the context of cancer. Here, we summarize a series of structural observations describing how this elusive shape-shifter binds to multiple partners, including self-interactions, DNA, and steroid and non-steroidal ligands. We present evidence that AR's pervasive structural plasticity confers an ability to broadly bind and transcribe numerous ligands in the normal and disease state, and explain the structural basis for adaptive resistance mutations to antiandrogen treatment. These evolutionary features are integral to receptor function, and are commonly lost in androgen insensitivity syndrome, or reinforced in cancer.

Cell-autonomous IL6ST activation suppresses prostate cancer development via STAT3/ARF/p53-driven senescence and confers an immune-active tumor microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer ranks as the second most frequently diagnosed cancer in men worldwide. Recent research highlights the crucial roles IL6ST-mediated signaling pathways play in the development and progression of various cancers, particularly through hyperactivated STAT3 signaling. However, the molecular programs mediated by IL6ST/STAT3 in prostate cancer are poorly understood.

METHODS

To investigate the role of IL6ST signaling, we constitutively activated IL6ST signaling in the prostate epithelium of a Pten-deficient prostate cancer mouse model in vivo and examined IL6ST expression in large cohorts of prostate cancer patients. We complemented these data with in-depth transcriptomic and multiplex histopathological analyses.

RESULTS

Genetic cell-autonomous activation of the IL6ST receptor in prostate epithelial cells triggers active STAT3 signaling and significantly reduces tumor growth in vivo. Mechanistically, genetic activation of IL6ST signaling mediates senescence via the STAT3/ARF/p53 axis and recruitment of cytotoxic T-cells, ultimately impeding tumor progression. In prostate cancer patients, high IL6ST mRNA expression levels correlate with better recurrence-free survival, increased senescence signals and a transition from an immune-cold to an immune-hot tumor.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate a context-dependent role of IL6ST/STAT3 in carcinogenesis and a tumor-suppressive function in prostate cancer development by inducing senescence and immune cell attraction. We challenge the prevailing concept of blocking IL6ST/STAT3 signaling as a functional prostate cancer treatment and instead propose cell-autonomous IL6ST activation as a novel therapeutic strategy.

Discovery of Thiadiazoleamide Derivatives as Potent, Selective, and Orally Available Antagonists Disrupting Androgen Receptor Homodimer

Androgen receptor (AR) is an important therapeutic target for prostate cancer (PCa) treatment, but prolonged use of AR antagonists has led to variant drug-resistant mutations. Since all marketed AR antagonists target the ligand binding pocket (LBP) of AR, to mitigate cross-resistance, a new drug pocket named Dimer Interface Pocket was discovered and a novel AR antagonist M17-B15 was identified. M17-B15 showed strong in vitro efficacy against PCa but had poor pharmacokinetic properties in vivo. In this study, through rational design and structure-activity relationship exploration, a series of thiadiazoleamide derivatives represented by N29 (IC50 = 0.018 μM) were identified with dominant AR antagonistic activity and remarkable anti-PCa activity in vitro. Furthermore, N29 effectively inhibited a series of typical drug-resistant AR mutants. The improved oral bioavailability of N29 facilitated its efficacy via oral administration, significantly inhibiting LNCaP xenograft tumor in vivo, presenting a promising therapeutic application for PCa.

In silico analysis of Diosmetin as an effective chemopreventive agent against prostate cancer: molecular docking, validation, dynamic simulation and pharmacokinetic prediction-based studies

Prostate cancer is the second most dangerous cancer type worldwide. While various treatment options are present i.e. agonists and antagonists, their utilization leads to adverse effects and due to this resistance developing, ultimately the outcome is remission. So, to overcome this issue, we have undertaken an in-silico investigation to identify promising and unique flavonoid candidates for combating prostate cancer. Using GOLD software, the study assessed the effectiveness of 560 natural secondary polyphenols against CDKN2. Protein Data Bank was used to retrieve the 3D crystal structure of CDKN2 (PDB Id: 4EK3) and we retrieved the structure of selected secondary polyphenols from the PubChem database. The compound Diosmetin shows the highest GOLD score with the selected Protein i.e. CDKN2 which is 58.72. To better understand the 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional interactions, the interacting amino acid residues were visualised using Discovery Studio 3.5 and Maestro 13.5. Using Schrodinger-Glide, the Diosmetin and CDKN2 were re-docked, and decoy ligands were docked to CDKN2, which was used to further ascertain the study. The ligands with the highest Gold score were forecasted for pharmacokinetics characteristics, and the results were tabulated and analysed. Utilising the Gromacs software and Desmond packages, 100 ns of Diosmetin molecular dynamics simulations were run to evaluate the structural persistence and variations of protein-ligand complexes. Additionally, our investigation revealed that Diosmetin had a better binding affinity with CDKN2 measuring 58.72, and it also showed remarkable stability across a 100-ns simulation. Thus, following in-vitro and in-vivo clinical studies, diosmetin might lead to the Prostate regimen.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Discovering novel targets of abscisic acid using computational approaches

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a crucial plant hormone that is naturally produced in various mammalian tissues and holds significant potential as a therapeutic molecule in humans. ABA is selected for this study due to its known roles in essential human metabolic processes, such as glucose homeostasis, immune responses, cardiovascular system, and inflammation regulation. Despite its known importance, the molecular mechanism underlying ABA's action remain largely unexplored. This study employed computational techniques to identify potential human ABA receptors. We screened 64 candidate molecules using online servers and performed molecular docking to assess binding affinity and interaction types with ABA. The stability and dynamics of the best complexes were investigated using molecular dynamics simulation over a 100 ns time period. Root mean square fluctuations (RMSF), root mean square deviation (RMSD), solvent-accessible surface area (SASA), radius of gyration (Rg), free energy landscape (FEL), and principal component analysis (PCA) were analyzed. Next, the molecular mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann surface area (MM-PBSA) method was employed to calculate the binding energies of the complexes based on the simulated data. Our study successfully pinpointed four key receptors responsible for ABA signaling (androgen receptor, glucocorticoid receptor, mineralocorticoid receptor, and retinoic acid receptor beta) that have a strong affinity for binding with ABA and remained structurally stable throughout the simulations. The simulations with Hydralazine as an unrelated ligand were conducted to validate the specificity of the identified receptors for ABA. The findings of this study can contribute to further experimental validation and a better understanding of how ABA functions in humans.

Advances in the understanding of androgen receptor structure and function and in the development of next-generation AR-targeted therapeutics

Androgen receptor (AR) and its ligand androgens are important for development and physiology of various tissues. AR and its ligands also play critical role in the development of various diseases, making it a valuable therapeutic target. AR ligands, both agonists and antagonists, are being widely used to treat pathological conditions, including prostate cancer and hypogonadism. Despite AR being studied widely over the last five decades, the last decade has seen striking advances in the knowledge on AR and discoveries that have the potential to translate to the clinic. This review provides an overview of the advances in AR biology, AR molecular mechanisms of action, and next generation molecules that are currently in development. Several of the areas described in the review are just unraveling and the next decade will bring more clarity on these developments that will put AR at the forefront of both basic biology and drug development.

Inhibitors of the transactivation domain of androgen receptor as a therapy for prostate cancer

The androgen receptor (AR) is a modular transcription factor which functions as a master regulator of gene expression. AR protein is composed of three functional domains; the ligand-binding domain (LBD); DNA-binding domain (DBD); and the intrinsically disordered N-terminal transactivation domain (TAD). AR is transactivated upon binding to the male sex hormone testosterone and other androgens. While the AR may tolerate loss of its LBD, the TAD contains activation function-1 (AF-1) that is essential for all AR transcriptional activity. AR is frequently over-expressed in most prostate cancer. Currently, androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) in the form of surgical or chemical castration remains the standard of care for patients with high risk localized disease, advanced and metastatic disease, and those patients that experience biochemical relapse following definitive primary treatment. Patients with recurrent disease that receive ADT will ultimately progress to lethal metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. In addition to ADT not providing a cure, it is associated with numerous adverse effects including cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and sexual dysfunction. Recently there has been a renewed interest in investigating the possibility of using antiandrogens which competitively bind the AR-LBD without ADT for patients with hormone sensitive, non-metastatic prostate cancer. Here we describe a class of compounds termed AR transactivation domain inhibitors (ARTADI) and their mechanism of action. These compounds bind to the AR-TAD to inhibit AR transcriptional activity in the absence and presence of androgens. Thus these inhibitors may have utility in preventing prostate cancer growth in the non-castrate setting.

