B-Cell Depletion Immunotherapy in Pemphigus: Effects on Cellular and Humoral Immune Responses

Impact of rituximab on IgG and IgM levels in patients with autoimmune bullous diseases: a cohort study

Rituximab (RTX) causes hypogammaglobulinemia in a variety of autoimmune diseases. However, the exact incidence and clinical significance in patients with autoimmune bullous diseases (AIBD) remain undetermined. In this cohort study, we enrolled patients with AIBD treated with RTX at a tertiary dermatology center between 2019 and 2021. Serum IgG and IgM levels, cumulative RTX dosage, and other factors were measured at baseline and during a follow-up visit. We used multivariate linear regression to assess the effect of RTX on immunoglobulin levels over time, adjusting for factors such as cumulative RTX dose, time since last infusion, and steroid use. Hypogammaglobulinemia was defined as IgG < 600 mg/dL and IgM < 40 mg/dL. Logistic regression was employed to evaluate adjusted risk factors for developing hypogammaglobulinemia. Age at first infusion was negatively correlated with both IgG (p < 0.0001) and IgM levels (p = 0.002). Total cumulative RTX dosage was negatively associated with IgM levels (p < 0.001). Daily steroid dosage was positively correlated with IgM levels (p = 0.023). Mycophenolate mofetil was associated with lower IgG levels (p = 0.029). Daily steroid dosage was found to be associated with a lower risk of hypo-IgM development (p = 0.0497). No serious infusion-related adverse effects or mortality were observed. There were four cases of infection with no association with cumulative RTX dosage (p = 0.299). Our study shows an association between RTX and lower serum IgM levels in patients with AIBD, highlighting the need to assess serum immunoglobulin levels before RTX therapy to optimize its use and minimize adverse effects.

Immune Repertoires in Various Dermatologic and Autoimmune Diseases

The immune repertoire (IR) is a term that defines the combined unique genetic rearrangements of antigen receptors expressed by B and T lymphocytes. The IR determines the ability of the immune system to identify and respond to foreign antigens while preserving tolerance to host antigens. When immune tolerance is disrupted, development of autoimmune diseases can occur due to the attack of self-antigens. Recent technical advances in immune profiling allowed identification of common patterns and shared antigen-binding sequences unique to diverse array of diseases. However, there is no current literature to date evaluates IR findings in autoimmune and skin inflammatory conditions. In this review, we provide an overview of the past and current research findings of IR in various autoimmune and dermatologic conditions. Enriching our understanding of IRs in these conditions is critical for understanding the pathophysiology behind autoimmune skin disease onset and progression. Furthermore, understanding B-cell and T-cell IR will help devise therapeutic treatments in the hopes of restoring immune tolerance and preventing disease onset and progression.

Pemphigus relapse: Mechanisms, risk factors, and agents associated with disease recurrence

Pemphigus represents a spectrum of potentially life-threatening autoimmune-mediated skin blistering conditions caused by antibody production against desmoglein 1 and 3 (anti-DSG 1 and 3) in keratinocytes. Greater than 50% of pemphigus patients experience relapse, which complicates long-term medical management, including risks associated with re-treatment and complications such as infection and dehydration. This review aims to elucidate mechanisms, risk factors, and medications associated with pemphigus relapse. Mechanisms of relapse include the persistence of auto-reactive B-cell populations post-treatment and CD20- B-cell populations that reactivate after B-cell depletion therapy. Risk factors for relapse include high body surface area (BSA) of pemphigus involvement, high body mass index, high severity according to the Pemphigus Disease Area Index (PDAI) at onset, treatment delay, and high anti-DSG1 and DSG3 titers post-treatment. Targeted B-cell localization is associated with better clinical outcomes, including less frequent relapses. Rituximab is currently the gold standard of treatment for moderate-severe pemphigus and has relapse rates of 11%-44% in selected studies, with a mean time to relapse of 5.8 months to 36 months following treatment. Relapse rates across lymphoma dosing (375 mg/m2) versus rheumatoid arthritis dosing (1 g dosing weekly) was inconsistent; however, more frequent dosing, earlier treatment, and higher cumulative dosing were associated with lower relapse rates. Alternative agents that have clinical efficacy include corticosteroid monotherapy, mycophenolate mofetil, azathioprine, and intravenous immunoglobulin. Future studies should include head-to-head comparators over long follow-up periods to identify the best treatment agents associated with the least relapse risk.

Mechanisms of Resistance to Rituximab Used for the Treatment of Autoimmune Blistering Diseases

Autoimmune blistering diseases represent a group of chronic severe, disabling, and potentially fatal disorders of the skin and/or mucous membranes, primarily mediated by pathogenic auto-antibodies. Despite their rarity, these diseases are associated with significant morbidity and mortality and profound negative impact on the patient's quality of life and impose a considerable economic burden. Rituximab, an anti-CD-20 monoclonal antibody, represents the first line of therapy for pemphigus, regardless of severity and a valuable off-label therapeutic alternative for subepidermal autoimmune blistering diseases as it ensures high rates of rapid, long-lasting complete remission. Nevertheless, disease recurrence is the rule, all patients requiring maintenance therapy with rituximab eventually. While innate resistance to rituximab in pemphigus patients is exceptional, acquired resistance is frequent and may develop even in patients with initial complete response to rituximab, representing a real challenge for physicians. We discuss the various resistance mechanisms and their complex interplay, as well as the numerous therapeutic alternatives that may be used to circumvent rituximab resistance. As no therapeutic measure is universally efficient, individualization of rituximab treatment regimen and tailored adjuvant therapies in refractory autoimmune blistering diseases are mandatory.

