1
|
Koseki A, Araya N, Yamagishi M, Yamauchi J, Yagishita N, Takao N, Takahashi K, Kunitomo Y, Honma D, Araki K, Uchimaru K, Sato T, Yamano Y. EZH1/2 dual inhibitors suppress HTLV-1-infected cell proliferation and hyperimmune response in HTLV-1-associated myelopathy. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1175762. [PMID: 37378292 PMCID: PMC10291084 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1175762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) causes HTLV-1-associated myelopathy (HAM), adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL), HTLV-1-associated uveitis, and pulmonary diseases. Although both HAM and ATL show proliferation of infected cells, their pathogeneses are quite different. In particular, the pathogenesis of HAM is characterized by hyperimmune responses to HTLV-1-infected cells. Recently, we demonstrated the overexpression of histone methyltransferase EZH2 in ATL cells and the cytotoxic effects of EZH2 inhibitors and EZH1/2 dual inhibitors on these cells. However, these phenomena have never been studied in HAM. Furthermore, what effect these agents have on the hyperimmune response seen in HAM is completely unknown. Methods In this study, we investigated histone methyltransferase expression levels in infected cell populations (CD4+ and CD4+CCR4+ cells) from patients with HAM using microarray and RT-qPCR analyses. Next, using an assay system that utilizes the spontaneous proliferation characteristic of peripheral blood mononuclear cells derived from patients with HAM (HAM-PBMCs), we investigated the effects of EZH2 selective inhibitors (GSK126 and tazemetostat) and EZH1/2 dual inhibitors (OR-S1 and valemetostat, also known as DS-3201), particularly on cell proliferation rate, cytokine production, and HTLV-1 proviral load. We also examined the effect of EZH1/2 inhibitors on the proliferation of HTLV-1-infected cell lines (HCT-4 and HCT-5) derived from patients with HAM. Results We found elevated expression of EZH2 in CD4+ and CD4+CCR4+ cells from patients with HAM. EZH2 selective inhibitors and EZH1/2 inhibitors significantly inhibited spontaneous proliferation of HAM-PBMC in a concentration-dependent manner. The effect was greater with EZH1/2 inhibitors. EZH1/2 inhibitors also reduced the frequencies of Ki67+ CD4+ T cells and Ki67+ CD8+ T cells. Furthermore, they reduced HTLV-1 proviral loads and increased IL-10 levels in culture supernatants but did not alter IFN-γ and TNF-α levels. These agents also caused a concentration-dependent inhibition of the proliferation of HTLV-1-infected cell lines derived from patients with HAM and increased annexin-V(+)7-aminoactinomycin D(-) early apoptotic cells. Conclusion This study showed that EZH1/2 inhibitors suppress HTLV-1-infected cell proliferation through apoptosis and the hyperimmune response in HAM. This indicates that EZH1/2 inhibitors may be effective in treating HAM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akihito Koseki
- Department of Neurology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
- Department of Neurology, Yaizu City Hospital, Yaizu, Japan
| | - Natsumi Araya
- Department of Rare Diseases Research, Institute of Medical Science, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Makoto Yamagishi
- Laboratory of Tumor Cell Biology, Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Junji Yamauchi
- Department of Rare Diseases Research, Institute of Medical Science, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Naoko Yagishita
- Department of Rare Diseases Research, Institute of Medical Science, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Naoki Takao
- Department of Neurology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Katsunori Takahashi
- Department of Rare Diseases Research, Institute of Medical Science, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Yasuo Kunitomo
- Department of Rare Diseases Research, Institute of Medical Science, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Daisuke Honma
- Oncology Research Laboratories, Daiichi Sankyo, Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazushi Araki
- Early Clinical Development Department, Daiichi Sankyo, Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kaoru Uchimaru
- Laboratory of Tumor Cell Biology, Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoo Sato
- Department of Neurology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
- Department of Rare Diseases Research, Institute of Medical Science, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Yoshihisa Yamano
- Department of Neurology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