Combining graph neural networks and transformers for few-shot nuclear receptor binding activity prediction

Nuclear receptors (NRs) play a crucial role as biological targets in drug discovery. However, determining which compounds can act as endocrine disruptors and modulate the function of NRs with a reduced amount of candidate drugs is a challenging task. Moreover, the computational methods for NR-binding activity prediction mostly focus on a single receptor at a time, which may limit their effectiveness. Hence, the transfer of learned knowledge among multiple NRs can improve the performance of molecular predictors and lead to the development of more effective drugs. In this research, we integrate graph neural networks (GNNs) and Transformers to introduce a few-shot GNN-Transformer, Meta-GTNRP to predict the binding activity of compounds using the combined information of different NRs and identify potential NR-modulators with limited data. The Meta-GTNRP model captures the local information in graph-structured data and preserves the global-semantic structure of molecular graph embeddings for NR-binding activity prediction. Furthermore, a few-shot meta-learning approach is proposed to optimize model parameters for different NR-binding tasks and leverage the complementarity among multiple NR-specific tasks to predict binding activity of compounds for each NR with just a few labeled molecules. Experiments with a compound database containing annotations on the binding activity for 11 NRs shows that Meta-GTNRP outperforms other graph-based approaches. The data and code are available at: https://github.com/ltorres97/Meta-GTNRP .Scientific contributionThe proposed few-shot GNN-Transformer model, Meta-GTNRP captures the local structure of molecular graphs and preserves the global-semantic information of graph embeddings to predict the NR-binding activity of compounds with limited available data; A few-shot meta-learning framework adapts model parameters across NR-specific tasks for different NRs in a joint learning procedure to predict the binding activity of compounds for each NR with just a few labeled molecules in highly imbalanced data scenarios; Meta-GTNRP is a data-efficient approach that combines the strengths of GNNs and Transformers to predict the NR-binding properties of compounds through an optimized meta-learning procedure and deliver robust results valuable to identify potential NR-based drug candidates.

Microfluidic Applications in Prostate Cancer Research

Prostate cancer is a disease in which cells in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system below the bladder, grow out of control and, among men, it is the second-most frequently diagnosed cancer (other than skin cancer). In recent years, prostate cancer death rate has stabilized and, currently, it is the second-most frequent cause of cancer death in men (after lung cancer). Most deaths occur due to metastasis, as cancer cells from the original tumor establish secondary tumors in distant organs. For a long time, classical cell cultures and animal models have been utilized in basic and applied scientific research, including clinical applications for many diseases, such as prostate cancer, since no better alternatives were available. Although helpful in dissecting cellular mechanisms, these models are poor predictors of physiological behavior mainly because of the lack of appropriate microenvironments. Microfluidics has emerged in the last two decades as a technology that could lead to a paradigm shift in life sciences and, in particular, controlling cancer. Microfluidic systems, such as organ-on-chips, have been assembled to mimic the critical functions of human organs. These microphysiological systems enable the long-term maintenance of cellular co-cultures in vitro to reconstitute in vivo tissue-level microenvironments, bridging the gap between traditional cell cultures and animal models. Several reviews on microfluidics for prostate cancer studies have been published focusing on technology advancement and disease progression. As metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer remains a clinically challenging late-stage cancer, with no curative treatments, we expanded this review to cover recent microfluidic applications related to prostate cancer research. The review includes discussions of the roles of microfluidics in modeling the human prostate, prostate cancer initiation and development, as well as prostate cancer detection and therapy, highlighting potentially major contributions of microfluidics in the continuous march toward eradicating prostate cancer.

Therapeutic prospects of sex hormone receptor signaling in hormone-responsive cancers

Globally, hormone-responsive cancers afflict millions of people contributing to cancer-related morbidity and mortality. While hormone-responsive cancers overburden patients, their close families, and even health budgets at the local levels, knowledge of these cancers particularly their biology and possible avenues for therapy remains poorly exploited. Herewith, this review highlights the role of sex hormones (estrogens and androgens) in the pathophysiology of hormone-responsive cancers and the exploration of therapeutic targets. Major scientific databases including but not limited to Scopus, PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science core collections, and Google Scholar were perused using a string of search terms: Hormone-responsive cancers, androgens and cancers, estrogens and cancer, androgen receptor signalling, estrogen receptor signalling, etc.

Castration-resistant prostate cancer monitoring by cell-free circulating biomarkers

Background

Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of male cancer-related deaths in Western countries, which is predominantly attributed to the metastatic castration-resistant stage of the disease (CRPC). There is an urgent need for better prognostic and predictive biomarkers, particularly for androgen receptor targeted agents and taxanes.

Methods

We have searched the PubMed database for original articles and meta-analyses providing information on blood-based markers for castration-resistant prostate cancer monitoring, risk group stratification and prediction of therapy response.

Results

The molecular markers are discussed along with the standard clinical parameters, such as prostate specific antigen, lactate dehydrogenase or C-reactive protein. Androgen receptor (AR) alterations are commonly associated with progression to CRPC. These include amplification of AR and its enhancer, point mutations and splice variants. Among DNA methylations, a novel 5-hydroxymethylcytosine activation marker of TOP2A and EZH2 has been identified for the aggressive disease. miR-375 is currently the most promising candidate among non-coding RNAs and sphingolipid analysis has recently emerged as a novel approach.

Conclusions

The promising biomarkers have the potential to improve the care of metastatic prostate cancer patients, however, they need further validation for routine implementation.

mtPCDI: a machine learning-based prognostic model for prostate cancer recurrence

Background

This research seeks to formulate a prognostic model for forecasting prostate cancer recurrence by examining the interaction between mitochondrial function and programmed cell death (PCD).

Methods

The research involved analyzing four gene expression datasets from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) using univariate Cox regression. These analyses identified genes linked with mitochondrial function and PCD that correlate with recurrence prognosis. Various machine learning algorithms were then employed to construct an optimal predictive model.

Results

A key outcome was the creation of a mitochondrial-related programmed cell death index (mtPCDI), which effectively predicts the prognosis of prostate cancer patients. It was observed that individuals with lower mtPCDI exhibited higher immune activity, correlating with better recurrence outcomes.

Conclusion

The study demonstrates that mtPCDI can be used for personalized risk assessment and therapeutic decision-making, highlighting its clinical significance and providing insights into the biological processes affecting prostate cancer recurrence.

Small molecules targeting HDAC6 for cancer treatment: Current progress and novel strategies

Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) plays a crucial role in the initiation and progression of various cancers, as its overexpression is linked to tumor growth, invasion, migration, survival, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. Therefore, HDAC6 has emerged as an attractive target for anticancer drug discovery in the past decade. However, the development of conventional HDAC6 inhibitors has been hampered by their limited clinical efficacy, acquired resistance, and inability to inhibit non-enzymatic functions of HDAC6. To overcome these challenges, new strategies, such as dual-acting inhibitors, targeted protein degradation (TPD) technologies (including PROTACs, HyT), are essential to enhance the anticancer activity of HDAC6 inhibitors. In this review, we focus on the recent advances in the design and development of HDAC6 modulators, including isoform-selective HDAC6 inhibitors, HDAC6-based dual-target inhibitors, and targeted protein degraders (PROTACs, HyT), from the perspectives of rational design, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and clinical status. Finally, we discuss the challenges and future directions for HDAC6-based drug discovery for cancer therapy.