Understanding patient perspectives on vaccine decision making in adults with autoimmune bullous diseases: a qualitative study

Patients with autoimmune bullous diseases are at an increased risk of infection, both from the underlying skin disease and from immunosuppressive treatments. Limited information is available on vaccine beliefs and behaviors in dermatology patients and adults with autoimmune bullous diseases in particular. To understand vaccine decision making, identify perceived risks and benefits of vaccinations, and discuss individual experiences in patients with autoimmune bullous diseases in the United States. A qualitative study was performed utilizing semi-structured interviews, and analysis was conducted on NVivo. Patterns were identified in the coded data, and representative quotations were recorded for each major theme. Interviews were conducted between February 15, 2022 and September 15, 2022. Twenty patients with a diagnosis of bullous pemphigoid, mucous membrane pemphigoid, pemphigus vulgaris, or pemphigus foliaceous were interviewed. Of the 20 participants, 14 (70%) were female, with a mean (SD, range) age of 64.8 (13.2, 34-83) years. Key themes that emerged from qualitative analysis of the interviews included patient concerns regarding their increased susceptibility to infection, potential exacerbation of skin disease following vaccination, and the effect of immunosuppressive medications on humoral response to vaccines. Lack of appointment availability, difficulty accessing vaccines, and cost were commonly identified barriers to vaccination. These findings provide valuable knowledge for dermatologists in regard to providing counseling specific to patient concerns and to improve communication surrounding vaccination in the dermatology setting.

Sarcoid-Like Reaction in the Kidney Following Rituximab for Mantle Lymphoma in a 60-Year-Old Man

The sarcoid-like reaction is a rare autoinflammatory disease that can affect lymph nodes or organs but does not meet the diagnostic criteria for systemic sarcoidosis. Several drug classes have been associated with the development of a systemic sarcoid-like reaction, which defines drug-induced sarcoidosis-like reactions and can affect a single organ. Anti-CD20 antibodies (rituximab) have rarely been reported as responsible for this reaction and this adverse effect has mainly been described during the treatment of Hodgkin's lymphoma. We report a unique case of a sarcoid-like reaction complicating rituximab following the treatment of a mantle cell lymphoma and interesting only the kidney. The 60-year-old patient presented with severe acute renal failure 6 months after the end of his r-CHOP protocol and the urgent renal biopsy revealed acute interstitial nephritis rich in granulomas without caseous necrosis. After ruling out other causes of granulomatous nephritis, a sarcoid-like reaction was retained since infiltration was limited to the kidney. The temporal relationship between rituximab administration and the sarcoid-like reaction onset in our patient supported the diagnosis of a rituximab-induced sarcoidosis-like reaction. Oral corticosteroid treatment led to rapid and lasting improvement in renal function. Clinicians should be warned of this adverse effect and regular and prolonged monitoring of renal function should be recommended during the follow-up of patients after the end of treatment with rituximab.

Case report: Documentation of cutaneous only pemphigus vulgaris without history of mucosal lesions in North America

Background

Pemphigus is a group of autoimmune blistering diseases including Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) and Pemphigus foliaceus (PF). These conditions exhibit lesions with mucosal or mucocutaneous (PV) or cutaneous (PF) morphology, as framed by the Desmoglein Compensation Hypothesis (DCH). However, some PV patients present with solely cutaneous disease (cPV), and growing evidence suggests the existence of a cPV subtype without any history of mucosal erosions/blisters (cPVwohm), neither of which are predicted by the DCH.

Methods

Participants were recruited from several outpatient clinical settings and patient support group meetings throughout the US. On intake, subjects provided blood samples and completed questionnaires regarding their disease status.

Results

We report three cases of clinically and histologically confirmed cPV without history of mucosal lesions (cPVwohm). Of these patients, two do not carry the most common PV associated HLA alleles, DRB1*0402 or DQB1*0503. The same two patients also tested negative for the primary PV associated autoantibodies, anti-desmoglein 3 and anti-desmoglein 1, while in active disease status.

Conclusion

We confirm the first documented individual cases of cPVwohm in North America, supporting the existence of PV patients that develop cutaneous disease without a history of mucosal lesions, challenging the fidelity of the DCH. Two of the 3 patients reported did not type for the common PV-associated HLA genes or display anti-desmoglein autoantibodies while in active disease, suggesting cPV patients may develop Pemphigus via genetic and immune mechanisms that differ from typical mucosal or mucocutaneous PV.

FcRn Antagonism Leads to a Decrease of Desmoglein-Specific B Cells: Secondary Analysis of a Phase 2 Study of Efgartigimod in Pemphigus Vulgaris and Pemphigus Foliaceus

Background

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels are maintained by the IgG-recycling neonatal Fc-receptor (FcRn). Pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliaceus are debilitating autoimmune disorders triggered by IgG autoantibodies against mucosal and epidermal desmogleins. Recently, a phase 2 clinical trial (NCT03334058; https://clinicaltrials.gov/NCT03334058) was completed in participants with pemphigus using efgartigimod, an FcRn inhibitor, in combination with prednisone. Efgartigimod demonstrated an early effect on diease activity and was well tolerated. In addition to the safety and efficacy assessment, clinical trials present an opportunity to gain more insights into the mechanism of disease, the mode of action of treatment, and potential for corticosteroid-sparing activity.

Objective

The aim of our study was to assess the impact of FcRn antagonism by efgartigimod on immunological parameters known to be directly involved in pemphigus pathology, such as cellular and serological responses.

Methods

We investigated total and antigen-specific IgG subclass level kinetics during and after treatment, assessed antigen-specific B-cell responses, followed T- and B-cell immunophenotypes, and analyzed how different immunophenotypes link to clinical response.

Results

Treatment resulted in reduction of total IgG as well as autoreactive IgG antibody levels. Surprisingly, unlike total IgG and vaccine- or natural-infection-elicited IgG, which returned to baseline levels after stopping efgartigimod treatment, autoreactive antibody levels remained low in several study participants. Efgartigimod showed no effect on total leukocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, or lymphocytes in patients treated with extended efgartigimod therapy. Intriguingly, antigen-specific analyses revealed a loss of desmoglein-specific B cells in several participants responding to efgartigimod, in line with prolonged reduction of pathogenic IgG levels.

Conclusions

Efgartigimod treatment of participants with pemphigus improved their conditions and exerted an immunomodulatory effect beyond the blockade of IgG recycling. Further studies in larger populations with an appropriate placebo control are needed to confirm these potentially important observations to establish long-term clinical responses in autoimmune diseases.

Pemphigus and Pemphigoid: From Disease Mechanisms to Druggable Pathways

Pemphigus and pemphigoid are paradigms for understanding the mechanisms of antibody-mediated autoimmune disease in humans. In pemphigus, IgG4-predominant autoantibodies cause intraepidermal blistering by direct interference with desmoglein interactions and subsequent disruption of desmosomes and signaling pathways. In pemphigoid, IgG1, IgG4, and IgE autoantibodies against basement membrane zone antigens directly interfere with hemidesmosomal adhesion, activating complement and Fc receptor‒mediated effector pathways. Unraveling disease mechanisms in pemphigus and pemphigoid has identified numerous opportunities for clinical trials, which hold promise to identify safer and more effective therapies for these potentially life-threatening diseases.

