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Suarez FL, Yepes SM, Escobar A. Assessment of the electromagnetic field exposure due to wireless communication technologies in two university campuses of medellin, Colombia. Heliyon 2023; 9:e20323. [PMID: 37809888 PMCID: PMC10560042 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) is considered an area of significant importance in the medical and scientific community. However, the availability of exposure data for indoor and outdoor locations in universities is limited and currently inconsiderate in Latin America. The aim of this work was to evaluate the electric field levels due to mobile telecommunication technologies and Wi-Fi to which students and faculty staff from two campuses of a higher education institution are exposed. Using a portable spectrum analyzer, we carried out 516 short-term measurements in the 800-3000 MHz frequency range at both indoor and outdoor locations. These locations were chosen to cover all areas of the assessed buildings. The electric field differences between floors and buildings are discussed. Finally, we compared the electric field levels with exposure limits. The highest electric field level measured was 13.97 V/m at the 850 MHz band. However, the average electric field values were below 2 V/m. The greatest contribution to the total electric field was due to sources using the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands (98%), while the contribution of the Wi-Fi network was low (1.0%). The results show that all the electric field levels measured were lower than the ICNIRP reference levels for radio-frequency exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio L. Suarez
- Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Faculty of Engineering, Instituto Tecnologico Metropolitano ITM, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Sara M. Yepes
- Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Faculty of Engineering, Instituto Tecnologico Metropolitano ITM, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Adolfo Escobar
- Advanced Materials and Energy Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, Instituto Tecnologico Metropolitano ITM, Medellin, Colombia
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Escobar I, Vandenbosch GAE, Vargas F, Caceres-Monllor DA, Arribas E. Measurement studies of personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A systematic review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 218:114979. [PMID: 36460078 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The last 25 years have seen an increase in the number of radiofrequency sources with the global adoption of smartphones as primary connectivity devices. The objective of this work was to review and evaluate the measured studies of personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-RMF) and meet the basic quality criteria eligible for inclusion in this Review, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, following the eligibility criteria of the PECO (Population, Exposure, Comparator, and Outcome) methodology, and the instrument for critical reading Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Español (CASPe). We systematically reviewed the works published between January 1, 1998, and December 31, 2021, yielding 56 publications. Of the different types of studies in which personal exposure to RF-EMF has been measured with two measurement methodologies can be highlighted: Personal measurements with volunteers and Personal measurements with a trained researcher (touring a specific area, one or several microenvironments, an entire city, walking or in some means of transport). Personal exposimeters were used in 83% of the studies. The lowest mean was measured in Egypt with a value of 0.00100 μW/m2 (1.00 nW/m2) in 2007 and the highest mean was measured in Belgium with a value of 285000 μW/m2 (0.285 W/m2) in 2019. The results of our study confirm that RF-EMF exposure levels are well below the maximum levels established by the ICNIRP guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Isabel Escobar
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Guy A E Vandenbosch
- ESAT-WaveCoRE, Dep. of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, Box 2444, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | | | - Enrique Arribas
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain.
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Comments on "Wi-Fi technology and human health impact: a brief review of current knowledge" published in the June 2022 issue of Archives. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2022; 73:241-243. [PMID: 36226820 PMCID: PMC9837531 DOI: 10.2478/aiht-2022-73-3671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
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Wi-Fi technology and human health impact: a brief review of current knowledge. ARHIV ZA HIGIJENU RADA I TOKSIKOLOGIJU 2022; 73:94-106. [PMID: 35792772 PMCID: PMC9287836 DOI: 10.2478/aiht-2022-73-3402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
An enormous increase in the application of wireless communication in recent decades has intensified research into consequent increase in human exposure to electromagnetic (EM) radiofrequency (RF) radiation fields and potential health effects, especially in school children and teenagers, and this paper gives a snap overview of current findings and recommendations of international expert bodies, with the emphasis on exposure from Wi-Fi technology indoor devices. Our analysis includes over 100 in vitro, animal, epidemiological, and exposure assessment studies (of which 37 in vivo and 30 covering Wi-Fi technologies). Only a small portion of published research papers refers to the “real” health impact of Wi-Fi technologies on children, because they are simply not available. Results from animal studies are rarely fully transferable to humans. As highly controlled laboratory exposure experiments do not reflect real physical interaction between RF radiation fields with biological tissue, dosimetry methods, protocols, and instrumentation need constant improvement. Several studies repeatedly confirmed thermal effect of RF field interaction with human tissue, but non-thermal effects remain dubious and unconfirmed.