- Department of Rare Diseases Research, Institute of Medical Science, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Melo GA, Calôba C, Brum G, Passos TO, Martinez GJ, Pereira RM. Epigenetic regulation of T cells by Polycomb group proteins. J Leukoc Biol 2022; 111:1253-1267. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2ri0122-039r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme A. Melo
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Departamento de Imunologia Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil
| | - Carolina Calôba
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Departamento de Imunologia Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil
| | - Gabrielle Brum
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Departamento de Imunologia Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil
| | - Thaís O. Passos
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Departamento de Imunologia Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil
| | - Gustavo J. Martinez
- Center for Cancer Cell Biology, Immunology and Infection, Discipline of Microbiology and Immunology Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science Chicago Illinois USA
| | - Renata M. Pereira
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Departamento de Imunologia Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
He L, Lomberk G. Collateral Victim or Rescue Worker?-The Role of Histone Methyltransferases in DNA Damage Repair and Their Targeting for Therapeutic Opportunities in Cancer. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:735107. [PMID: 34869318 PMCID: PMC8636273 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.735107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Disrupted DNA damage signaling greatly threatens cell integrity and plays significant roles in cancer. With recent advances in understanding the human genome and gene regulation in the context of DNA damage, chromatin biology, specifically biology of histone post-translational modifications (PTMs), has emerged as a popular field of study with great promise for cancer therapeutics. Here, we discuss how key histone methylation pathways contribute to DNA damage repair and impact tumorigenesis within this context, as well as the potential for their targeting as part of therapeutic strategies in cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lishu He
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States,Division of Research, Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States,Genomic Sciences and Precision Medicine Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Gwen Lomberk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States,Division of Research, Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States,Genomic Sciences and Precision Medicine Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States,LaBahn Pancreatic Cancer Program, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States,*Correspondence: Gwen Lomberk,
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Activation of DNA damage response signaling in mammalian cells by ionizing radiation. Free Radic Res 2021; 55:581-594. [PMID: 33455476 DOI: 10.1080/10715762.2021.1876853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cellular responses to DNA damage are fundamental to preserve genomic integrity during various endogenous and exogenous stresses. Following radiation therapy and chemotherapy, this DNA damage response (DDR) also determines development of carcinogenesis and therapeutic outcome. In humans, DNA damage activates a robust network of signal transduction cascades, driven primarily through phosphorylation events. These responses primarily involve two key non-redundant signal transducing proteins of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-like (PIKK) family - ATR and ATM, and their downstream kinases (hChk1 and hChk2). They further phosphorylate effectors proteins such as p53, Cdc25A and Cdc25C which function either to activate the DNA damage checkpoints and cell death mechanisms, or DNA repair pathways. Identification of molecular pathways that determine signaling after DNA damage and trigger DNA repair in response to differing types of DNA lesions allows for a far better understanding of the consequences of radiation and chemotherapy on normal and tumor cells. Here we highlight the network of DNA damage response pathways that are activated after treatment with different types of radiation. Further, we discuss regulation of cell cycle checkpoint and DNA repair processes in the context of DDR in response to radiation.