Clinicopathologic Characteristics of a Single-institution Cohort of Ovarian Adult Granulosa Cell Tumors, With Biomarker and Therapeutic Implications Utilizing the Detection of Androgen, Estrogen, and Progesterone Hormone Receptor Expression by Immunohistochemistry

Adult granulosa cell tumors (AGCTs) are rare ovarian tumors with generally good prognosis after surgical resection; however, they do have recurrence potential. Therapeutic and management options for recurrences are currently limited, and the need for expanded adjuvant therapies is increasingly recognized. Anti-hormonal therapy is being explored as an option, which relies on the detection and assessment of hormone receptor expression (androgen, estrogen, and progesterone receptors) as a biomarker and therapeutic target. Our study identifies several clinicopathologic characteristics with significant associations for recurrence of AGCT, which were younger age, higher stage, and larger tumor size. Our study also demonstrates that androgen receptor (AR) expression may be utilized as a potential biomarker for hormonal therapy and that detection of AR expression in AGCT by immunohistochemistry (IHC) varies depending on the antibody clone used for testing. AR was detected in 95% of samples tested with antibodies derived from clone AR27. This detection rate is much higher than previously reported.

Knowledge-based machine learning for predicting and understanding the androgen receptor (AR)-mediated reproductive toxicity in zebrafish

Traditional methods for identifying endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that activate androgen receptors (AR) are costly, time-consuming, and low-throughput. This study developed a knowledge-based deep neural network model (AR-DNN) to predict AR-mediated adverse outcomes on female zebrafish fertility. This model started with chemical fingerprints as the input layer and was implemented through a five-layer virtual AR-induced adverse outcome pathway (AOP). Results indicated that the AR-DNN effectively and accurately screens new reproductive toxicants (AUC = 0.94, accuracy = 0.85), providing potential toxicity pathways. Furthermore, 1477 and 2448 chemicals that could lead to infertility were identified in the plastic additives list (PLASTICMAP, n = 7112) and the Inventory of Existing Chemical Substances in China (IECSC, n = 17741), respectively. Colourants containing steroid-like structures are the major active plastic additives that might lower female zebrafish fertility through AR binding, DNA binding, and transcriptional activation. While active IECSC chemicals primarily have the same fragments, such as benzonitrile, nitrobenzene, and quinolone. The predicted toxicity pathways were consistent with existing fish evidence, demonstrating the model's applicability. This knowledge-based approach offers a promising computational toxicology strategy for predicting and characterising the endocrine-disrupting effects and toxic mechanisms of organic chemicals, potentially leading to more efficient and cost-effective screening of EDCs.

The m6A regulators in prostate cancer: molecular basis and clinical perspective

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second leading cause of cancer-related death among men in western countries. Evidence has indicated the significant role of the androgen receptor (AR) as the main driving factor in controlling the development of PCa, making androgen receptor inhibition (ARI) therapy a pivotal management approach. In addition, AR independent signaling pathways also contribute to PCa progression. One such signaling pathway that has garnered our attention is N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) signaling, which refers to a chemical modification on RNA with crucial roles in RNA metabolism and disease progression, including PCa. It is important to comprehensively summarize the role of each individual m6A regulator in PCa development and understand its interaction with AR signaling. This review aims to provide a thorough summary of the involvement of m6A regulators in PCa development, shedding light on their upstream and downstream signaling pathways. This summary sets the stage for a comprehensive review that would benefit the scientific community and clinical practice by enhancing our understanding of the biology of m6A regulators in the context of PCa.

Bicalutamide reveals immunomodulatory effects in prostate cancer by regulating immunogenic dendritic cell maturation

Prostate cancer poses a significant global health challenge, ranking as the second most prevalent and fifth most lethal malignancy among males. The intricate interplay between androgen signaling and the immune microenvironment underscores the complexity of prostate cancer progression. Notably, androgen receptor (AR) signaling has been shown to affect immune response mediated by tumor antigen-presenting dendritic cells (DCs). Therefore, this study aimed to explore the potential of Bicalutamide, a nonsteroidal anti-androgen, in modulating DCs-mediated immune responses. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated, and monocytes were extracted, followed by their differentiation into immature dendritic cells (iDCs) using GM-CSF and IL-4. Harvested tumor cell lysates from human prostate cancer cells were then utilized to induce the transformation of iDCs into mature dendritic cells (mDCs). Then, mDCs were treated with non-toxic concentration of Bicalutamide determined by annexin V/PI assay. The morphological characteristics of mDCs were investigated using an inverted light microscope. Flow cytometry was used to determine the cell surface expression of molecular markers of DC maturation, and qRT-PCR was employed to evaluate expression levels of proinflammatory genes involved in DC maturation. The obtained results indicated that Bicalutamide treatment of monocyte-derived mDCs induces an immunogenic and matured phenotype, marked by increased expression of CD86 and HLA-DR. Besides, qRT-PCR results evidenced that Bicalutamide decreased the expression of anti-inflammatory genes, including Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and TGF-beta, as an indication of immunogenic DCs. These findings suggest that beyond its established anti-androgen role, Bicalutamide may exert anti-tumor effects through the modulation of DCs-mediated immune responses. This novel immunomodulatory feature holds promise for the development of novel therapies, including combination therapies, in prostate cancer treatment.

Prognostic Nomogram Predicting Survival and Propensity Score Matching with Demographics and Comparative Analysis of Prostate Small Cell and Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma

Background: This retrospective study aims to examine the patient demographics, survival rates, and treatment methods for small-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (SCNEC) and large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) of prostate origin while also identifying the main differences between common types of prostate cancer with comparative analysis for survival. Methods: Our analysis utilized the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database (SEER), and data was collected from 2000-2020. Cox proportional hazards and chi-squared analysis were used for statistical analysis. Results: A total of 718 cases of prostate small and large neuroendocrine carcinoma were identified. The median age was 71.5 years, and the median follow-up was 11.0 years (95% confidence interval (95% CI) = 9.2-12.8). Most patients were over the age of 80 years (33.8%) and Caucasian (74.4%). The overall 5-year survival was 8.0% (95% CI = 6.8-9.2). The 5-year OS for Caucasians was 7.3% (95% C.I. 6.0-8.3). For Black Americans, the 5-year OS was 11.9% (95% C.I. 7.3-16.5). For Hispanics, the 5-year OS was 12.2% (95% C.I. 7.7-16.7). The 5-year cause-specific survival (CSS) was 16.2% (95% CI = 14.3-18.1). For treatment modality, the five-year survival for each were as follows: chemotherapy, 3.5% (95% CI = 2.1-4.9); surgery, 18.2% (95% CI = 13.6-22.8); multimodality therapy (surgery and chemotherapy), 4.8% (95% CI = 1.7-7.9); and combination (chemoradiation with surgery), 5.0% (95% CI = 1.0-9.0). The prognostic nomogram created to predict patient survivability matched the findings from the statistical analysis with a statistical difference found in race, income, housing, stage, and nodal status. The nomogram also indicated a slight increase in mortality with tumors of greater size. This analysis showed a slight increase in mortality for patients of Asian race. In addition, there was a significant increase in death for patients with stage 3 tumors, as well as patients who underwent surgery and radiation. Furthermore, we performed propensity score matching for survival differences, and no survival difference was found between SCNEC and LCNEC. Conclusions: Asian patients, larger tumor size, and distant disease were associated with worse long-term clinical outcomes. By leveraging insights from registry-based studies, clinicians can better strategize treatment options, improving patient outcomes in this challenging oncology arena.

