Dexamethasone suppresses the growth of human non-small cell lung cancer via inducing estrogen sulfotransferase and inactivating estrogen

Exploring the effect of epigallocatechin gallate on non small cell lung cancer

INTRODUCTION

Human epidemiological studies have shown that diets rich in plant polyphenols have beneficial effects on various diseases including cancer. Epigallocatechin Gallate, a flavonoid polyphenol molecule, has been shown to be both chemotherapeutic and chemo-preventive in the treatment of several forms of cancer, including lung cancer. 80% of cancers of the lungs are non-small cell lung cancers.

OBJECTIVE

The study was carried out to see the effects of Epigallocatechin Gallate in non-small cell lung cancer cells (A549) using in-vitro studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cell Viability Assay was performed using MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assay. Wound Healing assay was also performed at different concentrations of the compound. Dexamethasone and Doxorubicin, the drugs with anti-cancer properties served as control. A549 cell lines were used.

RESULTS

In the current study, it was demonstrated using Cell viability assay and Wound Healing assay that Epigallocatechin gallate exhibits anti-proliferative activity on A549 lung cancer cells and inhibits cancer cell proliferation in a concentration and time-dependent manner. It was observed that Epigallocatechin gallate (P = 0.0016, P = 0.0018) could significantly inhibit the growth of lung cancer cells with IC50 values 60.55 ± 1.0 μM. The result of wound Healing assay suggests that Epigallocatechin gallate can inhibit the proliferation and migration of A549 cells with concentrations near or higher to 50 μM.

CONCLUSION

Epigallocatechin gallate's protective effect has been shown in A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells in a time and dose-dependent manner. This suggests the implication of Epigallocatechin gallate for the prevention and therapy for lung cancer.

RNA-based liposomes for oral cancer: From biophysical characterization to biological evaluation

Oral cancer incidence and mortality are increasing over time. The most common therapies for oral cancers are surgery and radiotherapy, either used alone or combined, and immunotherapy can be also an option. Although there are several therapeutic options, none of them are completely effective, and in addition, there are numerous associated side effects. To overcome these limitations, researchers have been trying to reduce these drawbacks by using drug delivery systems that carry drugs for specific delivery to cancer cells. For that purpose, RNA-coated liposomes to selectively deliver the ligands C8 (acridine orange derivative) and dexamethasone to oral cancer cells were produced, characterized, and biologically evaluated. Firstly, the RNA structure and binding interaction with ligands (C8 and dexamethasone) were evaluated by circular dichroism (CD), thermal difference spectroscopy (TDS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and fluorescence titrations. The biophysical assays evidenced the formation of an RNA hairpin and duplex structure. Moreover, steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence intensity and anisotropy experiments show that C8 forms a complex with RNA and adopts an open conformation upon RNA binding. Then, RNA-coated liposomes were characterized by dynamic light scattering, and diameters near 160 nm were observed. Time-resolved anisotropy measurements of C8 loaded in RNA-functionalized liposomes indicate the co-existence of free C8 in solution (inside the liposome) and C8 bound to RNA at the external liposome surface. The RNA-functionalized liposomes loaded with C8 or dexamethasone mediated a significant reduction in the cell viability of malignant UPCI-SCC-154 cells while maintaining viable non-malignant NHDF cells. Additionally, the liposomes were able to internalize the cells, with higher uptake by the malignant cell line. Overall, the results obtained in this work can contribute to the development of new drug delivery systems based on RNA-coated liposomes.

Estrogen sulfotransferase and sulfatase in steroid homeostasis, metabolic disease, and cancer

Sulfation and desulfation of steroids are opposing processes that regulate the activation, metabolism, excretion, and storage of steroids, which account for steroid homeostasis. Steroid sulfation and desulfation are catalyzed by cytosolic sulfotransferase and steroid sulfatase, respectively. By modifying and regulating steroids, cytosolic sulfotransferase (SULT) and steroid sulfatase (STS) are also involved in the pathophysiology of steroid-related diseases, such as hormonal dysregulation, metabolic disease, and cancer. The estrogen sulfotransferase (EST, or SULT1E1) is a typical member of the steroid SULTs. This review is aimed to summarize the roles of SULT1E1 and STS in steroid homeostasis and steroid-related diseases.

An integrated PK/PD model investigating the impact of tumor size and systemic safety on animal survival in SW1990 pancreatic cancer xenograft

Survival is one of the most important endpoints in cancer therapy, and parametric survival analysis could comprehensively reveal the overall result of disease progression, drug efficacy, toxicity as well as their interactions. In this study we investigated the efficacy and toxicity of dexamethasone (DEX) combined with gemcitabine (GEM) in pancreatic cancer xenograft. Nude mice bearing SW1990 pancreatic cancer cells derived tumor were treated with DEX (4 mg/kg, i.g.) and GEM (15 mg/kg, i.v.) alone or in combination repeatedly (QD, Q3D, Q7D) until the death of animal or the end of study. Tumor volumes and net body weight (NBW) were assessed every other day. Taking NBW as a systemic safety indicator, an integrated pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model was developed to quantitatively describe the impact of tumor size and systemic safety on animal survival. The PK/PD models with time course data for tumor size and NBW were established, respectively, in a sequential manner; a parametric time-to-event (TTE) model was also developed based on the longitudinal PK/PD models to describe the survival results of the SW1990 tumor-bearing mice. These models were evaluated and externally validated. Only the mice with good tumor growth inhibition and relatively stable NBW had an improved survival result after DEX and GEM combination therapy, and the simulations based on the parametric TTE model showed that NBW played more important role in animals' survival compared with tumor size. The established model in this study demonstrates that tumor size was not always the most important reason for cancer-related death, and parametric survival analysis together with safety issues was also important in the evaluation of oncology therapies in preclinical studies.