Collapse
|
5
|
Wang Y, Wang Q, Wang B, Gu Y, Yu H, Yang W, Ren X, Qian F, Zhao X, Xiao Y, Zhang Y, Jin M, Zhu M. Inhibition of EZH2 ameliorates bacteria-induced liver injury by repressing RUNX1 in dendritic cells. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:1024. [PMID: 33262329 PMCID: PMC7708645 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-03219-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Fulminant hepatic failure (FHF) is a clinical syndrome characterized by a sudden and severe impairment in liver function. However, the precise mechanism of immune dysregulation that is significant to FHF pathogenesis remains unclear. Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) has been implicated in inflammation as a regulator of immune cell function. In this study, we investigated the role of EZH2 in an animal model of human FHF induced by Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We demonstrated that EZH2 depletion in dendritic cells (DCs) and pharmacological inhibition of EZH2 using GSK126 both significantly ameliorated liver injury and improved the survival rates of mice with P. acnes plus LPS-induced FHF, which could be attributed to the decreased infiltration and activation of CD4+ T cells in the liver, inhibition of T helper 1 cells and induction of regulatory T cells. The expression of EZH2 in DCs was increased after P. acnes administration, and EZH2 deficiency in DCs suppressed DC maturation and prevented DCs from efficiently stimulating CD4+ T-cell proliferation. Further mechanistic analyses indicated that EZH2 deficiency directly increased the expression of the transcription factor RUNX1 and thereby suppressed the immune functions of DCs. The functional dependence of EZH2 on RUNX1 was further illustrated in DC-specific Ezh2-deficient mice. Taken together, our findings establish that EZH2 exhibits anti-inflammatory effects through inhibition of RUNX1 to regulate DC functions and that inhibition of EZH2 alleviates P. acnes plus LPS-induced FHF, probably by inhibiting DC-induced adaptive immune responses. These results highlight the effect of EZH2 on DCs, serving as a guide for the development of a promising immunotherapeutic strategy for FHF.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiwei Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Bei Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuting Gu
- Department of Stomatology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongshuang Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wanlin Yang
- Institutes for Translational Medicine, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xiaohui Ren
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Fengtao Qian
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaonan Zhao
- Institutes for Translational Medicine, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yichuan Xiao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanyun Zhang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China. .,CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China. .,Institutes for Translational Medicine, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.
| | - Min Jin
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China. .,Department of Stomatology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Meiling Zhu
- Department of Oncology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Stairiker CJ, Thomas GD, Salek-Ardakani S. EZH2 as a Regulator of CD8+ T Cell Fate and Function. Front Immunol 2020; 11:593203. [PMID: 33117406 PMCID: PMC7574680 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.593203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Enhancer of zeste 2 (EZH2) is the catalytic subunit of the Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) that mediates di- and trimethylation of histone 3 lysine 27 effectively precluding successful gene transcription at these loci. This class of epigenetic modifications facilitates the maintenance of tissue-specific cellular transcriptional programs as cells undergoing successive rounds of proliferation. CD8+ T cells are effective mediators of adaptive immunity and function to eliminate virus- and bacteria-infected cells as well as tumor cells. Upon recognition of cognate antigen, T cells undergo activation/proliferation to clear the target cells. The heterogeneous population of responding T cells formed during these proliferative events thus rely on epigenetic modifications to ensure identity and confer functional capabilities. In this review, we will focus on the role of the dynamic expression EZH2 in shaping the epigenetic landscape of CD8+ T cell fate and function, with a particular emphasis on infection and cancer. We also explore competing hypotheses pertaining to EZH2 function and the prospects of clinical EZH2 inhibitors in fine-tuning T cell responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Stairiker
- Cancer Immunology Discovery, Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Pfizer Inc., San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Graham D Thomas
- Cancer Immunology Discovery, Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Pfizer Inc., San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Shahram Salek-Ardakani
- Cancer Immunology Discovery, Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Pfizer Inc., San Diego, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Li B, Chng WJ. EZH2 abnormalities in lymphoid malignancies: underlying mechanisms and therapeutic implications. J Hematol Oncol 2019; 12:118. [PMID: 31752930 PMCID: PMC6868783 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-019-0814-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