In silico analysis of endocrine-disrupting potential of triclosan, bisphenol A, and their analogs and derivatives

Owning to the increasing body of evidence about the ubiquitous exposure to endocrine disruptors (EDCs), particularly bisphenol A (BPA), and associated health effects, BPA has been gradually substituted with insufficiently tested structural analogs. The unmanaged excessive use of antimicrobial agents such as triclosan (TCS) during the COVID-19 outbreak has also raised concerns about its possible interferences with hormonal functions. The similarity of BPA and estradiol, as well as TCS and non-steroidal estrogens, imply that endocrine-disrupting properties of their analogs could be predicted based on the chemical structure. Hence, this study aimed to evaluate the endocrine-disrupting potential of BPA substitutes as well as TCS derivatives and degradation/biotransformation metabolites, in comparison to BPA and TCS based on their molecular properties, computational predictions of pharmacokinetics and binding affinities to nuclear receptors. Based on the obtained results several under-researched BPA analogs exhibited higher binding affinities for nuclear receptors than BPA. Notable analogs included compounds detected in receipts (DD-70, BTUM-70, TGSA, and BisOPP-A), along with a flame retardant, BDP. The possible health hazards linked to exposure to TCS and its mono-hydroxylated metabolites were also found. Further research is needed in order to elucidate the health impacts of these compounds and promote better regulation practices.

High Mobility Group AT-hook 2: A Biomarker Associated with Resistance to Enzalutamide in Prostate Cancer Cells

Metastatic prostate cancer (mPCa) is a leading cause of mortality, partly due to its resistance to anti-androgens like enzalutamide. Snail can promote this resistance by increasing full-length AR and AR-V7. High Mobility Group AT-hook 2 (HMGA2), a DNA-binding protein upstream of Snail, is crucial in proliferation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). This study examines HMGA2's role in enzalutamide resistance. LNCaP and 22Rv1 cells overexpressing wild-type HMGA2, but not truncated HMGA2, showed EMT. Both variants led to a decreased sensitivity to enzalutamide but not alisertib compared to Neo control cells. The overexpression of HMGA2 did not alter AR expression. Enzalutamide-resistant C4-2B cells (C4-2B MDVR) had higher HMGA2 and AR/AR variant expression than enzalutamide-sensitive C4-2B cells but remained sensitive to alisertib. The HMGA2 knockdown in C4-2B MDVR cells increased sensitivity to both enzalutamide and alisertib without changing AR expression. A clinical analysis via cBioPortal revealed HMGA2 alterations in 3% and AR alterations in 59% of patients. The HMGA2 changes were linked to treatments like enzalutamide, abiraterone, or alisertib, with amplifications more prevalent in bone, lymph node, and liver metastases. Conclusively, HMGA2 is a potential biomarker for enzalutamide resistance in mPCa, independent of Snail and AR signaling, and alisertib may be an effective treatment for mPCa that expresses HMGA2.

Human and fish differences in steroid receptors activation: A review

Steroid receptors (SRs) are transcription factors activated by steroid hormones (SHs) that belong to the nuclear receptors (NRs) superfamily. Several studies have shown that SRs are targets of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), widespread substances in the environment capable of interfering with the endogenous hormonal pathways and causing adverse health effects in living organisms and/or their progeny. Cell lines with SRs reporter gene are currently used for in vitro screening of large quantities of chemicals with suspected endocrine-disrupting activities. However, most of these cell lines express human SRs and therefore the toxicological data obtained are also extrapolated to non-mammalian species. In parallel, in vivo tests have recently been developed on fish species whose data are also extrapolated to mammalian species. As some species-specific differences in SRs activation by natural and synthetic chemicals have been recently reported, the aim of this review is to summarize those between human and fish SRs, as representatives of mammalian and non-mammalian toxicology, respectively. Overall, this literature study aims to improve inter-species extrapolation of toxicological data on EDCs and to understand which reporter gene cell lines expressing human SRs are relevant for the assessment of effects in fish and whether in vivo tests on fish can be properly used in the assessment of adverse effects on human health.

Stereo flexible synthesis of the C8-C23 fragment of antarlides, androgen receptor antagonists

A practical and efficient synthesis of the C8-C23 fragment of antarlides A-H, incorporating six stereocenters and a conjugated diene, is reported. A strategic combination of synthetic methods, including CBS reduction, Evans' aldol reaction, Keck-Maruoka allylation, and enzymatic resolution, enabled the selective introduction of these stereocenters. Furthermore, the pivotal coupling of key fragments is successfully executed through a Julia-Kocienski olefination reaction, connecting the C8-C14 and C15-C23 subunits.

Exploring the potentials of S4, a selective androgen receptor modulator, in glioblastoma multiforme therapy

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) ranks among the prevalent neoplastic diseases globally, presenting challenges in therapeutic management. Traditional modalities have yielded suboptimal response rates due to its intrinsic pathological resistance. This underscores the imperative for identifying novel molecular targets to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Literature indicates a notable correlation between androgen receptor (AR) signaling and GBM pathogenesis. To mitigate the adverse effects associated with androgenic modulation of AR, scientists have pivoted towards the synthesis of non-steroidal anabolic agents, selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs). Among these, S4, used as a supplement by the bodybuilders to efficiently grow muscle mass with favourable oral bioavailability has emerged as a candidate of interest. This investigation substantiates the anti-oncogenic potential of S4 in temozolomide-responsive and -resistant GBM cells through cellular and molecular evaluations. We observed restriction in GBM cell growth, and motility, coupled with an induction of apoptosis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and cellular senescence. S4 exposure precipitated the upregulation of genes associated with apoptosis, cell-cycle arrest, DNA damage response, and senescence, while concurrently downregulating those involved in cellular proliferation. Future research endeavours are warranted to delineate the mechanisms underpinning S4's actions, assess its antineoplastic effects in-vivo, and its ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier.

Androgen receptor: Structure, signaling, function and potential drug discovery biomarker in different breast cancer subtypes

The Androgen Receptor (AR) is emerging as an important factor in the pathogenesis of breast cancer (BC), which is the most common malignancy worldwide. >70 % of AR expression in primary and metastatic breast tumors has been observed which suggests that AR may be a new marker and a potential therapeutic target among AR-positive BC patients. Biological insight into AR-positive breast cancer reveals that AR may cross-talk with several vital signaling pathways, including key molecules and receptors. Downstream signaling of AR might also affect many clinically important pathways that are emerging as clinical targets in BC. AR exhibits different behaviors depending on the breast cancer molecular subtype. Preliminary clinical research using AR-targeted drugs, which have already been FDA-approved for prostate cancer (PC), has given promising results for AR-positive breast cancer patients. However, since AR positivity's prognostic and predictive value remains uncertain, it is difficult to identify and stratify patients who would benefit from AR-targeted therapies alone. Thus, the need of the hour is to target the androgen receptor as a monotherapy or in combination with other conventional therapies which has proven to be an effective clinical strategy for the treatment of prostate cancer patients, and these therapeutic strategies are increasingly being investigated in breast cancer. Therefore, in this manuscript, we review the role of AR in various cellular processes that promote tumorigenesis and aggressiveness, in different subtypes of breast cancer, as well as discuss ongoing efforts to target AR for the more effective treatment and prevention of breast cancer.

Epigenetic developmental mechanisms underlying sex differences in cancer

Cancer risk is modulated by hereditary and somatic mutations, exposures, age, sex, and gender. The mechanisms by which sex and gender work alone and in combination with other cancer risk factors remain underexplored. In general, cancers that occur in both the male and female sexes occur more commonly in XY compared with XX individuals, regardless of genetic ancestry, geographic location, and age. Moreover, XY individuals are less frequently cured of their cancers, highlighting the need for a greater understanding of sex and gender effects in oncology. This will be necessary for optimal laboratory and clinical cancer investigations. To that end, we review the epigenetics of sexual differentiation and its effect on cancer hallmark pathways throughout life. Specifically, we will touch on how sex differences in metabolism, immunity, pluripotency, and tumor suppressor functions are patterned through the epigenetic effects of imprinting, sex chromosome complement, X inactivation, genes escaping X inactivation, sex hormones, and life history.