Uncovering the dynamic effects of DEX treatment on lung cancer by integrating bioinformatic inference and multiscale modeling of scRNA-seq and proteomics data

Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death, with a five-year survival rate of 18%. It is a priority for us to understand the underlying mechanisms affecting lung cancer therapeutics' implementation and effectiveness. In this study, we combine the power of Bioinformatics and Systems Biology to comprehensively uncover functional and signaling pathways of drug treatment using bioinformatics inference and multiscale modeling of both scRNA-seq data and proteomics data. Based on a time series of lung adenocarcinoma derived A549 cells after DEX treatment, we first identified the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in those lung cancer cells. Through the interrogation of regulatory network of those DEGs, we identified key hub genes including TGFβ, MYC, and SMAD3 varied underlie DEX treatment. Further gene set enrichment analysis revealed the TGFβ signaling pathway as the top enriched term. Those genes involved in the TGFβ pathway and their crosstalk with the ERBB pathway presented a strong survival prognosis in clinical lung cancer samples. With the basis of biological validation and literature-based curation, a multiscale model of tumor regulation centered on both TGFβ-induced and ERBB-amplified signaling pathways was developed to characterize the dynamic effects of DEX therapy on lung cancer cells. Our simulation results were well matched to available data of SMAD2, FOXO3, TGFβ1, and TGFβR1 over the time course. Moreover, we provided predictions of different doses to illustrate the trend and therapeutic potential of DEX treatment. The innovative and cross-disciplinary approach can be further applied to other computational studies in tumorigenesis and oncotherapy. We released the approach as a user-friendly tool named BIMM (Bioinformatic Inference and Multiscale Modeling), with all the key features available at https://github.com/chenm19/BIMM.

Drug repurposing: An emerging strategy in alleviating skin cancer

Skin cancer is one of the most common forms of cancer. Several million people are estimated to have affected with this condition worldwide. Skin cancer generally includes melanoma and non-melanoma with the former being the most dangerous. Chemotherapy has been one of the key therapeutic strategies employed in the treatment of skin cancer, especially in advanced stages of the disease. It could be also used as an adjuvant with other treatment modalities depending on the type of skin cancer. However, there are several shortfalls associated with the use of chemotherapy such as non-selectivity, tumour resistance, life-threatening toxicities, and the exorbitant cost of medicines. Furthermore, new drug discovery is a lengthy and costly process with minimal likelihood of success. Thus, drug repurposing (DR) has emerged as a new avenue where the drug approved formerly for the treatment of one disease can be used for the treatment of another disease like cancer. This approach is greatly beneficial over the de novo approach in terms of time and cost. Moreover, there is minimal risk of failure of repurposed therapeutics in clinical trials. There are a considerable number of studies that have reported on drugs repurposed for the treatment of skin cancer. Thus, the present manuscript offers a comprehensive overview of drugs that have been investigated as repurposing candidates for the efficient treatment of skin cancers mainly melanoma and its oncogenic subtypes, and non-melanoma. The prospects of repurposing phytochemicals against skin cancer are also discussed. Furthermore, repurposed drug delivery via topical route and repurposed drugs in clinical trials are briefed. Based on the findings from the reported studies discussed in this manuscript, drug repurposing emerges to be a promising approach and thus is expected to offer efficient treatment at a reasonable cost in devitalizing skin cancer.

Dexamethasone: Insights into Pharmacological Aspects, Therapeutic Mechanisms, and Delivery Systems

Dexamethasone (DEX) has been widely used to treat a variety of diseases, including autoimmune diseases, allergies, ocular disorders, cancer, and, more recently, COVID-19. However, DEX usage is often restricted in the clinic due to its poor water solubility. When administered through a systemic route, it can elicit severe side effects, such as hypertension, peptic ulcers, hyperglycemia, and hydro-electrolytic disorders. There is currently much interest in developing efficient DEX-loaded nanoformulations that ameliorate adverse disease effects inhibiting advancements in scientific research. Various nanoparticles have been developed to selectively deliver drugs without destroying healthy cells or organs in recent years. In the present review, we have summarized some of the most attractive applications of DEX-loaded delivery systems, including liposomes, polymers, hydrogels, nanofibers, silica, calcium phosphate, and hydroxyapatite. This review provides our readers with a broad spectrum of nanomedicine approaches to deliver DEX safely.

Advantages and drawbacks of dexamethasone in glioblastoma multiforme

The most widespread, malignant, and deadliest type of glial tumor is glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Despite radiation, chemotherapy, and radical surgery, the median survival of afflicted individuals is about 12 months. Unfortunately, existing therapeutic interventions are abysmal. Dexamethasone (Dex), a synthetic glucocorticoid, has been used for many years to treat brain edema and inflammation caused by GBM. Several investigations have recently shown that Dex also exerts antitumoral effects against GBM. On the other hand, more recent disputed findings have questioned the long-held dogma of Dex treatment for GBM. Unfortunately, steroids are associated with various undesirable side effects, including severe immunosuppression and metabolic changes like hyperglycemia, which may impair the survival of GBM patients. Current ideas and concerns about Dex's effects on GBM cerebral edema, cell proliferation, migration, and its clinical outcomes were investigated in this study.

Targeting Estrogens and Various Estrogen-Related Receptors against Non-Small Cell Lung Cancers: A Perspective

Non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs) account for ~85% of lung cancer cases worldwide. Mammalian lungs are exposed to both endogenous and exogenous estrogens. The expression of estrogen receptors (ERs) in lung cancer cells has evoked the necessity to evaluate the role of estrogens in the disease progression. Estrogens, specifically 17β-estradiol, promote maturation of several tissue types including lungs. Recent epidemiologic data indicate that women have a higher risk of lung adenocarcinoma, a type of NSCLC, when compared to men, independent of smoking status. Besides ERs, pulmonary tissues both in healthy physiology and in NSCLCs also express G-protein-coupled ERs (GPERs), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFRs), estrogen-related receptors (ERRs) and orphan nuclear receptors. Premenopausal females between the ages of 15 and 50 years synthesize a large contingent of estrogens and are at a greater risk of developing NSCLCs. Estrogen-ER/GPER/EGFR/ERR-mediated activation of various cell signaling molecules regulates NSCLC cell proliferation, survival and apoptosis. This article sheds light on the most recent achievements in the elucidation of sequential biochemical events in estrogen-activated cell signaling pathways involved in NSCLC severity with insight into the mechanism of regulation by ERs/GPERs/EGFRs/ERRs. It further discusses the success of anti-estrogen therapies against NSCLCs.