EZH2 is the catalytic subunit of the polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), which along with other PRC2 components mediates gene expression suppression via the methylation of Histone H3 at lysine 27. Recent studies have revealed a dichotomous role of EZH2 in physiology and in the pathogenesis of cancer. While it plays an essential role in the development of the lymphoid system, its deregulation, whether due to genetic or non-genetic causes, promotes B cell- and T cell-related lymphoma or leukemia. These findings triggered a boom in the development of therapeutic EZH2 inhibitors in recent years. Here, we discuss physiologic and pathogenic function of EZH2 in lymphoid context, various internal causes of EZH2 aberrance and how EZH2 modulates lymphomagenesis through epigenetic silencing, post-translational modifications (PTMs), orchestrating with surrounding tumor micro-environment and associating with RNA or viral partners. We also summarize different strategies to directly inhibit PRC2-EZH2 or to intervene EZH2 upstream signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Boheng Li
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wee-Joo Chng
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore. .,Department of Haematology-Oncology, National University Cancer Institute of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore. .,Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Xue L, Yan H, Chen Y, Zhang Q, Xie X, Ding X, Wang X, Qian Z, Xiao F, Song Z, Wu Y, Peng Y, Xu H. EZH2 upregulation by ERα induces proliferation and migration of papillary thyroid carcinoma. BMC Cancer 2019; 19:1094. [PMID: 31718595 PMCID: PMC6852908 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-019-6306-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The incidence of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) has been increasing worldwide in recent years. Therefore, novel potential therapeutic targets for PTC are urgently needed. Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2), a methyltransferase belonging to PRC2, plays important roles in epigenetic silencing and cell cycle regulation. EZH2 overexpression has been found in several malignant tumor tissues, while its expression and function in PTC are largely unknown. METHODS Sixty-five cases of PTC tissue confirmed by pathology and 30 cases of normal thyroid tissue adjacent to PTC tissue were collected from patients undergoing surgical treatment, between February 2003 and February 2006. We investigated the clinic pathologic significance of EZH2 expression using Realtime-PCR and IHC in 65 human PTC tissues and 30 normal thyroid tissue samples. The EZH2 expression in human PTC cell lines (K1 and W3) and the normal thyroid follicular epithelial cell line Nthy-ori 3-1 was analyzed by Western blotting and Realtime PCR. The expressions of ERα and ERβ in cell lines were analyzed by Realtime PCR.The tumor cell biological behavior was evaluated by CCK8 assay, colony formation assay, transwell migration assay and xenograft tumors model. RESULTS Higher rate of EZH2 expression was found in PTC tissues than in normal thyroid tissues, EZH2 expression is associated with lymph node metastasis and recurrent. Inhibition of EZH2 in PTC cell lines downregulates cellular proliferation and migration. PTC is a disease with high incidence of female and E2-ERα upregulates EZH2 expression. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest a potential role of EZH2 for the PTC growth and metastasis. As a novel therapy, a pharmacological therapy targeting EZH2 has full potential in treatment of PTC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liqiong Xue
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai General Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Oncology, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongzhu Yan
- Department of Pathology, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai General Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qifa Zhang
- Department of Urology, Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Traditional Chinese Medicine-Integrated hospital, Shanghai university of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Xie
- Department of Urology, Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Traditional Chinese Medicine-Integrated hospital, Shanghai university of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoying Ding
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai General Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaojing Wang
- Anhui Clinical and Preclinical Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Zhongqing Qian
- Anhui Clinical and Preclinical Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Feng Xiao
- Department of Pathology, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhiyi Song
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai General Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yijie Wu
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai General Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yongde Peng
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai General Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Huanbai Xu
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai General Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dylgjeri E, McNair C, Goodwin JF, Raymon HK, McCue PA, Shafi AA, Leiby BE, de Leeuw R, Kothari V, McCann JJ, Mandigo AC, Chand SN, Schiewer MJ, Brand LJ, Vasilevskaya I, Gordon N, Laufer TS, Gomella LG, Lallas CD, Trabulsi EJ, Feng FY, Filvaroff EH, Hege K, Rathkopf D, Knudsen KE. Pleiotropic Impact of DNA-PK in Cancer and Implications for Therapeutic Strategies. Clin Cancer Res 2019; 25:5623-5637. [PMID: 31266833 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-18-2207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (DNA-PK) is a pleiotropic kinase involved in DNA repair and transcriptional regulation. DNA-PK is deregulated in selected cancer types and is strongly associated with poor outcome. The underlying mechanisms by which DNA-PK promotes aggressive tumor