Autoimmune Pemphigus: Latest Advances and Emerging Therapies

Pemphigus represents a group of rare and severe autoimmune intra-epidermal blistering diseases affecting the skin and mucous membranes. These painful and debilitating diseases are driven by the production of autoantibodies that are mainly directed against the desmosomal adhesion proteins, desmoglein 3 (Dsg3) and desmoglein 1 (Dsg1). The search to define underlying triggers for anti-Dsg-antibody production has revealed genetic, environmental, and possible vaccine-driven factors, but our knowledge of the processes underlying disease initiation and pathology remains incomplete. Recent studies point to an important role of T cells in supporting auto-antibody production; yet the involvement of the myeloid compartment remains unexplored. Clinical management of pemphigus is beginning to move away from broad-spectrum immunosuppression and towards B-cell-targeted therapies, which reduce many patients’ symptoms but can have significant side effects. Here, we review the latest developments in our understanding of the predisposing factors/conditions of pemphigus, the underlying pathogenic mechanisms, and new and emerging therapies to treat these devastating diseases.

Role of Rituximab in the Treatment of Pemphigus Vulgaris: Patient Selection and Acceptability

Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody rituximab is an approved adjuvant treatment, in combination with oral corticosteroids, for patients with pemphigus vulgaris, a severe and potentially life-threatening autoimmune blistering skin disorder. Updated approaches to the management of pemphigus vulgaris support rituximab as a first-line adjuvant treatment to induce remission early in the course of disease; however, its feasibility in the clinical setting is often reduced by a series of limitations, including high cost of this biological drug, physician and patient concern for the risk of adverse reactions, and uncertainty regarding the optimum dosing and schedule of administration. The standard approved rituximab dosages, which are derived from lymphoma protocols, have been recognized to exceed the effective dose required for inducing B cell depletion, since the B cell burden in pemphigus vulgaris is much lower than in lymphoproliferative disorders. To overcome these limitations, recent research has investigated alternative regimens of rituximab, using lower doses of the drug. Moreover, differences in patient and disease characteristics that are highlighted in the literature strongly suggest that therapy should be tailored individually on a case-by-case basis: personalized treatment schedules may be necessary to optimize response to treatment and tolerability in different subjects, with the possibility of repeated infusions for severe forms and in case of relapse. Finally, low-dose regimens of rituximab were suggested to be favorable during the COVID-19 pandemic by providing a lesser degree of immune cell depletion while retaining a sufficient response. In conclusion, the current literature suggests that lower-dose regimens of rituximab are not only tolerable and cost-effective but may also be associated with a positive response in pemphigus vulgaris, comparable to that achieved with higher doses especially in early disease. Further evidence from rigorous clinical trials will be required to optimize lower-dose regimens of RTX and establish their position within the treatment scenario of pemphigus vulgaris.

Comparison of rituximab and intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of autoimmune bullous diseases: Real-life data from a single centre

BACKGROUND/AIM

Rituximab (RTX) and intravenous human immunoglobulin (IVIG) have been shown to be effective in the treatment of autoimmune bullous diseases (ABD), mainly pemphigus vulgaris (PV). The present study aimed to assess the clinical response of patients with ABD, mainly PV to RTX, IVIG and combined regimen of both. Whether adding IVIG to RTX therapy affects the achievement of complete remission off therapy (CR off), reduces time to CR off, time to steroid cessation, and decreases relapse rate was also investigated.

METHODS

Data of 33 patients with ABD [PV (93.9%)], including clinical response to treatment, steroid cessation time, time to CR off and relapse, were recruited from medical charts.

RESULTS

CR off and relapse rate, mean time to CR off and relapse was 86.7% (n = 13) vs 60.0% (n = 6) and 53.3% (n = 8) vs 40% (n = 4), 12.77 ± 9.30 vs 11.25 ± 13.40 and 24.1 ± 16.7 vs 13.0 ± 3.6 months in RTX and combination group, respectively. Older age (P = .005), younger age at the time of diagnosis (P = .004), lesser disease duration to the initiation of RTX (P = .004), lesser BMI (P = .026) and female gender (P = .037) were associated factors with CR off.

CONCLUSION

Adding IVIG to RTX did not increase CR off rates; it also did not decrease time to CR off, time to steroid cessation, relapse rates and did not increase time to relapse. Patient and disease characteristics, including age, younger age at the time of diagnosis, lesser disease duration before RTX treatment, lesser BMI and female gender, are factors associated with CR off.

IgM Deficiency in Autoimmune Blistering Mucocutaneous Diseases Following Various Treatments: Long Term Follow-Up and Relevant Observations

IgM deficiency has been reported in patients with many autoimmune diseases treated with Rituximab (RTX). It has not been studied, in detail, in autoimmune mucocutaneous blistering diseases (AIMBD). Our objectives were: (i) Examine the dynamics of IgM levels in patients with and without RTX. (ii) Influence of reduced serum IgM levels on clinical and laboratory parameters. (iii) Explore the possible molecular and cellular basis for reduced serum IgM levels. This retrospective study that was conducted in a single-center from 2000 to 2020. Serial IgM levels were studied in 348 patients with five AIMBD (pemphigus vulgaris, pemphigus foliaceus, bullous pemphigoid, mucous membrane pemphigoid, and ocular cicatricial pemphigoid) and found decreased in 55 patients treated with RTX, IVIG, and conventional immunosuppressive therapy (CIST). Hence the incidence of decreased serum IgM is low. The incidence of decreased IgM in patients treated with RTX was 19.6%, in patients treated with IVIG and CIST, it was 52.8% amongst the 55 patients. IgM levels in the post-RTX group were statistically significantly different from the IVIG group (p<0.018) and CIST group (p<0.001). There were no statistically significant differences between the groups in other clinical and laboratory measures. Decreased serum IgM did not affect depletion or repopulation of CD19+ B cells. Patients in the three groups achieved clinical and serological remission, in spite of decreased IgM levels. Decrease in IgM was isolated, since IgG and IgA were normal throughout the study period. Decreased IgM persisted at the same level, while the patients were in clinical remission, for several years. In spite of persistent decreased IgM levels, the patients did not develop infections, tumors, other autoimmune diseases, or warrant hospitalization. Studies on IgM deficiency in knockout mice provided valuable insights. There is no universally accepted mechanism that defines decreased IgM levels in AIMBD. The data is complex, multifactorial, sometimes contradictory, and not well understood. Nonetheless, data in this study provides novel information that enhances our understanding of the biology of IgM in health and disease.