Changes in Porcine Corpus Luteum Proteome Associated with Development, Maintenance, Regression, and Rescue during Estrous Cycle and Early Pregnancy

Corpus luteum (CL), a transitory gland, undergoes rapid growth in a limited time to produce progesterone (P4) followed by its regression. A complex molecular signaling is involved in controlling luteal P4 production. In the present study, 2D gel electrophoresis-based proteomics and in silico functional analysis were used to identify changes in key proteins and pathways in CL along the different stages of the estrous cycle as its development progresses from early (Day 3) to mid-luteal phase (Day 9), effective functioning (Day 12) followed by regression (Day 15) or, in the case of pregnancy, rescue of function (Day 15). A total of 273 proteins were identified by MALDI-MS/MS analysis that showed significant changes in abundances at different stages of CL development or regression and rescue. Functional annotation of differentially abundant proteins suggested enrichment of several important pathways and functions during CL development and function maintenance including cell survival, endocytosis, oxidative stress response, estradiol metabolism, and angiogenesis. On the other hand, differentially abundant proteins during CL regression were associated with decreased steroid synthesis and metabolism and increased apoptosis, necrosis, and infiltration of immune cells. Establishment of pregnancy rescues CL from regression by maintaining the expression of proteins that support steroidogenesis as pathways such as the super-pathway of cholesterol biosynthesis, RhoA signaling, and functions such as fatty acid metabolism and sterol transport were enriched in CL of pregnancy. In this study, some novel proteins were identified along CL development that advances our understanding of CL survival and steroidogenesis.

The smoking estrogens - a potential synergy between estradiol and benzo(a)pyrene

According to recent statistics, Lung Cancer (LC) is one of the most frequently diagnosed tumor types, representing nearly 12% of all global cancer cases. Moreover, in recent years, an increased mortality rate and incidence of this cancer were observed, especially among nonsmokers. Lung cancer patients are often characterized by poor prognosis and low survival rates, which encourages the scientific community to investigate the biochemical and molecular processes leading to the development of this malignancy. Furthermore, the mechanisms of LC formation and progression are not yet fully elucidated due to their high complexity, as well as a multitude of environmental, genetic, and molecular factors involved. Even though LC's association with exposure to cigarette smoke is indisputable, current research provides evidence that the development of this cancer can also be affected by the presence of estrogens and their interaction with several tobacco smoke components. Hence, the main goal of this brief review was to investigate reports of a possible synergy between 17β estradiol (E2), the most biologically active estrogen, and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), a strongly carcinogenic compound produced as a result of incomplete tobacco combustion. The literature sources demonstrate a possible carcinogenic synergy between estrogens, especially E2, and BaP, a toxic tobacco smoke component. Therefeore, the combined effect of disturbed estrogen production in cancer cells, as well as the molecular influence exerted by BaP, could explain the increased aggressiveness and rate of LC development. Summarizing, the synergistic effect of these risk factors is an interesting area of further research.

Overview of Ca2+ signaling in lung cancer progression and metastatic lung cancer with bone metastasis

Intracellular Ca²⁺ ions that are thought to be one of the most important second messengers for cellular signaling, have a substantial diversity of roles in regulating a plethora of fundamental cellular physiology such as gene expression, cell division, cell motility and apoptosis. It has been suggestive of the Ca²⁺ signaling-dependent cellular processes to be tightly regulated by the numerous types of Ca²⁺ channels, pumps, exchangers and sensing receptors. Consequently, dysregulated Ca²⁺ homeostasis leads to a series of events connected to elevated malignant phenotypes including uncontrolled proliferation, migration, invasion and metastasis, all of which are frequently observed in advanced stage lung cancer cells. The incidence of bone metastasis in patients with advanced stage lung cancer is estimated in a range of 30% to 40%, bringing about a significant negative impact on both morbidity and survival. This review dissects and summarizes the important roles of Ca²⁺ signaling transduction in contributing to lung cancer progression, and address the question: if and how Ca²⁺ signaling might have been engaged in metastatic lung cancer with bone metastasis, thereby potentially providing the multifaceted and promising solutions for therapeutic intervention.

Identification of Primary and Metastatic Lung Cancer-Related lncRNAs and Potential Targeted Drugs Based on ceRNA Network

Lung cancer metastasis is the leading cause of poor prognosis and death for patients. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been validated the close correlation with lung cancer metastasis, but few comprehensive analyses have reported the specific association between lncRNA and cancer metastasis, especially via both competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory relationships and functional regulatory networks. Here, we constructed primary and metastatic ceRNA networks, identified 12 and 3 candidate lncRNAs for lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) and lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) respectively and excavated some drugs that might have potential therapeutic effects on lung cancer progression. In summary, this study systematically analyzed the competitive relationships and regulatory mechanism of the repeatedly dysregulated lncRNAs in lung cancer carcinogenesis and metastasis, and provided a new idea for screening potential therapeutic drugs for lung cancer.