phenotypes are not well understood. Here, unbiased molecular investigation in clinically relevant tumor models reveals novel functions of DNA-PK in cancer.Experimental Design: DNA-PK function was modulated using both genetic and pharmacologic methods in a series of in vitro models, in vivo xenografts, and patient-derived explants (PDE), and the impact on the downstream signaling and cellular cancer phenotypes was discerned. Data obtained were used to develop novel strategies for combinatorial targeting of DNA-PK and hormone signaling pathways. RESULTS Key findings reveal that (i) DNA-PK regulates tumor cell proliferation; (ii) pharmacologic targeting of DNA-PK suppresses tumor growth both in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo; (iii) DNA-PK transcriptionally regulates the known DNA-PK-mediated functions as well as novel cancer-related pathways that promote tumor growth; (iv) dual targeting of DNA-PK/TOR kinase (TORK) transcriptionally upregulates androgen signaling, which can be mitigated using the androgen receptor (AR) antagonist enzalutamide; (v) cotargeting AR and DNA-PK/TORK leads to the expansion of antitumor effects, uncovering the modulation of novel, highly relevant protumorigenic cancer pathways; and (viii) cotargeting DNA-PK/TORK and AR has cooperative growth inhibitory effects in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS These findings uncovered novel DNA-PK transcriptional regulatory functions and led to the development of a combinatorial therapeutic strategy for patients with advanced prostate cancer, currently being tested in the clinical setting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Dylgjeri
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Christopher McNair
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Jonathan F Goodwin
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Peter A McCue
- Department of Urology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Ayesha A Shafi
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Benjamin E Leiby
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Renée de Leeuw
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Vishal Kothari
- Department of Urology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Jennifer J McCann
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Amy C Mandigo
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Saswati N Chand
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Matthew J Schiewer
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Lucas J Brand
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Irina Vasilevskaya
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Nicolas Gordon
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Talya S Laufer
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Leonard G Gomella
- Department of Urology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Costas D Lallas
- Department of Urology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Edouard J Trabulsi
- Department of Urology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Felix Y Feng
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California.,Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | | | | | - Dana Rathkopf
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Karen E Knudsen
- Department of Cancer Biology at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. .,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Department of Urology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Departments of Medical Oncology and Radiation Oncology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Zhou C, Wang Y, Zhang J, Su J, An Q, Liu X, Zhang M, Wang Y, Liu J, Zhang Y. H3K27me3 is an epigenetic barrier while KDM6A overexpression improves nuclear reprogramming efficiency. FASEB J 2019; 33:4638-4652. [PMID: 30673507 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201801887r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Aberrant epigenetic reprogramming is a major factor of developmental failure of cloned embryos. Histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3), a histone mark for transcriptional repression, plays important roles in mammalian embryonic development and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) generation. The global loss of H3K27me3 marks may facilitate iPSC generation in mice and humans. However, the H3K27me3 level and its role in bovine somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) reprogramming remain poorly understood. Here, we show that SCNT embryos exhibit global H3K27me3 hypermethylation from the 2- to 8-cell stage and that its removal by ectopically expressed H3K27me3 lysine demethylase (KDM)6A greatly improves nuclear reprogramming efficiency. In contrast, H3K27me3 reduction by H3K27me3 methylase enhancer of zeste 2 polycomb repressive complex knockdown or donor cell treatment with the enhancer of zeste 2 polycomb repressive complex-selective inhibitor GSK343 suppressed blastocyst formation by SCNT embryos. KDM6A overexpression enhanced the transcription of genes involved in cell adhesion and cellular metabolism and X-linked genes. Furthermore, we identified methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 3-like 2, which was reactivated by KDM6A, as a factor that is required for effective reprogramming in bovines. These results show that H3K27me3 functions as an epigenetic barrier and that KDM6A overexpression improves SCNT efficiency by facilitating transcriptional reprogramming.-Zhou, C., Wang, Y., Zhang, J., Su, J., An, Q., Liu, X., Zhang, M., Wang, Y., Liu, J., Zhang, Y. H3K27me3 is an epigenetic barrier while KDM6A overexpression improves nuclear reprogramming efficiency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Yizhi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Jingcheng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Jianmin Su