Successful Treatment of Catastrophic Antiphospholipid Syndrome Using Rituximab: Case Report and Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND

Kidney involvement is a frequent complication of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and kidney biopsy is essential in differentiating lupus nephritis (LN) from thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) secondary to antiphospholipid autoantibodies (aPL). Association between antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) and acquired hemophilia due to inhibitors was very rarely described in SLE patients.

CASE PRESENTATION

We present the case of a 61-year-old male diagnosed with SLE who acquired deficiency of clotting factor VIII due to circulating inhibitors, admitted for acute kidney injury (AKI), microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and diplopia. Kidney biopsy showed TMA due to APS, but no signs of LN. Head computed tomography identified low dense areas in the white matter, suggesting small blood vessels' involvement. A diagnosis of probable catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome (CAPS) was established and treatment with low molecular weight heparin, intravenous methylprednisolone, plasmapheresis, and rituximab was initiated, followed by resolution of AKI, diplopia, and TMA with complete depletion of CD19+B-lymphocytes (CD19+B-Ly) after one month. We further review the current knowledge regarding pathogenesis and management of CAPS in SLE patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeted therapy was possible after kidney biopsy, improving renal and general prognosis. CD19+B-Ly repopulation preceded biological relapse, so monitoring of CD19+B-Ly may serve as a tool to predict relapses and guide rituximab therapy.

Short- and Long-Lived Autoantibody-Secreting Cells in Autoimmune Neurological Disorders

As B cells differentiate into antibody-secreting cells (ASCs), short-lived plasmablasts (SLPBs) are produced by a primary extrafollicular response, followed by the generation of memory B cells and long-lived plasma cells (LLPCs) in germinal centers (GCs). Generation of IgG4 antibodies is T helper type 2 (Th2) and IL-4, -13, and -10-driven and can occur parallel to IgE, in response to chronic stimulation by allergens and helminths. Although IgG4 antibodies are non-crosslinking and have limited ability to mobilize complement and cellular cytotoxicity, when self-tolerance is lost, they can disrupt ligand-receptor binding and cause a wide range of autoimmune disorders including neurological autoimmunity. In myasthenia gravis with predominantly IgG4 autoantibodies against muscle-specific kinase (MuSK), it has been observed that one-time CD20⁺ B cell depletion with rituximab commonly leads to long-term remission and a marked reduction in autoantibody titer, pointing to a short-lived nature of autoantibody-secreting cells. This is also observed in other predominantly IgG4 autoantibody-mediated neurological disorders, such as chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy and autoimmune encephalitis with autoantibodies against the Ranvier paranode and juxtaparanode, respectively, and extends beyond neurological autoimmunity as well. Although IgG1 autoantibody-mediated neurological disorders can also respond well to rituximab induction therapy in combination with an autoantibody titer drop, remission tends to be less long-lasting and cases where titers are refractory tend to occur more often than in IgG4 autoimmunity. Moreover, presence of GC-like structures in the thymus of myasthenic patients with predominantly IgG1 autoantibodies against the acetylcholine receptor and in ovarian teratomas of autoimmune encephalitis patients with predominantly IgG1 autoantibodies against the N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate receptor (NMDAR) confers increased the ability to generate LLPCs. Here, we review available information on the short-and long-lived nature of ASCs in IgG1 and IgG4 autoantibody-mediated neurological disorders and highlight common mechanisms as well as differences, all of which can inform therapeutic strategies and personalized medical approaches.

Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) have an increased risk for severe COVID-19 disease and mortality. The goal of this study was to determine the efficacy of COVID-19 vaccine in patients with CLL. We evaluated humoral immune responses to the BNT162b2 messenger RNA (mRNA) COVID-19 vaccine in patients with CLL and compared responses with those obtained in age-matched healthy control subjects. Patients received 2 vaccine doses, 21 days apart, and antibody titers were measured by using the Elecsys Anti-SARS-CoV-2 S assay after administration of the second dose. In a total of 167 patients with CLL, the antibody response rate was 39.5%. A comparison between 52 patients with CLL and 52 sex- and aged-matched healthy control subjects revealed a significantly reduced response rate among patients (52% vs 100%, respectively; adjusted odds ratio, 0.010; 95% confidence interval, 0.001-0.162; P < .001). The response rate was highest in patients who obtained clinical remission after treatment (79.2%), followed by 55.2% in treatment-naive patients and 16.0% in patients under treatment at the time of vaccination. In patients treated with either Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitors or venetoclax ± anti-CD20 antibody, response rates were considerably low (16.0% and 13.6%). None of the patients exposed to anti-CD20 antibodies <12 months before vaccination responded. In a multivariate analysis, the independent predictors of response were younger age, female sex, lack of currently active treatment, immunoglobulin G levels ≥550 mg/dL, and immunoglobulin M levels ≥40 mg/dL. In conclusion, antibody-mediated response to the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine in patients with CLL is markedly impaired and affected by disease activity and treatment. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT04746092.

Long-term experience with rituximab therapy for treatment-resistant moderate-to-severe pemphigus

BACKGROUND

Rituximab appears to be effective for treating pemphigus, although there are limited long-term data.

METHODS

This retrospective single-center study evaluated patients with conventional treatment-resistant pemphigus who received rituximab during September 2010-December 2019. The first rituximab cycle was based on the rheumatoid arthritis protocol in all patients except one patient, and additional single doses (500 mg or 1000 mg) were administered after clinical and/or serological relapse. The consensus definitions were used for complete remission off therapy, complete remission on minimal therapy, and clinical relapse. Serological relapse was defined as a progressive ≥2-fold increase in anti-desmoglein titers (vs. previous the measurement).

RESULTS

The study included 52 patients with pemphigus vulgaris and 1 patient with pemphigus foliaceus. The mean number of infusions was 5 and the average follow-up after the first infusion was 56 months. The average time to clinical and/or serological relapse was 12 months. Complete remission was achieved in 84.9% of patients, including after the first rituximab cycle in 25 patients (47.1%). Two patients died during the follow-up period.