Plausible Role of Estrogens in Pathogenesis, Progression and Therapy of Lung Cancer

Malignant neoplasms are among the most common diseases and are responsible for the majority of deaths in the developed world. In contrast to men, available data show a clear upward trend in the incidence of lung cancer in women, making it almost as prevalent as breast cancer. Women might be more susceptible to the carcinogenic effect of tobacco smoke than men. Furthermore, available data indicate a much more frequent mutation of the tumor suppressor gene-p53 in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) female patients compared to males. Another important factor, however, might lie in the female sex hormones, whose mitogenic or carcinogenic effect is well known. Epidemiologic data show a correlation between hormone replacement therapy (HRT) or oral contraceptives (OCs), and increased mortality rates due to the increased incidence of malignant tumors, including lung cancer. Interestingly, two types of estrogen receptors have been detected in lung cancer cells: ERα and ERβ. The presence of ERα has been detected in tissues and non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) cell lines. In contrast, overexpression of ERβ is a prognostic marker in NSCLC. Herein, we summarize the current knowledge on the role of estrogens in the etiopathogenesis of lung cancer, as well as biological, hormonal and genetic sex-related differences in this neoplasm.

Harnessing hyaluronic acid-based nanoparticles for combination therapy: A novel approach for suppressing systemic inflammation and to promote antitumor macrophage polarization

Anti-inflammatory drugs such as dexamethasone (DEX) are commonly administered to cancer patients along with anticancer drugs, however, the effect of DEX on human cancers is poorly understood. In this article, we have tailored self-assembled nanoparticles derived from hyaluronic acid (HA) wherein, anti-inflammatory DEX was used as a hydrophobic moiety for inducing amphiphilicity. The HA-DEX micelles were subsequently loaded with chemotherapeutic agent, doxorubicin (DOX) (HA-DEX-DOX) and was utilized to deliver drug cargo to human cancer cells expressing different levels of CD44 receptors. We found that DEX suppressed the cytotoxicity of DOX in HCT116, while it synergistically enhanced cytotoxicity in MCF-7 cells. When we tested DOX and HA-DEX-DOX in an ex-vivo human whole blood, we found activation of complement and the coagulation cascade in one group of donors. Encapsulation of DOX within the nanoparticle core eliminated such deleterious side-effects. The HA-DEX-DOX also polarized bone-marrow-derived anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages, to pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype with the upregulation of the cytokines TNF-α, iNOS and IL-1β.

Electro-responsive controlled drug delivery from melanin nanoparticles

Electro-responsive controlled drug delivery has been receiving an increasing interest as one of the on-demand drug delivery systems, aiming the improvement of the therapeutics efficacy by controlling the amount of drug release at a specific time and target site. Herein, we report a simple method to develop an electro-responsive controlled drug delivery system using functionalized melanin nanoparticles (FMNPs) with polydopamine and polypyrrole to precisely control the release of dexamethasone (Dex). Optimized FMNPs showed 376.77 ± 62.05 nm of particle size, a polydispersity index of 0.26 ± 0.09 and a zeta-potential (ZP) of -32.59 ± 3.61 mV. FMNPs evidenced a spherical shape, which was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry analysis confirmed the deposition of the polymers on the FMNPs' surface. The incorporation efficiency of the optimized Dex-loaded FMNPs was 94.45 ± 0.63% and the increase of ZP to -40.34 ± 4.65 mV was attributed to the anionic nature of Dex. In vitro Dex release studies without stimuli revealed a maximum Dex release below 10%. Applying electrical stimulation, Dex release was augmented, with a maximum of ca. 32% after 24 h. The designed FMNPs provide a powerful biomaterial-based technological tool for electro-responsive controlled drug delivery, capable of surpassing the associated lack of efficiency and stability of current carriers.

Newly synthesized phenanthroimidazole derivatives L082 as a safe anti-tumor and anti-injury inflammation bifunctional compound

Chemotherapy drugs exerts beneficial antitumor activity before and after cancer surgery. Post-injury complications are a potential hazard after surgical tumor resection. Inflammation caused by surgical stress is known to promote the progression of post-injury complications. Recent studies have found that chemotherapy drugs can promote post-injury inflammatory response, leading to increased post-injury complications. Imidazole derivatives have effective anticancer activity. However, the impact of post-operative inflammation caused by imidazole derivatives is unclear. In this study, two novel phenanthroimidazole derivatives (L082 and L142) were synthesized and characterized. These compounds showed significant inhibitory effects on different tumor cells. The compound L082 also inhibited liver cancer in vivo. In addition, L082 played a significant role in inhibiting the accumulation of inflammatory cells and promoting the elimination of inflammatory cells at the incision, which may be related to inhibiting the production of ROS and NO in oxidative and nitric stress. These results suggest that L082 can be used as a bifunctional drug to suppress tumors and reduce post-injury inflammation complications.

Evaluating UiO-66 Metal-Organic Framework Nanoparticles as Acid-Sensitive Carriers for Pulmonary Drug Delivery Applications

Developing novel drug carriers for pulmonary delivery is necessary to achieve higher efficacy and consistency for treating pulmonary diseases while limiting off-target side effects that occur from alternative routes of administration. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have recently emerged as a class of materials with characteristics well-suited for pulmonary drug delivery, with chemical tunability, high surface area, and pore size, which will allow for efficient loading of therapeutic cargo and deep lung penetration. UiO-66, a zirconium and terephthalic acid-based MOF, has displayed notable chemical and physical stability and potential biocompatibility; however, its feasibility for use as a pulmonary drug delivery vehicle has yet to be examined. Here, we evaluate the use of UiO-66 nanoparticles (NPs) as novel pulmonary drug delivery vehicles and assess the role of missing linker defects in their utility for this application. We determined that missing linker defects result in differences in NP aerodynamics but have minimal effects on the loading of model and therapeutic cargo, cargo release, biocompatibility, or biodistribution. This is a critical result, as it indicates the robust consistency of UiO-66, a critical feature for pulmonary drug delivery, which is plagued by inconsistent dosage because of variable properties. Not only that, but UiO-66 NPs also demonstrate pH-dependent stability, with resistance to degradation in extracellular conditions and breakdown in intracellular environments. Furthermore, the carriers exhibit high biocompatibility and low cytotoxicity in vitro and are well-tolerated in in vivo murine evaluations of orotracheally administered NPs. Following pulmonary delivery, UiO-66 NPs remain localized to the lungs before clearance over the course of seven days. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of using UiO-66 NPs as a novel platform for pulmonary drug delivery through their tunable NP properties, which allow for controlled aerodynamics and internalization-dependent cargo release while displaying remarkable pulmonary biocompatibility.