Exploring the interplay between circadian rhythms and prostate cancer: insights into androgen receptor signaling and therapeutic opportunities

Circadian rhythm disruption is closely related to increased incidence of prostate cancer. Incorporating circadian rhythms into the study of prostate cancer pathogenesis can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the causes of cancer and offer new options for precise treatment. Therefore, this article comprehensively summarizes the epidemiology of prostate cancer, expounds the contradictory relationship between circadian rhythm disorders and prostate cancer risk, and elucidates the relationship between circadian rhythm regulators and the incidence of prostate cancer. Importantly, this article also focuses on the correlation between circadian rhythms and androgen receptor signaling pathways, as well as the applicability of time therapy in prostate cancer. This may prove significant in enhancing the clinical treatment of prostate cancer.

The synthetic cathinones MDPHP and MDPV: Comparison of the acute effects in mice, in silico ADMET profiles and clinical reports

The 3,4-methylenedioxy-alpha-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (MDPHP) is a synthetic cathinone closely related to 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), one of the most common synthetic cathinones present in the "bath salts". MDPHP has recently gained attention due to increasing seizures and involvement in human intoxications which occurred in Europe and Italy in the last years, but currently there is a lack of information about its pharmaco-toxicological effects. With the aim at filling this gap, the present study is endeavoured to (i) evaluate the effects of acute administration of MDPHP (0.01-20 mg/kg; i.p.) on behaviour, cardiorespiratory and cardiovascular parameters in CD-1 male mice, comparing them to those observed after administration of MDPV; (ii) predict the ADMET profile of the two analogues using the Plus ADMET Predictor®; (iii) present clinical data related to MDPHP and MDPV-induced intoxications recorded between 2011 and 2023 by the Pavia Poison Control Centre (PCC) - National Toxicology Information Centre (Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri, IRCCS Pavia, Italy). Our results substantiated that MDPHP and MDPV similarly affect sensorimotor and behavioural responses in mice, importantly increased locomotion and induced aggressive behaviour, and, at higher dosage, increased heart rate and blood pressure. These findings are in line with those observed in humans, revealing severe toxidromes typically characterized by Central Nervous System (CNS) alterations (behavioural/neuropsychiatric symptoms), including psychomotor agitation and aggressiveness, cardiovascular and respiratory disorders (e.g. tachycardia, hypertension, dyspnoea), and other peripheral symptoms (e.g. hyperthermia, acidosis, rhabdomyolysis).

Androgen receptor, PARP signaling, and tumor microenvironment: the 'perfect triad' in prostate cancer?

Aberrations in the homologous recombination repair (HRR) pathway in prostate cancer (PCa) provide a unique opportunity to develop therapeutic strategies that take advantage of the reduced tumor ability to repair DNA damage. Poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors (PARPi) have been shown to prolong the survival of PCa patients with HRR defects, particularly in those with Breast Cancer type 1 susceptibility protein/Breast Cancer type 2 susceptibility protein alterations. To expand the benefit of PARPi to patients without detectable HRR alterations, multiple preclinical and clinical studies are addressing potential synergies between PARPi and androgen receptor signaling inhibitors, and these strategies are also being evaluated in combination with other drugs such as immune checkpoint inhibitors. However, the effectiveness of these combining therapies could be hindered by multiple mechanisms of resistance, including also the role played by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In this review, we summarize the use of PARPi in PCa and the potential synergies with different molecular pathways. However, numerous unanswered questions remain, including the identification of the patient population that could benefit most from PARPi, determining whether to use PARPi as monotherapy or in combination, and finding the optimal timing of PARPi, expanding the use of genomic tests, and optimizing combination therapies.

Mendelian randomization evidence based on European ancestry for the causal effects of leukocyte telomere length on prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Several lines of evidence suggest that leukocyte telomere length (LTL) can affect the development of prostate cancer (PC).

METHODS

Here, we employed single nucleoside polymorphisms (SNPs) as instrumental variables (IVs) for LTL (n = 472,174) and conducted Mendelian randomization analysis to estimate their causal impact on PCs (79,148 patients/61,106 controls and 6311 patients/88,902 controls).

RESULTS

Every 1-s.d extension of LTL increased the risk of PCs by 34%. Additionally, the analysis of candidate mediators between LTL and PCs via two-step Mendelian randomization revealed that among the 23 candidates, Alzheimer's disease, liver iron content, sex hormone binding global levels, naive CD4-CD8-T cell% T cell, and circulating leptin levels played substantial mediating roles. There is no robust evidence to support the reverse causal relationship between LTL and the selected mediators of PCs. Adjusting for the former four mediators, rather than adjusting for circulating leptin levels, decreased the impact of LTL on PCs.

CONCLUSION

This study provides potential intervention measures for preventing LTL-induced PCs.

Exploring androgen receptor signaling pathway in prostate cancer: A path to new discoveries

Androgen deprivation therapy has achieved significant success in treating prostate cancer through strategies centered on the androgen receptor. However, the emergence of castration-resistant prostate cancer highlights this therapy limitation, underscoring the need to elucidate the mechanisms of treatment resistance. This review aimed to focus on multifaceted resistance mechanisms, including androgen receptor overexpression, splice variants, missense mutations, the involvement of the glucocorticoid receptor, and alterations in coregulators and transcription factors, revealing their roles in castration-resistant prostate cancer progression. These mechanisms promote cell survival and proliferation, depending on the androgen receptor signaling pathway, leading to resistance to conventional therapies. Amplification and mutations in the androgen receptor gene facilitate selective adaptation in treatment-resistant cells, consequently diminishing therapeutic efficacy. Furthermore, the activation of glucocorticoid receptors and aberrant regulation of specific coregulators and transcription factors contribute to the activation of androgen receptor-independent signaling pathways, promoting cell survival and proliferation. These findings hold promise for identifying new targets for treating castration-resistant prostate cancer and developing personalized treatment strategies. The development of future therapies will hinge on precisely targeting the androgen receptor signaling pathway, necessitating a deeper understanding of the molecular targets unique to castration-resistant prostate cancer.

A combined in vitro-in silico method for assessing the androgenic activities of bisphenol A and its analogues

Interactions between endocrine-disruptor chemicals (EDCs) and androgen receptor (AR) have adverse effects on the endocrine system, leading to human reproductive dysfunction. Bisphenol A (BPA) is an EDC that can damage both the environment and human health. Although numerous BPA analogues have been produced as substitutes for BPA, few studies have evaluated their endocrine-disrupting abilities. We assessed the (anti)-androgenic activities of BPA and its analogues using a yeast-based reporter assay. The BPA analogues tested were bisphenol S (BPS), 4-phenylphenol (4PP), 4,4'-(9-fluorenyliden)-diphenol (BPFL), tetramethyl bisphenol F (TMBPF), and tetramethyl bisphenol A (TMBPA). We also conducted molecular docking and dynamics simulations to assess the interactions of BPA and its analogues with the ligand-binding domain of human AR (AR-LBD). Neither BPA nor its analogues had androgenic activity; however, all except BPFL exerted robust anti-androgenic effects. Consistent with the in vitro results, anti-androgenic analogues of BPA formed hydrogen bonding patterns with key residues that differed from the patterns of endogenous hormones, indicating that the analogues display in inappropriate orientations when interacting with the binding pocket of AR-LBD. Our findings indicate that BPA and its analogues disrupt androgen signaling by interacting with the AR-LBD. Overall, BPA and its analogues display endocrine-disrupting activity, which is mediated by AR.