CONCLUSION

Additional rituximab cycles may help achieve and prolong remission in patients with moderate-to-severe pemphigus resistant to conventional therapies. However, prospective trials are needed to identify the optimal dosing protocol.

Factors Associated With Complete Remission After Rituximab Therapy for Pemphigus

Importance

Rituximab has emerged as a front-line therapy for pemphigus, but prognostic factors for achieving complete remission off therapy (CROT) with oral systemic agents remain unknown.

Objectives

To describe rates of CROT and relapse and identify prognostic factors for achieving CROT after rituximab therapy for pemphigus.

Design, Setting, and Participants

A single-center, retrospective, cohort study was conducted at the University of Pennsylvania including 112 patients with pemphigus treated with rituximab with at least 12 months' clinical follow-up after the start of rituximab therapy. Multivariate regression analysis of factors predictive of CROT and Kaplan-Meier analysis of disease relapse were conducted. The study included patients treated with rituximab from March 15, 2005, until December 19, 2016. Data analysis was performed from December 2017 to June 2018.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The primary study outcome was CROT after 1 cycle. Secondary study outcomes included rate of CROT or the composite end point of CROT or complete remission on minimal therapy after 1 or more cycle, and median time to relapse. Multivariate regression analysis for prognostic variables for CROT, including age, sex, pemphigus subtype, body mass index (BMI) (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared), disease duration, and dosing regimen, was performed.

Results

A total of 112 patients with pemphigus with median 37.8 months (range, 12.1-130.7) follow-up after rituximab therapy were identified. Of these, 65 were women (58.0%). At the time of first rituximab infusion, median age was 52.3 years (range, 20.0-89.3). Including patients who received multiple cycles of rituximab, 79 patients (70.5%) achieved CROT after a median time of 10.5 months (range, 2.0-49.8), and 36 of 72 patients (50.0%) subsequently experienced relapse after a median of 23.3 months (interquartile range, 10.8-50.4 months). Considering only the first cycle of rituximab, 54 patients (48.2%) achieved CROT. Controlling for age, sex, pemphigus subtype, BMI, and disease duration, patients who received lymphoma vs rheumatoid arthritis dosing were 2.70-fold more likely to achieve CROT (odds ratio [OR], 2.70; 95% CI, 1.03-7.12; P = .04). Increasing age was associated with significant increases in achieving CROT (Wald test for trend, P = .01), whereas BMI greater than or equal to 35 was associated with a 0.14 OR (95% CI, 0.03-0.63; P = .01) for achieving CROT, regardless of the dosing regimen. In multivariate analysis, there was no significant difference in CROT rates with sex (OR, 1.01; 95% CI, 0.42-2.50; P = .97), pemphigus subtype (OR, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.09-1.51; P = .17), or disease duration (OR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.98-1.00; P = .09).

Conclusions and Relevance

Lymphoma dosing and older age may be associated with CROT and BMI greater than or equal to 35 may be a negative prognostic factor for CROT after rituximab therapy for pemphigus. These findings help inform clinical expectations and merit evaluation in future prospective clinical trials.

The evolving role of rituximab in the treatment of pemphigus vulgaris: a comprehensive state-of-the-art review

INTRODUCTION

Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is a life-threatening autoimmune mucocutaneous blistering disease. Systemic corticosteroids (CS), while life-saving, have several serious side effects. To improve treatment and prognosis, recently rituximab (RTX), a chimeric monoclonal antibody against CD20 molecule on B cells, has become popular. This Expert Opinion discusses clinical and scientifically relevant aspects of RTX treating PV.

AREA COVERED

This presentation describes the mechanism of action, clinical efficacy, safety, adverse events, protocols used, and clinical outcomes. Concerns for infection, reactivation of latent or previous infections, and high relapse rate are discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

Use of RTX in PV is still a work in progress. There are many unanswered questions. FDA did not provide a protocol or guidelines. Whenever RTX is used, systemic corticosteroids are simultaneously used, albeit for a shorter duration and lower dose. Used in these doses for these durations they can cause immunosuppression. Would it be more appropriate if instead of 'First Line Therapy' it would be more advisable to use the term 'First Adjunctive Immunosuppressive Agent'?

Clinical and biological activity of rituximab in the treatment of pemphigus

B-cells are major effector cells in autoimmunity since they differentiate into plasmocytes that produce pathogenic auto-antibody such as anti-desmoglein antibodies in pemphigus patients. Major advances were obtained using whole B-cell depleting therapies including anti-CD20 antibodies in refractory pemphigus patients that lead to rituximab approval in pemphigus patients in EU and USA. This review summarizes the data supporting the efficacy of rituximab in pemphigus and provides an overview of the reported immunological changes underlying its therapeutic action. Short and long-term remission in pemphigus is explained by the removal of autoreactive B-cells involved in the production of pathogenic IgG auto-antibodies and by enhancement of the appearance of regulatory B-cells that could maintain long term immune tolerance.

Novel Therapies for Pemphigus Vulgaris

Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is a severe chronic autoimmune blistering disease that affects the skin and mucous membranes. It is characterized by suprabasal acantholysis due to disruption of desmosomal connections between keratinocytes. Autoantibodies against desmosomal cadherins, desmoglein 3 and 1, have been shown to induce disease. Certain human leukocyte antigen (HLA) types and non-HLA foci confer genetic susceptibility. Until the discovery of corticosteroids in the 1950s, PV was 75% fatal. Since then, multiple PV treatments, such as systemic corticosteroids and adjunctive therapy with immunosuppressive medications (mycophenolate mofetil, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine, methotrexate, gold, and others) have been introduced; however, none have led to long-term remissions and many have undesired adverse effects. Our growing understanding of the pathophysiologic mechanisms in PV is leading to development of new targeted therapies, such as intravenous immunoglobulin, anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies, inhibitors of Bruton tyrosine kinase and neonatal Fc receptors, and adoptive cellular transfer, that may result in lasting control of this life-threatening disease.