Important roles of estrogen receptor alpha in tumor progression and anti-estrogen therapy of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

AIMS

The roles of estrogen receptors (ERs) and the efficacy of anti-estrogen (E2) therapies in pancreatic cancer stay controversial. The main objectives of this study were to investigate the potential roles of ERs in tumor progression and endocrine therapies.

MAIN METHODS

The ER expression status in PANC-1 and SW1990 pancreatic cancer cell lines was determined. SRB assay, colony formation assay and proliferation assay were used to investigate the responses of these cells to E2. ERα-selective agonist propylpyrazoletriol (PPT), ERβ-selective agonist diarylpropionitrile (DPN), ERα over-expressed SW1990 cells, ERα knock-out PANC-1 cells and patient-derived xenografts (PDX) were applied to investigate the potential roles of ERα in pancreatic cancer. The phosphorylation of ERα-related signaling molecules extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK1/2) and protein kinase B (AKT) were investigated. The in vivo anti-tumor efficacy and safety of letrozole (LTZ) combined with leuprorelin acetate (LA) and gemcitabine (GEM) were also preliminarily studied.

KEY FINDINGS

PANC-1 cells expressed much more ERα than SW1990 cells, and ERβ level was with less diversity. Accordingly, the proliferation of PANC-1 rather than SW1990 cells could be stimulated by E2, and only PANC-1 could respond to LTZ endocrine therapy in female but not male mice. The phosphorylation of ERK1/2 but not AKT was altered by over-expressed or knocking out of ERα with or without the addition of E2 and LTZ. The combination therapy of LTZ and GEM showed acceptable efficacy and safety.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study showed the important roles of ERα in tumor progression and endocrine therapies of pancreatic cancer in women.

Dexamethasone inhibits pancreatic tumor growth in preclinical models: Involvement of activating glucocorticoid receptor

Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) modulates extensive biological and pathological processes including tumor progression through diverse mechanisms. The regulatory effects of dexamethasone (DEX), a synthetic glucocorticoid, as well as its interaction with GR have been recognized beyond hematologic cancers. In the present study, we investigated the anti-cancer efficacy of DEX and the correlation with GR in pancreatic cancer, a most aggressive malignancy threatening human health. The differential levels of GR expression were examined in two human pancreatic cancer cell lines, PANC-1 and SW1990, as well as in xenografts and patient tumor tissues. DEX significantly inhibited colony formation, migration, and tumor growth of PANC-1 cells expressing abundant GR. The underlying mechanisms involved suppression of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) phosphorylation and down-regulation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). The anti-cancer effects of DEX were partially reversed by GR silencing or combinational administration of GR antagonist, RU486. The dose-dependent efficacy of DEX in tumor growth inhibition was also demonstrated in a GR-positive patient-derived xenograft model along with safety in mice. DEX was less potent, however, in SW1990 cells with poor GR expression. Our findings suggest that DEX effectively inhibits pancreatic tumor growth partially through GR activation. The potential correlation between GR expression and anti-cancer efficacy of DEX may have some clinical implications.

Dexamethasone Inhibits Spheroid Formation of Thyroid Cancer Cells Exposed to Simulated Microgravity

Detachment and the formation of spheroids under microgravity conditions can be observed with various types of intrinsically adherent human cells. In particular, for cancer cells this process mimics metastasis and may provide insights into cancer biology and progression that can be used to identify new drug/target combinations for future therapies. By using the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone (DEX), we were able to suppress spheroid formation in a culture of follicular thyroid cancer (FTC)-133 cells that were exposed to altered gravity conditions on a random positioning machine. DEX inhibited the growth of three-dimensional cell aggregates in a dose-dependent manner. In the first approach, we analyzed the expression of several factors that are known to be involved in key processes of cancer progression such as autocrine signaling, proliferation, epithelial–mesenchymal transition, and anoikis. Wnt/β-catenin signaling and expression patterns of important genes in cancer cell growth and survival, which were further suggested to play a role in three-dimensional aggregation, such as NFKB2, VEGFA, CTGF, CAV1, BCL2(L1), or SNAI1, were clearly affected by DEX. Our data suggest the presence of a more complex regulation network of tumor spheroid formation involving additional signal pathways or individual key players that are also influenced by DEX.

Preclinical PK/PD model for the combinatorial use of dexamethasone and sulpiride in the treatment of breast cancer

Previous studies show that dopamine D₂-like receptor (D2DR) antagonist sulpiride (SUL) enhances the antitumor efficacy of dexamethasone (DEX) in drug-resistant breast cancer involving cancer stem-like cells (CSCs). In this study, we investigated the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of SUL in nude mice and developed a semi-mechanism PK/PD model to quantitatively characterize the synergistic effect of DEX and SUL in preclinical breast cancer xenografts. After nude mice received oral administration of a single dose of SUL (50 mg/kg, ig), plasma concentrations were assessed using LC-MS/MS. A two-compartment model with double first-order absorption rate was developed to describe the PK profiles of SUL. The pharmacodynamic (PD) study was conducted in nude mice bearing human breast cancer MCF-7/Adr xenografts, which received oral administration of DEX (1, 8 mg·kg⁻¹·d⁻¹) or SUL (25, 50 mg·kg⁻¹·d⁻¹) alone or in various combination. Tumor volumes were measured every other day. The PK model of SUL as well as that of DEX with a time-dependent clearance were integrated into the final PK/PD model both using Hill’s function, where DEX exerted its antitumor efficacy by inhibiting the proliferation of tumor cells, and SUL enhanced DEX responses by decreasing the sensitivity parameter EC₅₀. The PK/PD model was evaluated and subjected external validation. Finally, simulations were performed to predict the antitumor efficacy of DEX combined with SUL under various dose regimens, where changing dosing frequency of SUL had little effect, while the antitumor efficacy was predicted to be improved when DEX was given more frequently. The established PK/PD model in this study quantitatively characterizes the antitumor efficacy of the DEX combined with SUL as well as their synergism, and the simulations could provide reference for dose optimization of the combination in future studies.

Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Modeling of the Anti-Cancer Effect of Dexamethasone in Pancreatic Cancer Xenografts and Anticipation of Human Efficacious Doses

Dexamethasone (DEX), a synthetic glucocorticoid, exhibited anti-cancer efficacy in pancreatic xenografts derived from patient tumor tissue or cancer cell lines. The aim of this study was to establish pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) models to quantitatively characterize the inhibitory effect of DEX on tumor growth as well as its discrepancy among 3 xenograft models. Data of tumor growth profiles were collected from a patient-derived xenograft (PDX) model in NOD/SCID mice and 2 cell line-derived (PANC-1 and SW1990) xenograft models in BALB/c nude mice. Empirical PK/PD models were developed to establish mathematical relationships between plasma concentration of DEX and tumor growth dynamics after integrating PK parameters extracted from literature. Drug effect in each model was well described by a linear inhibitory function with a potency factor of 4.67, 3.14, and 2.35 L/mg for PDX, PANC-1, and SW1990 xenograft, respectively. Human efficacious doses of DEX were preliminarily predicted through model-based simulation, and 60% tumor growth inhibition at clinical exposure corresponded to a daily dose range of 26-52 mg intravenously. This modeling work quantified the preclinical anti-cancer effect of DEX and demonstrated the feasibility of its medication in pancreatic cancer, which would be conductive to future translational research.

A Localized Chimeric Hydrogel Therapy Combats Tumor Progression through Alteration of Sphingolipid Metabolism

Rapid proliferation of cancer cells assisted by endothelial cell-mediated angiogenesis and acquired inflammation at the tumor microenvironment (TME) lowers the success rate of chemotherapeutic regimens. Therefore, targeting these processes using localized delivery of a minimally toxic drug combination may be a promising strategy. Here, we present engineering of a biocompatible self-assembled lithocholic acid-dipeptide derived hydrogel (TRI-Gel) that can maintain sustained delivery of antiproliferating doxorubicin, antiangiogenic combretastatin-A4 and anti-inflammatory dexamethasone. Application of TRI-Gel therapy to a murine tumor model promotes enhanced apoptosis with a concurrent reduction in angiogenesis and inflammation, leading to effective abrogation of tumor proliferation and increased median survival with reduced drug resistance. In-depth RNA-sequencing analysis showed that TRI-Gel therapy induced transcriptome-wide alternative splicing of many genes responsible for oncogenic transformation including sphingolipid genes. We demonstrate that TRI-Gel therapy targets the reversal of a unique intron retention event in β-glucocerebrosidase 1 (Gba1), thereby increasing the availability of functional Gba1 protein. An enhanced Gba1 activity elevates ceramide levels responsible for apoptosis and decreases glucosylceramides to overcome drug resistance. Therefore, TRI-Gel therapy provides a unique system that affects the TME via post-transcriptional modulations of sphingolipid metabolic genes, thereby opening a new and rational approach to cancer therapy.

Sex steroid metabolism and actions in non-small cell lung carcinoma

Despite recent development in targeted therapies, lung cancer still remains the leading cause of cancer death. Therefore, a better understanding of its pathogenesis and progression could contribute to improving the eventual clinical outcome of the patients. Results of recently published several in vitro and clinical studies indicated the possible involvement of sex steroids in both development and progression of non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). Therefore we summarized the reported clinical relevant information of the sex steroids, their receptors and steroid metabolizing enzymes related to NSCLC in this mini-review. In addition, we also reviewed the potential "endocrine therapy", targeting sex steroid actions and/or metabolism in NSCLC patients.

Estrogen sulfotransferase in the metabolism of estrogenic drugs and in the pathogenesis of diseases

INTRODUCTION

Biotransformation is important in the metabolism of endobiotics and xenobiotics. This process comprises the activity of phase I and phase II enzymes. Estrogen sulfotransferase (SULT1E1 or EST) is a phase II conjugating enzyme that belongs to the family of cytosolic sulfotransferases. The expression of SULT1E1 can be detected in many tissues, including the liver. SULT1E1 catalyzes the transfer of a sulfate group from 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS) to any available hydroxyl group in estrogenic molecules. The substrates of SULT1E1 include the endogenous and synthetic estrogens. Upon SULT1E1-mediated sulfation, the hydrosolubility of estrogens increases, preventing the binding between the sulfated estrogens and the estrogen receptor (ER). This sulfated state of the estrogens is not irreversible, as the steroid sulfatase (STS) can convert sulfoconjugated estrogens to free estrogens. The expression of SULT1E1 is inducible by several diseases that involve tissue inflammation, such as type 2 diabetes, sepsis, and ischemia-reperfusion injury. Areas covered: This systematic literature review aims to summarize the role of SULT1E1 in the metabolism of estrogenic drugs and xenobiotics, and the role of SULT1E1 in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including cancer, metabolic disease, sepsis, liver injury, and cystic fibrosis. Meanwhile, ablation or pharmacological inhibition of SULT1E1 can affect the outcomes of the aforementioned diseases. Expert opinion: In addition to its role in metabolizing estrogenic drugs, SULT1E1 is unexpectedly being unveiled as a mediator for the disease effect on estrogen metabolism and homeostasis. Meanwhile, because the expression and activity of SULT1E1 can affect the outcome of diseases, the same sulfotransferase and the reversing enzymes STS can be potential therapeutic targets to prevent or manage diseases. Accumulating evidence suggest that the physiological and pathophysiological effects of SULT1E1 can be estrogen-independent and it is necessary to elucidate what other possible substrates may be recognized by the enzyme. Moreover, human studies are paramount to confirm the human relevance of the animal studies.