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Instruments to measure environmental and personal radiofrequency-electromagnetic field exposures: an update. Phys Eng Sci Med 2022; 45:687-704. [PMID: 35737222 PMCID: PMC9448713 DOI: 10.1007/s13246-022-01146-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Modern human populations are exposed to anthropogenic sources of radiofrequency-electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs), primarily to telecommunication and broadcasting technologies. As a result, ongoing concerns from some members of the public have arisen regarding potential health effects following RF-EMF exposures. In order to monitor human RF-EMF exposures and investigate potential health effects, an objective assessment of RF-EMF exposures is necessary. Accurate dosimetry is essential for any investigation of potential associations between RF-EMF exposure and health effects in human populations. This review updates state-of-the-art knowledge of currently available RF-EMF exposure assessment tools applicable in human epidemiological studies. These tools cater for assessing RF-EMF exposures in human environments; through mobile phone-based tools or other standalone tools. RF-EMF exposure assessment has been significantly improved through the application of some of these tools in recent years.
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Assessment of Radiofrequency Exposure in the Vicinity of School Environments in Crete Island, South Greece. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12094701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to estimate the radiofrequency exposure levels in the vicinity of nursery and primary schools at the northwest part of Crete island in Greece. Moreover, the compliance with the exposure limits, according to Greek legislation, was investigated. A total of 396 in situ frequency-selective and broadband measurements were conducted around 69 schools, classified in urban and suburban environments, in the range of 27–3000 MHz (subdivided in seven frequency bands). The measured value of the electric field strength (V/m) was recorded and, subsequently, the exposure ratio was calculated. Statistical analysis was performed in order to analyze and evaluate the data. In addition, a worst-case scenario was examined by considering the highest measured exposure level around each school. The statistical tests indicated that the mean and median values of the exposure ratio, even in the worst-case scenario, were found well below 1 for all frequency bands. The calculated distributions of the electric field measurements demonstrated that almost 90% of the latter were below 1 V/m, with the majority of values lying in the range of 0.5–1 V/m. The main contributors to the total exposure were the mobile communication frequencies and broadcasting, while the exposure was greater in urban than in suburban environments.
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Escobar I, Vargas F, Arribas E. Comment on: What is the radiation before 5G? A correlation study between measurements in situ and in real time and epidemiological indicators in Vallecas, Madrid, by I. López, N. Félix, M. Rivera, A. Alonso, and C. Maestú. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 207:112138. [PMID: 34653414 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
We have read the article recently published by Lopez et al., 2020 (Lopez et al., 2021). This study aimed to find a possible relationship, if any, between exposure to RF-EMF with some health indicators such as sleep, headache, and fatigue collected through surveys, using maximum electromagnetic radiation peak-to-peak measurements. And after a detailed analysis of the study, we want to make some comments on said publication to clarify some aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Ramirez-Vazquez
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Albacete, Spain.
| | - I Escobar
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Albacete, Spain
| | - F Vargas
- Ministry of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - E Arribas
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Albacete, Spain
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Boussad Y, Chen XL, Legout A, Chaintreau A, Dabbous W. Longitudinal study of exposure to radio frequencies at population scale. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 162:107144. [PMID: 35339930 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Evaluating exposure to radio frequencies (RF) at population-scale is important for conducting sound epidemiological studies about possible health impact of RF radiations. Numerous studies reported population exposure to RF radiations used in wireless telecommunication technologies, but used very small population samples. In this context, the real exposure of the population at scale remains poorly understood. Here, to the best of our knowledge, we report the largest crowd-based measurement of population exposure to RF produced by cellular antennas, Wi-Fi access points, and Bluetooth devices for 254,410 unique users in 13 countries from January 2017 to December 2020. First, we present methods to assess the population exposure to RF radiations using smartphone measurements obtained using the ElectroSmart Android app. Then, we use these methods to evaluate and characterize the evolution of RF exposure. We show that total exposure has been multiplied by 2.3 in the four-year period considered, with Wi-Fi as the largest contributor. The cellular exposure levels are orders of magnitude lower than regulation limits and are not correlated to national regulation policies. The population tends to be more exposed at home; for half of the study subjects, personal Wi-Fi routers and Bluetooth devices contributed to more than 50% of their total exposure. In this work, we showcase how crowdsource-based data allow large-scale and long-term assessment of population exposure to RF radiations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanis Boussad
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inria. Sophia Antipolis, 06902, France
| | | | - Arnaud Legout
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inria. Sophia Antipolis, 06902, France.