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Quanli An
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Xin Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Min Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Yongsheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Jun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
The Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 Basic Leucine Zipper Factor Attenuates Repair of Double-Stranded DNA Breaks via Nonhomologous End Joining. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.00672-18. [PMID: 29769340 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00672-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) is a fatal malignancy of CD4+ T cells infected with human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1). ATL cells often exhibit random gross chromosomal rearrangements that are associated with the induction and improper repair of double-stranded DNA breaks (DSBs). The viral oncoprotein Tax has been reported to impair DSB repair but has not been shown to be consistently expressed throughout all phases of infection. The viral oncoprotein HTLV-1 basic leucine zipper (bZIP) factor (HBZ) is consistently expressed prior to and throughout disease progression, but it is unclear whether it also influences DSB repair. We report that HBZ attenuates DSB repair by nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ), in a manner dependent upon the bZIP domain. HBZ was found to interact with two vital members of the NHEJ core machinery, Ku70 and Ku80, and to be recruited to DSBs in a bZIP-dependent manner in vitro We observed that HBZ expression also resulted in a bZIP-dependent delay in DNA protein kinase (DNA-PK) activation following treatment with etoposide. Although Tax is reported to interact with Ku70, we did not find Tax expression to interfere with HBZ:Ku complex formation. However, as Tax was reported to saturate NHEJ, we found that this effect masked the attenuation of NHEJ by HBZ. Overall, these data suggest that DSB repair mechanisms are impaired not only by Tax but also by HBZ and show that HBZ expression may significantly contribute to the accumulation of chromosomal abnormalities during HTLV-1-mediated oncogenesis.IMPORTANCE Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infects 15 million to 20 million people worldwide. Approximately 90% of infected individuals are asymptomatic and may remain undiagnosed, increasing the risk that they will unknowingly transmit the virus. About 5% of the HTLV-1-positive population develop adult T-cell leukemia (ATL), a fatal disease that is not highly responsive to treatment. Although ATL development remains poorly understood, two viral proteins, Tax and HBZ, have been implicated in driving disease progression by manipulating host cell signaling and transcriptional pathways. Unlike Tax, HBZ expression is consistently observed in all infected individuals, making it important to elucidate the specific role of HBZ in disease progression. Here, we present evidence that HBZ could promote the accumulation of double-stranded DNA breaks (DSBs) through the attenuation of the nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) repair pathway. This effect may lead to genome instability, ultimately contributing to the development of ATL.
Collapse
|
12
|
George VC, Ansari SA, Chelakkot VS, Chelakkot AL, Chelakkot C, Menon V, Ramadan W, Ethiraj KR, El-Awady R, Mantso T, Mitsiogianni M, Panagiotidis MI, Dellaire G, Vasantha Rupasinghe HP. DNA-dependent protein kinase: Epigenetic alterations and the role in genomic stability of cancer. MUTATION RESEARCH-REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2018; 780:92-105. [PMID: 31395353 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), a member of phosphatidylinositol-kinase family, is a key protein in mammalian DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair that helps to maintain genomic integrity. DNA-PK also plays a central role in immune cell development and protects telomerase during cellular aging. Epigenetic deregulation due to endogenous and exogenous factors may affect the normal function of DNA-PK, which in turn could impair DNA repair and contribute to genomic instability. Recent studies implicate a role for epigenetics in the regulation of DNA-PK expression in normal and cancer cells, which may impact cancer progression and metastasis as well as provide opportunities for treatment and use of DNA-PK as a novel cancer biomarker. In addition, several small molecules and biological agents have been recently identified that can inhibit DNA-PK function or expression, and thus hold promise for cancer treatments. This review discusses the impact of epigenetic alterations and the expression of DNA-PK in relation to the DNA repair mechanisms with a focus on its differential levels in normal and cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vazhappilly Cijo George
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Truro, NS, Canada; Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Shabbir Ahmed Ansari
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States
| | - Vipin Shankar Chelakkot
- Division of BioMedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
| | | | - Chaithanya Chelakkot
- Division of Integrative Biosciences and Biotechnology, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, Republic of Korea
| | - Varsha Menon
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Wafaa Ramadan
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Raafat El-Awady
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Cancer Biology Department, National Cancer Institute and College of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Theodora Mantso
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Truro, NS, Canada; Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Melina Mitsiogianni