Tissue regeneration promotion effects of phenanthroimidazole derivatives through pro-inflammatory pathway activation

A chemotherapeutic drug exerts favorable antitumor activity and simultaneously exhibits expectable inhibition on wound healing process. Phenanthroimidazole derivatives possess potent anticancer activity. However, only a few studies focused on the discovery of its potential effects on promoting tissue regeneration. In this study, four novel phenanthroimidazole derivatives were synthesized and characterized, and they exhibited evident inhibition on different tumor cells; compound 3 is the most active one. Moreover, 3 can promote wound healing of zebrafish in a dose-dependent manner. Further study demonstrated that 3 promoted the recruitment of inflammatory cells, formation of angiogenesis, and generation of reactive oxygen species and also influenced the motor behavior of zebrafish. Results indicated that 3 can accelerate the occurrence of pro-inflammation, angiogenesis, oxidative stress, and innervation, which play key roles in the facilitation of wound healing. Therefore, 3 can act as a bifunctional drug in inhibiting tumor and promoting tissue regeneration.

Dexamethasone modified by gamma-irradiation as a novel anticancer drug in human non-small cell lung cancer

Dexamethasone (Dex) is widely used in the management of leukemia and lymphoma. While Dex is commonly used for hematological malignancies, the effects of Dex in solid cancer cells remain controversial. To develop a more effective anticancer drug for solid cancers, Dex was modified by ionizing radiation and the anticancer activity of ionizing-radiation-irradiated Dex (Dex-IR) was investigated in human lung cancer cells. Using the MTT assay, the proliferation of non-small cell lung cancer cells was significantly inhibited after treatment with Dex-IR compared with Dex. Furthermore, Dex-IR induced apoptotic cell death and cell cycle arrest of H1650 human lung cancer cells. The invasiveness of H1650 cells was significantly reduced and the matrix metalloproteinase activity was strongly suppressed. These results indicate that Dex-IR acts as a tumor suppressor by both inducing apoptosis and arresting the cell cycle. Although the structure of Dex-IR remains to be determined, our results suggest it may be useful as a novel anticancer agent for the treatment of solid cancers.

Time-dependent pharmacokinetics of dexamethasone and its efficacy in human breast cancer xenograft mice: a semi-mechanism-based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model

Dexamethasone (DEX) is the substrate of CYP3A. However, the activity of CYP3A could be induced by DEX when DEX was persistently administered, resulting in auto-induction and time-dependent pharmacokinetics (pharmacokinetics with time-dependent clearance) of DEX. In this study we investigated the pharmacokinetic profiles of DEX after single or multiple doses in human breast cancer xenograft nude mice and established a semi-mechanism-based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model for characterizing the time-dependent PK of DEX as well as its anti-cancer effect. The mice were orally given a single or multiple doses (8 mg/kg) of DEX, and the plasma concentrations of DEX were assessed using LC-MS/MS. Tumor volumes were recorded daily. Based on the experimental data, a two-compartment model with first order absorption and time-dependent clearance was established, and the time-dependence of clearance was modeled by a sigmoid E_max equation. Moreover, a semi-mechanism-based PK/PD model was developed, in which the auto-induction effect of DEX on its metabolizing enzyme CYP3A was integrated and drug potency was described using an E_max equation. The PK/PD model was further used to predict the drug efficacy when the auto-induction effect was or was not considered, which further revealed the necessity of adding the auto-induction effect into the final PK/PD model. This study established a semi-mechanism-based PK/PD model for characterizing the time-dependent pharmacokinetics of DEX and its anti-cancer effect in breast cancer xenograft mice. The model may serve as a reference for DEX dose adjustments or optimization in future preclinical or clinical studies.

Influence of estrogen in non-small cell lung cancer and its clinical implications

Lung cancer (LC) is the leading cause of cancer death in men worldwide and has significantly increased in women. Differences in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) behavior, prognosis, and response to treatment have been reported by sex and hormonal status, with premenopausal women presenting the worst prognosis compared to postmenopausal women and men. Additionally, the use of hormonal replacement therapy significantly increases NSCLC mortality; supporting the role of estrogen signaling in the pathogenesis of LC. The mechanisms by which estrogen promotes lung carcinogenesis have not been fully elucidated. Estrogen, through its receptor, can stimulate LC cell proliferation, death resistance, angiogenesis, migration and metastasis. Estrogen also induces expression of pro-inflammatory proteins and ligands that promote tumor evasion, suggesting that estrogen might modify the microenvironment and anti-tumor immune response. Recent reports have shown an interaction between the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway and estrogen signaling in lung adenocarcinoma, whence, combined treatment based on tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) and antiestrogen therapy is beginning to be evaluated. This review focuses on the differences in NSCLC behavior by sex and hormonal status, highlighting the role of estrogen and its receptors in lung carcinogenesis and LC prognosis. Due to the importance of estrogen in NSCLC development and progression we finally discuss the potential of antiestrogen therapy in LC treatment and show the results from preclinical and clinical trials.