Molecular and biochemical characterizations of a Fasciola gigantica retinoid X receptor-α isoform A (FgRXRα-A)

Fascioliasis is a parasitic infection in animals and humans caused by the parasitic flatworm genus Fasciola, which has two major species, F. hepatica and F. gigantica. A major concern regarding this disease is drug resistance, which is increasingly reported worldwide. Hence, the discovery of a novel drug as well as drug targets is crucially required. Therefore, this study aims to characterize the novel drug target in the adult F. gigantica. In the beginning, we hypothesized that the parasite might interact with some host molecules when it lives inside the liver parenchyma or bile ducts, specifically hormones and hormone-like molecules, through the specific receptors, primarily nuclear receptors (NRs), which are recognized as a major drug target in various diseases. The retinoid X receptor (RXR) is a member of subfamily 2 NRs that plays multitudinous roles in organisms by forming homodimers or heterodimers with other NRs. We obtained the full-length amino acid sequences of F. gigantica retinoid X receptor-alpha (FgRXRα-A) from the transcriptome of F. gigantica that existed in the NCBI database. The FgRXRα-A were computationally predicted for the basic properties, multiple aligned, phylogeny analyzed, and generated of 2D and 3D models. Moreover, FgRXRα-A was molecular cloned and expressed as a recombinant protein (rFgRXRα-A), then used for immunization for specific polyclonal antibodies. The native FgRXRα-A was detected in the parasite extracts and tissues, and the function was investigated by in vitro binding assay. The results demonstrated the conservation of FgRXRα-A to the other RXRs, especially RXRs from the trematodes. Interestingly, the native FgRXRα-A could be detected in the testes of the parasite, where the sex hormones are accumulated. Moreover, the binding assay revealed the interaction of 9-cis retinoic acid and FgRXRα-A, suggesting the function of FgRXRα-A. Our findings suggested that FgRXRα-A will be involved with the sexual reproduction of the parasite by forming heterodimers with other NRs, and it could be the potential target for further drug development of fascioliasis.

JUN mediates the senescence associated secretory phenotype and immune cell recruitment to prevent prostate cancer progression

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer develops through malignant transformation of the prostate epithelium in a stepwise, mutation-driven process. Although activator protein-1 transcription factors such as JUN have been implicated as potential oncogenic drivers, the molecular programs contributing to prostate cancer progression are not fully understood.

METHODS

We analyzed JUN expression in clinical prostate cancer samples across different stages and investigated its functional role in a Pten-deficient mouse model. We performed histopathological examinations, transcriptomic analyses and explored the senescence-associated secretory phenotype in the tumor microenvironment.

RESULTS

Elevated JUN levels characterized early-stage prostate cancer and predicted improved survival in human and murine samples. Immune-phenotyping of Pten-deficient prostates revealed high accumulation of tumor-infiltrating leukocytes, particularly innate immune cells, neutrophils and macrophages as well as high levels of STAT3 activation and IL-1β production. Jun depletion in a Pten-deficient background prevented immune cell attraction which was accompanied by significant reduction of active STAT3 and IL-1β and accelerated prostate tumor growth. Comparative transcriptome profiling of prostate epithelial cells revealed a senescence-associated gene signature, upregulation of pro-inflammatory processes involved in immune cell attraction and of chemokines such as IL-1β, TNF-α, CCL3 and CCL8 in Pten-deficient prostates. Strikingly, JUN depletion reversed both the senescence-associated secretory phenotype and senescence-associated immune cell infiltration but had no impact on cell cycle arrest. As a result, JUN depletion in Pten-deficient prostates interfered with the senescence-associated immune clearance and accelerated tumor growth.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that JUN acts as tumor-suppressor and decelerates the progression of prostate cancer by transcriptional regulation of senescence- and inflammation-associated genes. This study opens avenues for novel treatment strategies that could impede disease progression and improve patient outcomes.

Comprehensive data mining reveals RTK/RAS signaling pathway as a promoter of prostate cancer lineage plasticity through transcription factors and CNV

Prostate cancer lineage plasticity is a key driver in the transition to neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC), and the RTK/RAS signaling pathway is a well-established cancer pathway. Nevertheless, the comprehensive link between the RTK/RAS signaling pathway and lineage plasticity has received limited investigation. In particular, the intricate regulatory network governing the interplay between RTK/RAS and lineage plasticity remains largely unexplored. The multi-omics data were clustered with the coefficient of argument and neighbor joining algorithm. Subsequently, the clustered results were analyzed utilizing the GSEA, gene sets related to stemness, multi-lineage state datasets, and canonical cancer pathway gene sets. Finally, a comprehensive exploration of the data based on the ssGSEA, WGCNA, GSEA, VIPER, prostate cancer scRNA-seq data, and the GPSAdb database was conducted. Among the six modules in the clustering results, there are 300 overlapping genes, including 3 previously unreported prostate cancer genes that were validated to be upregulated in prostate cancer through RT-qPCR. Function Module 6 shows a positive correlation with prostate cancer cell stemness, multi-lineage states, and the RTK/RAS signaling pathway. Additionally, the 19 leading-edge genes of the RTK/RAS signaling pathway promote prostate cancer lineage plasticity through a complex network of transcriptional regulation and copy number variations. In the transcriptional regulation network, TP63 and FOXO1 act as suppressors of prostate cancer lineage plasticity, whereas RORC exerts a promoting effect. This study provides a comprehensive perspective on the role of the RTK/RAS pathway in prostate cancer lineage plasticity and offers new clues for the treatment of NEPC.

Sex- and species-specific contribution of CD99 to T cell costimulation during multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Differences in immune responses between women and men are leading to a strong sex bias in the incidence of autoimmune diseases that predominantly affect women, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). MS manifests in more than twice as many women, making sex one of the most important risk factor. However, it is incompletely understood which genes contribute to sex differences in autoimmune incidence. To address that, we conducted a gene expression analysis in female and male human spleen and identified the transmembrane protein CD99 as one of the most significantly differentially expressed genes with marked increase in men. CD99 has been reported to participate in immune cell transmigration and T cell regulation, but sex-specific implications have not been comprehensively investigated.

METHODS

In this study, we conducted a gene expression analysis in female and male human spleen using the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project dataset to identify differentially expressed genes between women and men. After successful validation on protein level of human immune cell subsets, we assessed hormonal regulation of CD99 as well as its implication on T cell regulation in primary human T cells and Jurkat T cells. In addition, we performed in vivo assays in wildtype mice and in Cd99-deficient mice to further analyze functional consequences of differential CD99 expression.

RESULTS

Here, we found higher CD99 gene expression in male human spleens compared to females and confirmed this expression difference on protein level on the surface of T cells and pDCs. Androgens are likely dispensable as the cause shown by in vitro assays and ex vivo analysis of trans men samples. In cerebrospinal fluid, CD99 was higher on T cells compared to blood. Of note, male MS patients had lower CD99 levels on CD4+ T cells in the CSF, unlike controls. By contrast, both sexes had similar CD99 expression in mice and Cd99-deficient mice showed equal susceptibility to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis compared to wildtypes. Functionally, CD99 increased upon human T cell activation and inhibited T cell proliferation after blockade. Accordingly, CD99-deficient Jurkat T cells showed decreased cell proliferation and cluster formation, rescued by CD99 reintroduction.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that CD99 is sex-specifically regulated in healthy individuals and MS patients and that it is involved in T cell costimulation in humans but not in mice. CD99 could potentially contribute to MS incidence and susceptibility in a sex-specific manner.

Androgen receptor activity inversely correlates with immune cell infiltration and immunotherapy response across multiple cancer lineages

There is now increasing recognition of the important role of androgen receptor (AR) in modulating immune function. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the effects of AR activity on cancer immunity, we employed a computational approach to profile AR activity in 33 human tumor types using RNA-Seq datasets from The Cancer Genome Atlas. Our pan-cancer analysis revealed that the genes most negatively correlated with AR activity across cancers are involved in active immune system processes. Importantly, we observed a significant negative correlation between AR activity and IFNγ pathway activity at the pan-cancer level. Indeed, using a matched biopsy dataset from subjects with prostate cancer before and after AR-targeted treatment, we verified that inhibiting AR enriches immune cell abundances and is associated with higher IFNγ pathway activity. Furthermore, by analyzing immunotherapy datasets in multiple cancers, our results demonstrate that low AR activity was significantly associated with a favorable response to immunotherapy. Together, our data provide a comprehensive assessment of the relationship between AR signaling and tumor immunity.