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Truro, NS, Canada; Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Mihalis I Panagiotidis
- Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Graham Dellaire
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - H P Vasantha Rupasinghe
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Truro, NS, Canada; Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Caruso LB, Martin KA, Lauretti E, Hulse M, Siciliano M, Lupey-Green LN, Abraham A, Skorski T, Tempera I. Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerase 1, PARP1, modifies EZH2 and inhibits EZH2 histone methyltransferase activity after DNA damage. Oncotarget 2018; 9:10585-10605. [PMID: 29535829 PMCID: PMC5828221 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.24291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The enzyme Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) plays a very important role in the DNA damage response, but its role in numerous aspects is not fully understood. We recently showed that in the absence of DNA damage, PARP1 regulates the expression of the chromatin-modifying enzyme EZH2. Work from other groups has shown that EZH2 participates in the DNA damage response. These combined data suggest that EZH2 could be a target of PARP1 in both untreated and genotoxic agent-treated conditions. In this work we tested the hypothesis that, in response to DNA damage, PARP1 regulates EZH2 activity. Here we report that PARP1 regulates EZH2 activity after DNA damage. In particular, we find that EZH2 is a direct target of PARP1 upon induction of alkylating and UV-induced DNA damage in cells and in vitro. PARylation of EZH2 inhibits EZH2 histone methyltransferase (H3K27me) enzymatic activity. We observed in cells that the induction of PARP1 activity by DNA alkylating agents decreases the association of EZH2 with chromatin, and PARylation of histone H3 reduces EZH2 affinity for its target histone H3. Our findings establish that PARP1 and PARylation are important regulators of EZH2 function and link EZH2-mediated heterochromatin formation, DNA damage and PARylation. These findings may also have clinical implications, as they suggest that inhibitors of EZH2 can improve anti-tumor effects of PARP1 inhibitors in BRCA1/2-deficient cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa B. Caruso
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research & Molecular Biology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kayla A. Martin
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research & Molecular Biology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Present address: The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Elisabetta Lauretti
- Department of Pharmacology, Center for Translational Medicine, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Michael Hulse
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research & Molecular Biology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Micheal Siciliano
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Lena N. Lupey-Green
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research & Molecular Biology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Present address: Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Aaron Abraham
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research & Molecular Biology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Tomasz Skorski
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research & Molecular Biology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Italo Tempera
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research & Molecular Biology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Raschellà G, Melino G, Malewicz M. New factors in mammalian DNA repair-the chromatin connection. Oncogene 2017; 36:4673-4681. [PMID: 28394347 PMCID: PMC5562846 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2017.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In response to DNA damage mammalian cells activate a complex network of stress response pathways collectively termed DNA damage response (DDR). DDR involves a temporary arrest of the cell cycle to allow for the repair of the damage. DDR also attenuates gene expression by silencing global transcription and translation. Main function of DDR is, however, to prevent the fixation of debilitating changes to DNA by activation of various DNA repair pathways. Proper execution of DDR requires careful coordination between these interdependent cellular responses. Deregulation of some aspects of DDR orchestration is potentially pathological and could lead to various undesired outcomes such as DNA translocations, cellular transformation or acute cell death. It is thus critical to understand the regulation of DDR in cells especially in the light of a strong linkage between the DDR impairment and the occurrence of common human diseases such as cancer. In this review we focus on recent advances in understanding of mammalian DNA repair regulation and a on the function of PAXX/c9orf142 and ZNF281 proteins that recently had been discovered to play a role in that process. We focus on regulation of double-strand DNA break (DSB) repair via the non-homologous end joining pathway, as unrepaired DSBs are the primary cause of pathological cellular states after DNA damage. Interestingly these new factors operate at the level of chromatin, which reinforces a notion of a central role of chromatin structure in the regulation of cellular DDR regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Raschellà
- ENEA Research Center Casaccia, Laboratory of Biosafety and Risk Assessment, Rome, Italy
| | - G Melino
- Department of Experimental Medicine &Surgery, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,MRC Toxicology Unit, Hodgkin Building, Leicester, UK
| | - M Malewicz
- MRC Toxicology Unit, Hodgkin Building, Leicester, UK
| |
Collapse
|