Dopamine D2 receptor antagonist sulpiride enhances dexamethasone responses in the treatment of drug-resistant and metastatic breast cancer

Recent evidence shows that dopamine D2-like receptor (D2DR) antagonists, such as trifluoperazine and thioridazine, are effective for cancer therapy and inhibition of cancer stem-like cells (CSCs). In this study, we investigated the anti-cancer effects of combination therapy of dexamethasone (DEX) and sulpiride (SUL), an atypical antipsychotic, against drug-resistant and metastatic breast cancers and further explored the underlying mechanisms. Oral administration of SUL (25, 100 mg·kg^-1·d^-1) alone did not inhibit the tumor growth in human breast cancer MCF-7/Adr xenograft model, but dose-dependently decreased the proportion of CSCs in vitro and in vivo. In contrast, combination therapy of SUL (50 mg·kg^-1·d^-1) and DEX (8 mg·kg^-1·d^-1) markedly suppressed the tumor growth in MCF-7/Adr xenograft model with little systemic toxicity and lung metastasis in murine metastatic breast cancer 4T1 xenograft model. Among the metastasis-associated biomarkers analyzed, the combination therapy significantly decreased the levels of MMP-2, but increased E-cadherin levels in 4T1 xenograft tumors. Moreover, the combination therapy significantly inhibited the cell colony formation, migration and invasion of 4T1 and human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells in vitro. Addition of a specific D2DR agonist 7-OH-DPAT to the combination therapy reversed the enhanced anti-cancer effects in vivo and CSC population loss in tumor tissues. Our data demonstrate that SUL remarkably enhances the efficacy of DEX in the treatment of drug-resistant and metastatic breast cancer via the antagonism of D2DR, which might result from the eradication of CSCs.

Estrogen, Estrogen Receptor and Lung Cancer

Estrogen has been postulated as a contributor for lung cancer development and progression. We reviewed the current knowledge about the expression and prognostic implications of the estrogen receptors (ER) in lung cancer, the effect and signaling pathway of estrogen on lung cancer, the hormone replacement therapy and lung cancer risk and survival, the mechanistic relationship between the ER and the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and the relevant clinical trials combining the ER antagonist and the EGFR antagonist, to investigate the role of estrogen in lung cancer. Estrogen and its receptor have the potential to become a prognosticator and a therapeutic target in lung cancer. On the other hand, tobacco smoking aggravates the effect of estrogen and endocrine disruptive chemicals from the environment targeting ER may well contribute to the lung carcinogenesis. They have gradually become important issues in the course of preventive medicine.

Implications of sulfotransferase activity in interindividual variability in drug response: clinical perspective on current knowledge

The interindividual variability in drug response is a major issue in clinical practice and in drug development. Sulfoconjugation is an important Phase II reaction catalyzed by cytosolic sulfotransferases (SULTs), playing a major role in homeostatic functions, xenobiotic detoxification, and carcinogen bioactivation. SULT display wide interindividual variability, explained only partially by genetic variation, suggesting that other non-genetic, epigenetic, and environmental influences could be major determinants of variability in SULT activity. This review focuses on the factors known to influence SULT variability in expression and activity and the available evidence regarding the impact of SULT variability on drug response.

Exploring estrogenic activity in lung cancer

It is well known that a connection between xenobiotics inhalation, especially tobacco combustion and Lung Cancer development is strongly significant and indisputable. However, recent studies provide evidence indicating that another factors such as, estrogens are also involved in lung carcinoma biology and metabolism. Although the status of estrogen receptors (ER), in both cancerous and healthy lung tissue has been well documented, there is still inconclusive data with respect of which isoform of the receptor is present in the lungs. However according to several studies, ERβ appears to be predominant form. Apart from ERs, estrogens can work through a recently discovered G-coupled estrogen receptor. Binding with both types of the receptors causes a signal, which leads to i.e. enhanced cell proliferation. There are many published reports which suggest that estrogen can be synthesized in situ in lung cancer. Some disturbances in the activity and expression levels of enzymes involved in estrogen synthesis were proved. This suggests that increased amounts of sex-steroid hormones can affect cells biology and be the reason of the accelerated development and pathogenesis of lung cancer. There also exist phenomena which associate estrogenic metabolism and tobacco combustion and its carcinogenic influence on the lungs. Compounds present in cigarette smoke induce the activity of CYP1B1, the enzyme responsible for estrogenic metabolism and synthesis of their cateholic derivatives. These structures during their redox cycle are able to release reactive oxygen species or form DNA adduct, which generally leads to destruction of genetic material. This process may explain the synergistic effect of smoking and estrogens on estrogen-dependent lung cancer development.

Effects of chronic exposure to triclosan on reproductive and thyroid endpoints in the adult Wistar female rat

Triclosan (TCS), an antibacterial, has been shown to be an endocrine disruptor in the rat. Previously, subchronic TCS treatment to female rats was found to advance puberty and potentiate the effect of ethinyl estradiol (EE) on uterine growth when EE and TCS were co-administered prior to weaning. In the pubertal study, a decrease in serum thyroxine (T₄) concentrations with no significant change in serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) was also observed. The purpose of the present study was to further characterize the influence of TCS on the reproductive and thyroid axes of the female rat using a chronic exposure regimen. Female Wistar rats were exposed by oral gavage to vehicle control, EE (1 μg/kg), or TCS (2.35, 4.69, 9.375 or 37.5 mg/kg) for 8 months and estrous cyclicity monitored. Although a divergent pattern of reproductive senescence appeared to emerge from 5 to 11 months of age between controls and EE-treated females, no significant difference in cyclicity was noted between TCS-treated and control females. A higher % control females displayed persistent diestrus (PD) by the end of the study, whereas animals administered with positive control (EE) were predominately persistent estrus (PE). Thyroxine concentration was significantly decreased in TCS-administered 9.375 and 37.5 mg/kg groups, with no marked effects on TSH levels, thyroid tissue weight, or histology. Results demonstrate that a long-term exposure to TCS did not significantly alter estrous cyclicity or timing of reproductive senescence in females but suppressed T₄ levels at a lower dose than previously observed.