Hallmarks of sex bias in immuno-oncology: mechanisms and therapeutic implications

Sex differences are present across multiple non-reproductive organ cancers, with male individuals generally experiencing higher incidence of cancer with poorer outcomes. Although some mechanisms underlying these differences are emerging, the immunological basis is not well understood. Observations from clinical trials also suggest a sex bias in conventional immunotherapies with male individuals experiencing a more favourable response and female individuals experiencing more severe adverse events to immune checkpoint blockade. In this Perspective article, we summarize the major biological hallmarks underlying sex bias in immuno-oncology. We focus on signalling from sex hormones and chromosome-encoded gene products, along with sex hormone-independent and chromosome-independent epigenetic mechanisms in tumour and immune cells such as myeloid cells and T cells. Finally, we highlight opportunities for future studies on sex differences that integrate sex hormones and chromosomes and other emerging cancer hallmarks such as ageing and the microbiome to provide a more comprehensive view of how sex differences underlie the response in cancer that can be leveraged for more effective immuno-oncology approaches.

Role of extracellular vesicles in castration-resistant prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a common health threat to men worldwide, and castration-resistant PCa (CRPC) is the leading cause of PCa-related deaths. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer compartments secreted by living cells that are important mediators of intercellular communication. EVs regulate the biological processes of recipient cells by transmitting heterogeneous cargoes, contributing to CRPC occurrence, progression, and drug resistance. These EVs originate not only from malignant cells, but also from various cell types within the tumor microenvironment. EVs are widely dispersed throughout diverse biological fluids and are attractive biomarkers derived from noninvasive liquid biopsy techniques. EV quantities and cargoes have been tested as potential biomarkers for CRPC diagnosis, progression, drug resistance, and prognosis; however, technical barriers to their clinical application continue to exist. Furthermore, exogenous EVs may provide tools for new therapies for CRPC. This review summarizes the current evidence on the role of EVs in CRPC.

The design, synthesis and bioactivity evaluation of novel androgen receptor degraders based on hydrophobic tagging

Prostate Cancer (PCa) easily progress to metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer (mCRPC) that remains a significant cause of cancer-related death. Androgen receptor (AR)-dependent transcription is a major driver of prostate tumor cell proliferation. Proteolysis-targeting chimaera (PROTAC) technology based on Hydrophobic Tagging (HyT) represents an intriguing strategy to regulate the function of therapeutically androgen receptor proteins. In the present study, we have designed, synthesized, and evaluated a series of PROTAC-HyT AR degraders using AR antagonists, RU59063, which were connected with adamantane-based hydrophobic moieties by different alkyl chains. Compound D-4-6 exhibited significant AR protein degradation activity, with a degradation rate of 57 % at 5 μM and nearly 90 % at 20 μM in 24 h, and inhibited the proliferation of LNCaP cells significantly with an IC50 value of 4.77 ± 0.26 μM in a time-concentration-dependent manner. In conclusion, the present study lays the foundation for the development of a completely new class of therapeutic agents for the treatment of mCRPC, and further design and synthesis of AR-targeting degraders are currently in progress for better degradation rate.

Discovery of a novel androgen receptor antagonist, MEL-6, with stereoselective activity and optimization of its metabolic stability

A new chemical scaffold with antagonistic activity towards the androgen receptor (AR) was identified. The parent compound, (3-Methoxy-N-[1-methyl-2-(4-phenyl-1-piperazinyl)-2-(2-thienyl)ethyl]benzamide) referred to as MEL-6, binds in the ligand binding pocket of AR and induces an antagonistic conformation of the ligand binding domain, even in presence of the antagonist-to-agonist switch mutations W741C, T877A and F876L-T877A. MEL-6 has antiproliferative effects on several AR positive prostate cancer cell lines. We further identified AR as the specific target of MEL-6 since it demonstrates little effect on other steroid receptors. In LNCaP cells it also inhibits the androgen-regulated transcriptome. These findings identify MEL-6 as a promising candidate for treatment of patients with prostate tumors that have become resistant to current clinically used AR antagonists. Analytical studies on the chemical composition of MEL-6 identified the presence of four isomers (two enantiomeric pairs), among which one isomer is responsible for the antiandrogenic activity. We therefore developed a synthetic route towards the selective preparation of the active enantiomeric pair. Various MEL-6-like analogues had improved metabolic stability while maintaining antiandrogenic activity. Metabolite identification of MEL-6 derivatives pinpointed N-dealkylation of the piperazine as the main mode for inactivation by liver enzymes. For further structural optimization, MEL-6 derivatives were purchased or synthesized having alterations on the N-phenyl group of the piperazine, the benzoyl group and additionally substituting the thiophen-2-yl ring of MEL-6 to a phenyl ring. This optimization process resulted in compound 12b with sustained AR inhibition and a 4-fold increased half-life due to the 1-(5-chloro-2-methylphenyl)-piperazine substitution, thienyl-to-phenyl substitution and chloro in para-position of the benzoyl group.

Alternative splicing in prostate cancer progression and therapeutic resistance

Prostate cancer (CaP) remains the second leading cause of cancer deaths in western men. CaP mortality results from diverse molecular mechanisms that mediate resistance to the standard of care treatments for metastatic disease. Recently, alternative splicing has been recognized as a hallmark of CaP aggressiveness. Alternative splicing events cause treatment resistance and aggressive CaP behavior and are determinants of the emergence of the two major types of late-stage treatment-resistant CaP, namely castration-resistant CaP (CRPC) and neuroendocrine CaP (NEPC). Here, we review recent multi-omics data that are uncovering the complicated landscape of alternative splicing events during CaP progression and the impact that different gene transcript isoforms can have on CaP cell biology and behavior. We discuss renewed insights in the molecular machinery by which alternative splicing occurs and contributes to the failure of systemic CaP therapies. The potential for alternative splicing events to serve as diagnostic markers and/or therapeutic targets is explored. We conclude by considering current challenges and promises associated with splicing-modulating therapies, and their potential for clinical translation into CaP patient care.

Screening androgen receptor agonists of fish species using machine learning and molecular model in NORMAN water-relevant list

Androgen receptor (AR) agonists have strong endocrine disrupting effects in fish. Most studies mainly investigate AR binding capacity using human AR in vitro. However, there is still few methods to rapidly predict AR agonists in aquatic organisms. This study aimed to screen AR agonists of fish species using machine learning and molecular models in water-relevant list from NORMAN, a network of reference laboratories for monitoring contaminants of emerging concern in the environment. In this study, machine learning approaches (e.g., Deep Forest (DF)), Random Forests and artificial neural networks) were applied to predict AR agonists. Zebrafish, fathead minnow, mosquitofish, medaka fish and grass carp are all important aquatic model organisms widely used to evaluate the toxicity of new pollutants, and the molecular models of ARs from these five fish species were constructed to further screen AR agonists using AlphaFold2. The DF method showed the best performances with 0.99 accuracy, 0.97 sensitivity and 1 precision. The Asn705, Gln711, Arg752, and Thr877 residues in human AR and the corresponding sites in ARs from the five fish species were responsible for agonist binding. Overall, 245 substances were predicted as suspect AR agonists in the five fish species, including, certain glucocorticoids, cholesterol metabolites, and cardiovascular drugs in the NORMAN list. Using machine learning and molecular modeling hybrid methods rapidly and accurately screened AR agonists in fish species, and helping evaluate their ecological risk in fish populations.

Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) Studies of Novel Monovalent AR/AR-V7 Dual Degraders with Potent Efficacy against Advanced Prostate Cancer

Androgen receptor (AR) has been extensively established as a potential therapeutic target for nearly all stages of prostate cancer (PCa). However, acquired resistance to AR-targeted drugs inevitably develops and severely limits their clinical efficacy. Particularly, there currently exists no efficient treatment for patients expressing the constitutively active AR splice variants, such as AR-V7. Herein, we report the structure-activity relationship studies of 55 N-heterocycle-substituted hydantoins, which identified the structural motifs required for AR/AR-V7 degradation. Among them, the most potent compound 27c exhibited selective AR/AR-V7 degradation over other hormone receptors and excellent antiproliferative activities in LNCaP and 22RV1 cells. RNA sequence analysis confirmed that 27c effectively suppressed transcriptional activity of the AR signaling pathway. Importantly, 27c demonstrated potent antitumor efficacy in an enzalutamide-resistant 22RV1 xenograft model. These results highlight the potential of 27c as a promising dual AR/AR-V7 degrader for overcoming drug resistance in advanced PCa expressing AR splice variants.

Phytochemical identification and in silico elucidation of interactions of bioactive compounds from Citrullus lanatus with androgen receptor towards prostate cancer treatment

Androgen receptor (AR) is known to play a crucial role in the development and progression of prostate cancer, and compounds that inhibit its activity are regarded as promising for the development of drugs to treat the disease. This study aimed to investigate the AR-inhibiting potential of Citrullus lanatus fruit compounds for prostate cancer drug development. Following HPLC identification, the binding energies, molecular interactions, and pharmacological potentials of the compounds against AR were elucidated using in silico techniques such as, molecular docking, induced-fit docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and ADMET prediction. Some of the compounds found to be present in Citrullus lanatus fruit included flavonoids such as proanthocyanin, naringin, flavan 3 ol, flavonones, naringenin, epicatechin, citrulline, and catechin. Naringenin exhibited the highest docking score in the molecular docking analysis, followed by resveratrol, ribalinidine, and epicatechin. These compounds share a common AR binding site with the standard ligand, dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Some of the compounds showed favorable ADMET profiles, while others showed at least one toxicity potential. The induced-fit docking of naringenin with AR yielded a higher docking score than the initial score obtained from standard docking while preserving stable molecular contacts with the interacting amino acids. Consistent hydrogen bond interactions of naringenin with PHE 764, ASN 705, and THR 877 of AR, including a persistent pi-pi stacking contact with PHE 764, were observed from the molecular dynamic simulation. The Citrullus lanatus compounds, particularly naringenin, may therefore be considered for further research towards the development of drugs for prostate cancer therapy.

Discovery of a novel natural compound, vitekwangin B, with ANO1 protein reduction properties and anticancer potential

Background: Prostate cancer and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) present significant challenges in the development of effective therapeutic strategies. Hormone therapies for prostate cancer target androgen receptors and prostate-specific antigen markers. However, treatment options for prostatic small-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma are limited. NSCLC, on the other hand, is primarily treated with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors but exhibits resistance. This study explored a novel therapeutic approach by investigating the potential anticancer properties of vitekwangin B, a natural compound derived from Vitex trifolia. Methods: Vitekwangin B was chromatographically isolated from the fruits of V. trifolia. ANO1 protein levels in prostate cancer and NSCLC cells were verified and evaluated again after vitekwangin B treatment. Results: Vitekwangin B did not inhibit anoctamin1 (ANO1) channel function but significantly reduced ANO1 protein levels. These results demonstrate that vitekwangin B effectively inhibited cancer cell viability and induced apoptosis in prostate cancer and NSCLC cells. Moreover, it exhibited minimal toxicity to liver cells and did not affect hERG channel activity, making it a promising candidate for further development as an anticancer drug. Conclusion: Vitekwangin B may offer a new direction for cancer therapy by targeting ANO1 protein, potentially improving treatment outcomes in patients with prostate cancer and NSCLC. Further research is needed to explore its full potential and overcome existing drug resistance challenges.

Transcription Factors in Prostate Cancer: Insights for Disease Development and Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches

Transcription factors (TFs) are proteins essential for the regulation of gene expression, and they regulate the genes involved in different cellular processes, such as proliferation, differentiation, survival, and apoptosis. Although their expression is essential in normal physiological conditions, abnormal regulation of TFs plays critical role in several diseases, including cancer. In prostate cancer, the most common malignancy in men, TFs are known to play crucial roles in the initiation, progression, and resistance to therapy of the disease. Understanding the interplay between these TFs and their downstream targets provides insights into the molecular basis of prostate cancer pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss the involvement of key TFs, including the E26 Transformation-Specific (ETS) Family (ERG and SPDEF), NF-κB, Activating Protein-1 (AP-1), MYC, and androgen receptor (AR), in prostate cancer while focusing on the molecular mechanisms involved in prostate cancer development. We also discuss emerging diagnostic strategies, early detection, and risk stratification using TFs. Furthermore, we explore the development of therapeutic interventions targeting TF pathways, including the use of small molecule inhibitors, gene therapies, and immunotherapies, aimed at disrupting oncogenic TF signaling and improving patient outcomes. Understanding the complex regulation of TFs in prostate cancer provides valuable insights into disease biology, which ultimately may lead to advancing precision approaches for patients.

Androgen receptor cofactors: A potential role in understanding prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is witnessing a concerning rise in incidence annually, with the androgen receptor (AR) emerging as a pivotal contributor to its growth and progression. Mounting evidence underscores the AR's ability to recruit cofactors, influencing downstream gene transcription and thereby fueling the proliferation and metastasis of PCa cells. Although, clinical strategies involving AR antagonists provide some relief, managing castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) remains a formidable challenge. Thus, the need of the hour lies in unearthing new drugs or therapeutic targets to effectively combat PCa. This review encapsulates the pivotal roles played by coactivators and corepressors of AR, notably androgen receptor-associated protein (ARA) and steroid receptor Coactivators (SRC) in PCa. Our data unveils how these cofactors intricately modulate histone modifications, cell cycling, SUMOylation, and apoptosis through their interactions with AR. Among the array of cofactors scrutinised, such as ARA70β, ARA24, ARA160, ARA55, ARA54, PIAS1, PIAS3, SRC1, SRC2, SRC3, PCAF, p300/CBP, MED1, and CARM1, several exhibit upregulation in PCa. Conversely, other cofactors like ARA70α, PIASy, and NCoR/SMRT demonstrate downregulation. This duality underscores the complexity of AR cofactor dynamics in PCa. Based on our findings, we propose that manipulating cofactor regulation to modulate AR function holds promise as a novel therapeutic avenue against advanced PCa. This paradigm shift offers renewed hope in the quest for effective treatments in the face of CRPC's formidable challenges.

In Vitro, In Vivo, and In Silico Analysis of Pyraclostrobin and Cyprodinil and Their Mixture Reveal New Targets and Signaling Mechanisms

Pyraclostrobin and cyprodinil are broad-spectrum fungicides that are used in crops to control diseases. However, they are excessively used and, as a result, end up in the environment and threaten human health and ecosystems. Hence, knowledge of their mechanisms of action is critical to revealing their environmental fate and negative effects and regulating their use. In the present study, we conducted a comprehensive study to show the adverse effects of pyraclostrobin, cyprodinil, and their mixture using zebrafish larvae and different cell lines. Several end points were investigated, including mortality, development, gene expression, reporter assays, and molecular docking simulations. We found that both compounds and their mixture caused developmental delays and mortality in zebrafish, with a higher effect displayed by pyraclostrobin. Both compounds altered the expression of genes involved in several signaling pathways, including oxidative stress and mitochondrial function, lipid and drug metabolisms, the cell cycle, DNA damage, apoptosis, and inflammation. A noteworthy result of this study is that cyprodinil and the mixture group acted as NFκB activators, while pyraclostrobin demonstrated antagonist activity. The AHR activity was also upregulated by cyprodinil and the mixture group; however, pyraclostrobin did not show any effect. For the first time, we also demonstrated that pyraclostrobin had androgen receptor antagonist activity.