B-cell targeted therapies in pemphigus

Pemphigus is a rare autoimmune disease of the skin, characterized by autoantibodies targeting adhesion proteins of the epidermis, in particular desmoglein 3 and desmoglein 1, that cause the loss of cell-cell adhesion and the formation of intraepidermal blisters. Given that these autoantibodies are both necessary and sufficient for pemphigus to occur, the goal of pemphigus therapy is the elimination of autoreactive B-cells responsible for autoantibody production. Rituximab, an anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody, was the first targeted B-cell therapy approved for use in pemphigus and is now considered the frontline therapy for new onset disease. One limitation of this treatment is that it targets both autoreactive and non -autoreactive B-cells, which accounts for the increased risk of serious infections in treated patients. In addition, most rituximab-treated patients experience disease relapse, highlighting the need of new therapeutic options. This review provides a concise overview of rituximab use in pemphigus and discusses new B-cell and antibody-directed therapies undergoing investigation in clinical studies.

[Use of rituximab in maintenance treatment of pemphigus: A retrospective series]

INTRODUCTION

Rituximab (RTX), currently recommended as first-line treatment in moderate to severe pemphigus vulgaris (PV) and superficial pemphigus (PS) along with initial systemic steroids, may also be used as second-line or subsequent treatment, and this therapeutic strategy was investigated in a real-life monocentre retrospective survey.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All patients treated between January 2010 and March 2018 with RTX as second-line or subsequent treatment for moderate to severe PV or PS and followed for at least one year were included. The main objective was to evaluate rates and times of complete clinical remission (CCR) after a first course of RTX. The secondary objectives consisted mainly of treatment safety, and frequency and time to relapse after the initial CCR.

RESULTS

The 24 patients selected received on average 2 cycles of RTX (i.e. 24 initial cycles and 24 additional cycles in all) over a mean follow-up period of 45 months. 18/24 (75%) patients achieved initial CCR within a mean 7.7 months. Despite at least one relapse in 13/18 initially responding patients regardless of relapse time, 59% (14/24) and 33% (8/24) were either in CCR and off treatment, or in partial remission, whether treated or untreated, according to the latest patient news, with an overall response rate of 92%. Safety was fair in these fragile patients.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This survey of the practical use of RTX confirms its interest in moderate to severe pemphigus as a second-line or subsequent treatment, a situation that probably remains relevant even if this molecule is increasingly used as first-line therapy.

Expression of human endogenous retroviruses in pemphigus vulgaris patients

Pemphigus is a severe, potentially life-threatening autoimmune blistering mucocutaneous disease which establishes with autoreactive IgG antibodies that target cellular adhesions, precisely extracellular domains of keratinocyte proteins. Several genetic and environmental elements are believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease. The extent to which the initiation and progress of this autoimmune blistering disease may be influenced by the expression of human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) remains to be elucidated. In this study, we evaluated the expression of HERV groups (K, W, and H) in pemphigus vulgaris (PV) patients in comparison to controls. Peripheral blood samples were collected from 24 PV patients and the corresponding age- and sex-matched healthy controls to extract total RNA for evaluation of HERV-K (HML-2), HERV-W, and HERV-H, env gene expression profile by qPCR. The mRNA expression level of HERV-K, HERV-W, and HERV-H were significantly upregulated in PV patients in comparison to healthy controls (P < 0.0001). The difference in expression of studied HERVs groups between men and women was no significant (P > 0.05). Although rituximab taking patients had a decreased expression level of studied HERVs, the results were not significant (P > 0.05). According to our obtained data, HERVs expression could be measured as a possible diagnostic tool for detection of PV and monitoring of the treatment.

Modifications of the Transcriptomic Profile of Autoreactive B Cells From Pemphigus Patients After Treatment With Rituximab or a Standard Corticosteroid Regimen

Pemphigus Vulgaris is an autoimmune disease of the skin and mucous membranes, which is due to the production of pathogenic autoantibodies targeting desmoglein (DSG) 1 and 3, which are adhesion proteins of the keratinocytes. Rituximab is an anti-CD20 mAb which induces a prolonged depletion of blood B cells. We recently showed that rituximab was more effective than a standard oral corticosteroid (CS) treatment, allowing 90% of patients to achieve complete remission (CR). Additionally, we showed that DSG-specific-B (DSG positive) cells were still detectable during the B cell recovery which follows the initial rituximab-induced B cell depletion, even in patients in CR. In order to characterize DSG positive B cells in patients in CR after rituximab or CS treatment relative to those detectable at baseline in patients with an active pemphigus, we studied the expression profile of 31 genes of interest related to inflammatory cytokines, TNF receptors and activation markers. Using quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction performed on one cell with a microfluidic technique, we found that patients' autoreactive B cells collected at baseline had a significantly higher expression of genes encoding for IL-1β, IL-23p19, and IL-12p35 pro-inflammatory cytokines and the IRF5 transcription factor, than non-autoreactive B cells. Surprisingly, the gene expression profile of DSG positive B cells collected after rituximab treatment in patients in CR was close to that of DSG positive B cells at baseline in patients with active pemphigus, except for the IL-1β and the CD27 memory marker genes, which were under-expressed after rituximab compared to baseline. Conversely, we observed a decreased expression of genes encoding for IL-1β and IL-23p19 in patients treated with CS relative to baseline. This study showed that: (i) DSG positive autoreactive B cells have a different gene expression profile than non-autoreactive B cells; (ii) rituximab and CS have different effects on the genes' expression in autoreactive DSG positive B cells from pemphigus patients.

Single-Cell Analysis Suggests that Ongoing Affinity Maturation Drives the Emergence of Pemphigus Vulgaris Autoimmune Disease

Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is an autoimmune disease characterized by blistering sores on skin and mucosal membranes, caused by autoantibodies primarily targeting the cellular adhesion protein, desmoglein-3 (Dsg3). To better understand how Dsg3-specific autoantibodies develop and cause disease in humans, we performed a cross-sectional study of PV patients before and after treatment to track relevant cellular responses underlying disease pathogenesis, and we provide an in-depth analysis of two patients by generating a panel of mAbs from single Dsg3-specific memory B cells (MBCs). Additionally, we analyzed a paired sample from one patient collected 15-months prior to disease diagnosis. We find that Dsg3-specific MBCs have an activated phenotype and show signs of ongoing affinity maturation and clonal selection. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with pathogenic activity primarily target epitopes in the extracellular domains EC1 and EC2 of Dsg3, though they can also bind to the EC4 domain. Combining antibodies targeting different epitopes synergistically enhances in vitro pathogenicity.