| | | | - Walid Dabbous
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inria. Sophia Antipolis, 06902, France
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9
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Zeleke BM, Brzozek C, Bhatt CR, Abramson MJ, Freudenstein F, Croft RJ, Wiedemann P, Benke G. Wi-fi related radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF): a pilot experimental study of personal exposure and risk perception. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCE & ENGINEERING 2021; 19:671-680. [PMID: 34150266 PMCID: PMC8172712 DOI: 10.1007/s40201-021-00636-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The impact of providing people with an objectively measured personal radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) exposure information on the risk perception of people is not well understood. We conducted an experimental study, among three groups of participants, to investigate the risk perception of people towards RF-EMF from Wi-Fi sources (ISM 2.4 GHz) by providing participants with either basic text, precautionary information, or a summary of their personal RF-EMF exposure measurement levels. Participants provided with personal RF-EMF exposure measurement information were more confident in protecting themselves from RF-EMF exposure, compared to those provided with only basic information. Nonetheless, neither the exposure perception nor the risk perception of people to Wi-Fi related RF-EMF differed by the type of information provided. The measured Wi-Fi signal levels were far below international exposure limits. Furthermore, self-rated levels of personal RF-EMF exposure perception were not associated with objectively measured RF-EMF exposure levels. Providing people with objectively measured information may help them build confidence in protecting themselves from Wi-Fi related RF-EMF exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berihun M. Zeleke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
| | - Christopher Brzozek
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
| | - Chhavi R. Bhatt
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
- Assessment and Advice Section, Radiation Health Services Branch, Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, 619 Lower Plenty Road, Yallambie, 3085 Australia
| | - Michael J. Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
| | - Frederik Freudenstein
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia
- Department of Risk Communication, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Rodney J. Croft
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Peter Wiedemann
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
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Acharya SR, Shin YC, Moon DH, Pahari S. Electromagnetic Field Exposure in Kindergarten Children: Responsive Health Risk Concern. Front Pediatr 2021; 9:694407. [PMID: 34291019 PMCID: PMC8288246 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2021.694407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term exposure to physical agents can be detrimental to children due to their vulnerability. This study aimed to assess and compare the electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure level around the kindergartens from the underground transmission line (UGTL). We investigated randomly selected 24 kindergartens based on the location of the UGTL. The EMF emission levels were measured using an EMDEX II (Electric and Magnetic Digital Exposure Meter). The maximum mean value of the EMF emission level was 13.5 mG around the kindergartens and 17.7 mG from the point of UGTL to kindergartens. EMF emission level around the kindergartens was significantly associated with the location of the UGTL (t = -7.35, P < 0.001). These estimates are not trivial, as long-term exposure to EMF among kindergarten children can lead to different health problems. Routine monitoring of EMF emission levels is recommended including the awareness of EMF exposure to public citizens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiva Raj Acharya
- Graduate School of Public Health, Busan Medical Campus, Inje University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Yong Chul Shin
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Inje University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Deog Hwan Moon
- Graduate School of Public Health, Busan Medical Campus, Inje University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Sandip Pahari
- Department of Public Health, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal
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Keshmiri S, Gholampour N, Mohtashami V. ASSESSING THE COMPLIANCE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS RADIATED BY BASE STATIONS AND WIFI ACCESS POINTS WITH INTERNATIONAL GUIDELINES ON UNIVERSITY CAMPUS. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2020; 192:1-13. [PMID: 33230555 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncaa183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a series of electromagnetic field measurements performed on the campus of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in order to assess the compliance of radiation levels of cellular base stations and WiFi access points with international guidelines. A calibrated, broadband and isotropic probe is used and recommendations of International Telecommunication Union (ITU) are followed up throughout measurements. More than 300 outdoor and indoor locations have been systematically chosen for measurements. The recorded data are post-processed and compared with the guideline of International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Measured power densities of WiFi access points are low and do not exceed 1% of the level allowed by ICNIRP. For cellular base stations, measured power density is usually low outdoors, but reaches up to 16% of the allowed radiation level in publicly accessible indoor locations. Comprehensive exposure assessment, as recommended by ITU, has been performed to estimate the maximum possible radiation of one indoor base station. It is concluded that precautionary actions have to be taken by university authorities to limit the presence of students in close proximity to specific indoor antennas. Moreover, comprehensive exposure assessment is more likely necessary for indoor base stations whereas such assessment is not usually required outdoors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajedeh Keshmiri
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Razavi Khorasan Province, 9177948944 Mashhad, Iran
| | - Neda Gholampour
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Razavi Khorasan Province, 9177948944 Mashhad, Iran
| | - Vahid Mohtashami
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Razavi Khorasan Province, 9177948944 Mashhad, Iran
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Pritchard C, Silk A, Hansen L. Are rises in Electro-Magnetic Field in the human environment, interacting with multiple environmental pollutions, the tripping point for increases in neurological deaths in the Western World? Med Hypotheses 2019; 127:76-83. [PMID: 31088653 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2019.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Whilst humans evolved in the earth's Electro-Magnetic-Field (EMF) and sun-light, both being essential to life but too much sun and we burn. What happens if background EMF rise to critical levels, coinciding with increasing environmental pollutants? Two of the authors can look back over 50 clinical years and appreciate the profound changes in human morbidity across a range of disparate conditions - autoimmune diseases, asthma, earlier cancer incidence and reduced male sperm counts. In particular have been increased autism, dyslexia, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and neurological diseases, such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson's Disease, Early Onset Dementia, Multiple System Atrophy and Progressive Supranuclear Palsy. What might have caused these changes-whilst genetic factors are taken as given, multiple environmental pollutants are associated with neurological disease although the mechanisms are unclear. The pace of increased neurological deaths far exceeds any Gompertzian explanation - that because people are living longer they are more likely to develop more age-related problems such as neurological disease. Using WHO global mortality categories of Neurological Disease Deaths (NDD) and Alzheimer's and Dementia deaths (Alz), updated June 2018, together they constitute Total Neurological Mortality (TNM), to calculate mortality rates per million for people aged 55-74 and for the over-75's in twenty-one Western countries. Recent increases in American people aged over-75's rose 49% from 1989 to 2015 but US neurological deaths increased five-fold. In 1989 based on Age-Standardised-Deaths-Rates America USA was 17th at 324 pm but rising to 539 pm became second highest. Different environmental/occupational factors have been found to be associated with neuro-degenerative diseases, including background EMF. We briefly explore how levels of EMF interact upon the human body, which can be described as a natural antennae and provide new evidence that builds upon earlier research to propose the following hypothesis. Based upon recent and new evidence we hypothesise that a major contribution for the relative sudden upsurge in neurological morbidity in the Western world (1989-2015), is because of increased background EMF that has become the tipping point-impacting upon any genetic predisposition, increasing multiple-interactive pollutants, such as rises in petro-chemicals, hormone disrupting chemicals, industrial, agricultural and domestic chemicals. The unprecedented neurological death rates, all within just twenty-five years, demand a re-examination of long-term EMF safety related to the increasing background EMF on human health. We do not wish to 'stop the modern world', only make it safer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin Pritchard
- Faculty of Health & Social Sciences, Bournemouth University, United Kingdom.
| | - Anne Silk
- Faculty of Health & Social Sciences, Bournemouth University, United Kingdom
| | - Lars Hansen
- Southern Health, Dept of Psychiatry, University of Southampton, United Kingdom
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Chiaramello E, Bonato M, Fiocchi S, Tognola G, Parazzini M, Ravazzani P, Wiart J. Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields Exposure Assessment in Indoor Environments: A Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E955. [PMID: 30884917 PMCID: PMC6466609 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16060955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) in indoor environments depends on both outdoor sources such as radio, television and mobile phone antennas and indoor sources, such as mobile phones and wireless communications applications. Establishing the levels of exposure could be challenging due to differences in the approaches used in different studies. The goal of this study is to present an overview of the last ten years research efforts about RF EMF exposure in indoor environments, considering different RF-EMF sources found to cause exposure in indoor environments, different indoor environments and different approaches used to assess the exposure. The highest maximum mean levels of the exposure considering the whole RF-EMF frequency band was found in offices (1.14 V/m) and in public transports (0.97 V/m), while the lowest levels of exposure were observed in homes and apartments, with mean values in the range 0.13⁻0.43 V/m. The contribution of different RF-EMF sources to the total level of exposure was found to show slightly different patterns among the indoor environments, but this finding has to be considered as a time-dependent picture of the continuous evolving exposure to RF-EMF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Chiaramello
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Marta Bonato
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
- Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria DEIB, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Serena Fiocchi
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Gabriella Tognola
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Marta Parazzini
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Paolo Ravazzani
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Joe Wiart
- Télécom ParisTech, LTCI University Paris Saclay, Chair C2M, 75013 Paris, France.
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Zeleke BM, Brzozek C, Bhatt CR, Abramson MJ, Croft RJ, Freudenstein F, Wiedemann P, Benke G. Personal Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields among Australian Adults. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15102234. [PMID: 30321997 PMCID: PMC6211035 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15102234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The measurement of personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) is important for epidemiological studies. RF-EMF exposure can be measured using personal exposimeters that register RF-EMFs over a wide range of frequency bands. This study aimed to measure and describe personal RF-EMF exposure levels from a wide range of frequency bands. Measurements were recorded from 63 participants over an average of 27.4 (±4.5) hours. RF-EMF exposure levels were computed for each frequency band, as well as from downlink (RF from mobile phone base station), uplink (RF from mobile phone handsets), broadcast, and Wi-Fi. Participants had a mean (±SD) age of 36.9 ± 12.5 years; 66.7% were women; and almost all (98.2%) from urban areas. A Wi-Fi router at home was reported by 61 participants (96.8%), with 38 (61.2%) having a Wi-Fi enabled smart TV. Overall, 26 (41.3%) participants had noticed the existence of a mobile phone base station in their neighborhood. On average, participants estimated the distance between the base station and their usual residence to be about 500 m. The median personal RF-EMF exposure was 208 mV/m. Downlink contributed 40.4% of the total RF-EMF exposure, followed by broadcast (22.4%), uplink (17.3%), and Wi-Fi (15.9%). RF-EMF exposure levels on weekdays were higher than weekends (p < 0.05). Downlink and broadcast are the main contributors to total RF-EMF personal exposure. Personal RF-EMF exposure levels vary according to day of the week and time of day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berihun M Zeleke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Christopher Brzozek
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Monash University Endocrine Surgery Unit, Alfred Hospital, 55 Commercial Rd, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Monash Emergency Service, Monash Health, Dandenong Hospital, 135 David Street, Melbourne, VIC 3175, Australia.