Pemphigus: Current and Future Therapeutic Strategies

Pemphigus encompasses a heterogeneous group of autoimmune blistering diseases, which affect both mucous membranes and the skin. The disease usually runs a chronic-relapsing course, with a potentially devastating impact on the patients' quality of life. Pemphigus pathogenesis is related to IgG autoantibodies targeting various adhesion molecules in the epidermis, including desmoglein (Dsg) 1 and 3, major components of desmosomes. The pathogenic relevance of such autoantibodies has been largely demonstrated experimentally. IgG autoantibody binding to Dsg results in loss of epidermal keratinocyte adhesion, a phenomenon referred to as acantholysis. This in turn causes intra-epidermal blistering and the clinical appearance of flaccid blisters and erosions at involved sites. Since the advent of glucocorticoids, the overall prognosis of pemphigus has largely improved. However, mortality persists elevated, since long-term use of high dose corticosteroids and adjuvant steroid-sparing immunosuppressants portend a high risk of serious adverse events, especially infections. Recently, rituximab, a chimeric anti CD20 monoclonal antibody which induces B-cell depletion, has been shown to improve patients' survival, as early rituximab use results in higher disease remission rates, long term clinical response and faster prednisone tapering compared to conventional immunosuppressive therapies, leading to its approval as a first line therapy in pemphigus. Other anti B-cell therapies targeting B-cell receptor or downstream molecules are currently tried in clinical studies. More intriguingly, a preliminary study in a preclinical mouse model of pemphigus has shown promise regarding future therapeutic application of Chimeric Autoantibody Receptor T-cells engineered using Dsg domains to selectively target autoreactive B-cells. Conversely, previous studies from our group have demonstrated that B-cell depletion in pemphigus resulted in secondary impairment of T-cell function; this may account for the observed long-term remission following B-cell recovery in rituximab treated patients. Likewise, our data support the critical role of Dsg-specific T-cell clones in orchestrating the inflammatory response and B-cell activation in pemphigus. Monitoring autoreactive T-cells in patients may indeed provide further information on the role of these cells, and would be the starting point for designating therapies aimed at restoring the lost immune tolerance against Dsg. The present review focuses on current advances, unmet challenges and future perspectives of pemphigus management.

B-cell depletion induces a shift in self antigen specific B-cell repertoire and cytokine pattern in patients with bullous pemphigoid

Bullous Pemphigoid is the most common auto-immune bullous skin disease. It is characterized by the production of auto-antibodies directed against 2 proteins of the hemi-desmosome (BP180 and BP230). We assessed the efficacy and mechanisms of action of rituximab, an anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody, in 17 patients with severe and relapsing type of bullous pemphigoid. The phenotype, cytokine gene expression, and rearrangement of BP180-specific B-cell receptor genes were performed over 2 years following treatment. At the end of the study, 5 patients had died, 3 had withdrawn from the study, and 9 patients were in complete remission. The one- and two-year relapse rates were 44.1% (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 21.0-76.0%) and 66.5%, (95% CI: 38.4-91.4%), respectively. Phenotypic analyses confirmed dramatic B-cell depletion, which lasted for 9 to 12 months. The ELISA values of serum anti-BP180 antibodies and the frequency of BP180-specific circulating B cells decreased dramatically following treatment, which paralleled the improvement of skin lesions. During B-cell reconstitution, a polyclonal IgM repertoire appeared and a shift in the rearrangement of the B-cell receptor genes of BP180-specific circulating B cells was observed. Concurrently, we observed a decrease of IL-15, IL-6 and TNFα expressing BP180-specific B cells, and the emergence of IL-10 and IL-1RA-expressing BP180-specific IgM+ B cells in patients in complete remission off therapy, suggesting the functional plasticity of BP180-specific auto-immune B cells after rituximab treatment.

Pemphigus and mucous membrane pemphigoid: An update from diagnosis to therapy

Pemphigus diseases (PDs) and mucous membrane pemphigoid (MMP) are a group of immune-mediated mucocutaneous disorders clinically characterized by the formation of blisters, erosions and ulcers. The skin and mucous membranes are predominantly affected, with the oropharyngeal mucosa as the initially involved site. Ocular involvement is also a frequent feature of these diseases. Because of the considerable overlap in their clinical presentations, the diagnosis of PDs vs. MMP can be challenging. A recognition of their specific immunological and histopathologic features is crucial in the differential diagnosis. Treatment modalities include systemically administered corticosteroids, steroid-sparing immunosuppressive agents, and biologic therapies (rituximab, intravenous immunoglobulins, and anti-tumor necrosis factor agents). Topical, oral, conjunctival, or intralesional corticosteroids as well as anti-inflammatory drugs and antibiotics are prescribed as needed.

The long and the short of it: insights into the cellular source of autoantibodies as revealed by B cell depletion therapy

High titers of pathogenic autoantibodies are a hallmark of many autoimmune diseases. However, much remains unknown about the self-reactive plasma cells that are key mediators of disease. We propose a model in which the varying efficacy of precursor B cell depletion for the treatment of humoral autoimmunity can be explained by differences in the relative contributions of pathogenic antibodies by short-lived versus long-lived plasma cells. Beyond therapeutic considerations, this model suggests that we can infer the cellular source of disease-associated autoantibodies by the durability of serum titers following B cell depletion. Data from clinical trials and animal models across different autoimmune diseases may provide useful insights into the lifespan, lifestyle and fate of autoreactive plasma cells.

Emerging treatment options for the management of pemphigus vulgaris

Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is a life-threatening disease belonging to the pemphigus group of autoimmune intra-epidermal bullous diseases of the skin and mucosae. The therapeutic management of PV remains challenging and, in some cases, conventional therapy is not adequate to induce clinical remission. The cornerstone of PV treatment remains systemic corticosteroids. Although very effective, long-term corticosteroid administration is characterized by substantial adverse effects. Corticosteroid-sparing adjuvant therapies have been employed in the treatment of PV, aiming to reduce the necessary cumulative dose of corticosteroids. Specifically, immunosuppressive agents such as azathioprine and mycophenolate mofetil are widely used in PV. More recently, high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins, immunoadsorption, and rituximab have been established as additional successful therapeutic options. This review covers both conventional and emerging therapies in PV. In addition, it sheds light on potential future treatment strategies for this disease.