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Rodney J Croft
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Frederik Freudenstein
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Peter Wiedemann
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
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15
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Choi J, Hwang JH, Lim H, Joo H, Yang HS, Lee YH, Eeftens M, Struchen B, Röösli M, Lee AK, Choi HD, Kwon JH, Ha M. Assessment of radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure from personal measurements considering the body shadowing effect in Korean children and parents. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 627:1544-1551. [PMID: 30857115 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We aimed to assess the personal radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure levels of children and adults through their activities, with consideration to the body shadowing effect. We recruited 50 child-adult pairs, living in Seoul, Cheonan, and Ulsan, South Korea. RF-EMF measurements were performed between September and December 2016, using a portable exposure meter tailored to capture 14 Korean radiofrequency (RF) bands ranging from 87.5 to 5875MHz. The participants carried the device for 48h and kept a time-activity diary using a smartphone application in flight mode. To enhance accuracy of the exposure assessment, the body shadowing effect was compensated during the statistical analysis with the measured RF-EMF exposure. The compensation was conducted using the hybrid model that represents the decrease of the exposure level due to the body shadowing effect. A generalized linear mixed model was used to compare the RF-EMF exposure levels by subjects and activities. The arithmetic (geometric) means of the total power density were 174.9 (36.6) μW/m2 for all participants, 226.9 (44.6) for fathers, 245.4 (44.8) for mothers, and 116.2 (30.1) for children. By compensating for the body shadowing effect, the total RF-EMF exposure increased marginally, approximately 1.4 times. Each frequency band contribution to total RF-EMF exposure consisted of 76.7%, 2.4%, 9.9%, 5.0%, 3.3%, and 2.6% for downlink, uplink, WiFi, FM Radio, TV, and WiBro bands, respectively. Among the three regions, total RF-EMF exposure was highest in Seoul, and among the activities, it was highest in the metro, followed by foot/bicycle, bus/car, and outside. The contribution of base-station exposure to total RF-EMF exposure was the highest both in parents and children. Total and base-station RF-EMF exposure levels in Korea were higher than those reported in European countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonghyuk Choi
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Hwan Hwang
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyungrul Lim
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunjoo Joo
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Sun Yang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Han Lee
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ae-Kyoung Lee
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung-Do Choi
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Hwa Kwon
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Mina Ha
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea.
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16
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Hedendahl LK, Carlberg M, Koppel T, Hardell L. Measurements of Radiofrequency Radiation with a Body-Borne Exposimeter in Swedish Schools with Wi-Fi. Front Public Health 2017; 5:279. [PMID: 29214149 PMCID: PMC5703119 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2017.00279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 09/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Wireless access to the Internet is now commonly used in schools. Many schools give each student their own laptop and utilize the laptops and wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) connection for educational purposes. Most children also bring their own mobile phones to school. Since children are obliged by law to attend school, a safe environment is important. Lately, it has been discussed if radiofrequency (RF) radiation can have long-term adverse effects on children’s health. Method This study conducted exposimetric measurements in schools to assess RF emissions in the classroom by measuring the teachers’ RF exposure in order to approximate the children’s exposure. Teachers in grades 7–12 carried a body-borne exposimeter, EME-Spy 200, in school during 1–4 days of work. The exposimeter can measure 20 different frequency bands from 87 to 5,850 MHz. Results Eighteen teachers from seven schools participated. The mean exposure to RF radiation ranged from 1.1 to 66.1 µW/m2. The highest mean level, 396.6 µW/m2, occurred during 5 min of a lesson when the teacher let the students stream and watch YouTube videos. Maximum peaks went up to 82,857 µW/m2 from mobile phone uplink. Discussion Our measurements are in line with recent exposure studies in schools in other countries. The exposure levels varied between the different Wi-Fi systems, and if the students were allowed to use their own smartphones on the school’s Wi-Fi network or if they were connected to GSM/3G/4G base stations outside the school. An access point over the teacher’s head gave higher exposure compared with a school with a wired Internet connection for the teacher in the classroom. All values were far below International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection’s reference values, but most mean levels measured were above the precautionary target level of 3–6 µW/m2 as proposed by the Bioinitiative Report. The length of time wireless devices are used is an essential determinant in overall exposure. Measures to minimize children’s exposure to RF radiation in school would include preferring wired connections, allowing laptops, tablets and mobile phones only in flight mode and deactivating Wi-Fi access points, when not used for learning purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Carlberg
- Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University Hospital, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Tarmo Koppel
- Department of Work Environment and Safety, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Lennart Hardell
- Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University Hospital, Örebro, Sweden
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17
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Bhatt CR, Abramson MJ, Benke G. Wi-Fi radiation exposures to children in kindergartens and schools - results should lessen parental concerns. Aust N Z J Public Health 2017; 41:647-648. [PMID: 28749542 DOI: 10.1111/1753-6405.12706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Victoria
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Victoria
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Victoria
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