B Cell Modulation Strategies in Autoimmune Diseases: New Concepts

B cells are major effector cells in autoimmunity through antibody production, T cell help and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Major advances have been made in human B cell biology knowledge using rituximab and type II new anti-CD20 antibodies, anti-CD19 antibodies, anti-CD22 antibodies, autoantigen specific B cell depleting therapy (chimeric antigen receptor T cells), and B cell receptor signaling inhibition (Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitors). However, in certain circumstances B cell depleting therapy may lead to the worsening of the autoimmune disease which is in accordance with the existence of a regulatory B cell population. Current concepts and future directions for B cell modulating therapies in autoimmune diseases with a special focus on pemphigus are discussed.

A prospective study comparing patients with early and late relapsing pemphigus treated with rituximab

BACKGROUND

Rituximab (RTX) is an effective therapy for patients with pemphigus; however, the therapy does not prevent relapse.

OBJECTIVES

To compare early relapsing patients (before 12 months) and late relapsing patients (after 24 months) following RTX therapy.

METHOD

In this prospective study, 19 patients were enrolled (14 with pemphigus vulgaris and 5 with pemphigus foliaceus). The baseline disease score, autoantibody levels, and percentage of CD20⁺ cells of patients with pemphigus were measured. Patients received 1 cycle of RTX and were followed for 26 months.

RESULTS

Among early relapsing patients (n = 5), the time to relapse was 6 to 11 months. Among late relapsing patients (n = 6), the time to relapse was 24 to 26 months. A significant difference was observed in the mean baseline anti-desmoglein 1 (DSG1) index between early relapsing (705.72) and late relapsing patients (210.4) (P = .0014). A significant negative correlation was found between the baseline anti-DSG1 index and time to relapse (r = -0.777, P = .00009).

LIMITATIONS

The small number of patients with pemphigus foliaceus.

CONCLUSIONS

Because patients with high baseline anti-DSG1 indices relapsed earlier, it may be important to follow these patients closely for the initial 12 months after RTX therapy. These patients may require a maintenance RTX dose during the first 12 months after RTX therapy.

IgG4-mediated autoimmune diseases: a niche of antibody-mediated disorders

Immunoglobulin 4 (IgG4) is one of four human IgG subclasses and has several unique functional characteristics. It exhibits low affinity for complement and for most Fc receptors. It furthermore has generally high affinity for its antigen, with binding occurring in a monovalent fashion, as IgG4 can exchange Fab-arms with other IgG4 molecules. Because of these characteristics, IgG4 is believed to block its targets and prevent inflammation, which, depending on the setting, can have a protective or pathogenic effect. One example of IgG4 pathogenicity is muscle-specific kinase (MuSK) myasthenia gravis (MG), in which patients develop IgG4 MuSK autoantibodies, resulting in muscle weakness. As a consequence of the distinct IgG4 characteristics, the pathomechanism of MuSK MG is very different from IgG1-and IgG3-mediated autoimmune diseases, such as acetylcholine receptor MG. In recent years, new autoantibodies in a spectrum of autoimmune diseases have been discovered. Interestingly, some were found to be predominantly IgG4. These IgG4-mediated autoimmune diseases share many pathomechanistic aspects with MuSK MG, suggesting that IgG4-mediated autoimmunity forms a separate niche among the antibody-mediated disorders. In this review, we summarize the group of IgG4-mediated autoimmune diseases, discuss the role of IgG4 in MuSK MG, and highlight interesting future research questions for IgG4-mediated autoimmunity.

Rituximab in pemphigus

Pemphigus is a severe autoimmune blistering disease mediated by pathogenic anti-desmoglein antibodies leading to an inter keratinocyte disjunction. Rituximab is a monoclonal antibody that binds to the CD-20 antigen of B lymphocytes, which causes B-cell depletion and a subsequent reduction in pathogenic autoantibodies. Its therapeutic role in pemphigus has been progressively growing with increasing evidence of successful outcomes. Rituximab was initially off-labeled used as an alternative in patients with recalcitrant or relapsing pemphigus and in patients with contraindications to systemic corticosteroids. Recently, a large randomized clinical trial has shown that first-line use of rituximab combined with short-term prednisone regimen was both more effective and potentially safer than a standard regimen of high doses of corticosteroids in patients with moderate to severe pemphigus.

Robust memory responses against influenza vaccination in pemphigus patients previously treated with rituximab

Rituximab is a therapeutic anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody widely used to treat B cell lymphoma and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatic arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and autoimmune blistering skin diseases (AIBD). While rituximab fully depletes peripheral blood B cells, it remains unclear whether some preexisting B cell memory to pathogens or vaccines may survive depletion, especially in lymphoid tissues, and if these memory B cells can undergo homeostatic expansion during recovery from depletion. The limited data available on vaccine efficacy in this setting have been derived from rituximab-treated patients receiving concomitant chemotherapy or other potent immunosuppressants. Here, we present an in-depth analysis of seasonal influenza vaccine responses in AIBD patients previously treated with rituximab, who generally did not receive additional therapeutic interventions. We found that, despite a lack of influenza-specific memory B cells in the blood, patients mount robust recall responses to vaccination, comparable to healthy controls, both at a cellular and a serological level. Repertoire analyses of plasmablast responses suggest that they likely derive from a diverse pool of tissue-resident memory cells, refractory to depletion. Overall, these data have important implications for establishing an effective vaccine schedule for AIBD patients and the clinical care of rituximab-treated patients in general and contribute to our basic understanding of maintenance of normal and pathogenic human B cell memory.

Setting the target for pemphigus vulgaris therapy

Despite the rising incidence of autoimmunity, therapeutic options for patients with autoimmune disease still rely on decades-old immunosuppressive strategies that risk severe and potentially fatal complications. Thus, novel therapeutic approaches for autoimmune diseases are greatly needed in order to minimize treatment-related toxicity. Such strategies would ideally target only the autoreactive immune components to preserve beneficial immunity. Here, we review how several decades of basic, translational, and clinical research on the immunology of pemphigus vulgaris (PV), an autoantibody-mediated skin disease, have enabled the development of targeted immunotherapeutic strategies. We discuss research to elucidate the pathophysiology of PV and how the knowledge afforded by these studies has led to the preclinical and clinical testing of targeted approaches to neutralize autoantibodies, to induce antigen-specific tolerance, and to specifically eliminate autoreactive B cells in PV.