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Gibb M, Liu JY, Sayes CM. The transcriptomic signature of respiratory sensitizers using an alveolar model. Cell Biol Toxicol 2024; 40:21. [PMID: 38584208 PMCID: PMC10999393 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-024-09860-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Environmental contaminants are ubiquitous in the air we breathe and can potentially cause adverse immunological outcomes such as respiratory sensitization, a type of immune-driven allergic response in the lungs. Wood dust, latex, pet dander, oils, fragrances, paints, and glues have all been implicated as possible respiratory sensitizers. With the increased incidence of exposure to chemical mixtures and the rapid production of novel materials, it is paramount that testing regimes accounting for sensitization are incorporated into development cycles. However, no validated assay exists that is universally accepted to measure a substance's respiratory sensitizing potential. The lungs comprise various cell types and regions where sensitization can occur, with the gas-exchange interface being especially important due to implications for overall lung function. As such, an assay that can mimic the alveolar compartment and assess sensitization would be an important advance for inhalation toxicology. Some such models are under development, but in-depth transcriptomic analyses have yet to be reported. Understanding the transcriptome after sensitizer exposure would greatly advance hazard assessment and sustainability. We tested two known sensitizers (i.e., isophorone diisocyanate and ethylenediamine) and two known non-sensitizers (i.e., chlorobenzene and dimethylformamide). RNA sequencing was performed in our in vitro alveolar model, consisting of a 3D co-culture of epithelial, macrophage, and dendritic cells. Sensitizers were readily distinguishable from non-sensitizers by principal component analysis. However, few differentially regulated genes were common across all pair-wise comparisons (i.e., upregulation of genes SOX9, UACA, CCDC88A, FOSL1, KIF20B). While the model utilized in this study can differentiate the sensitizers from the non-sensitizers tested, further studies will be required to robustly identify critical pathways inducing respiratory sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Gibb
- Institute of Biomedical Studies (BMS), Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798-7266, USA
| | - James Y Liu
- Department of Environmental Science (ENV), Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX, 76798-7266, USA
| | - Christie M Sayes
- Institute of Biomedical Studies (BMS), Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798-7266, USA.
- Department of Environmental Science (ENV), Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX, 76798-7266, USA.
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2
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Gibb M, Sayes CM. An In Vitro Alveolar Model Allows for the Rapid Assessment of Particles for Respiratory Sensitization Potential. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10104. [PMID: 37373252 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Dust, both industrial and household, contains particulates that can reach the most distal aspects of the lung. Silica and nickel compounds are two such particulates and have known profiles of poor health outcomes. While silica is well-characterized, nickel compounds still need to be fully understood for their potential to cause long-term immune responses in the lungs. To assess these hazards and decrease animal numbers used in testing, investigations that lead to verifiable in vitro methods are needed. To understand the implications of these two compounds reaching the distal aspect of the lungs, the alveoli, an architecturally relevant alveolar model consisting of epithelial cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells in a maintained submerged system, was utilized for high throughput testing. Exposures include crystalline silica (SiO2) and nickel oxide (NiO). The endpoints measured included mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and cytostructural changes assessed via confocal laser scanning microscopy; cell morphology evaluated via scanning electron microscopy; biochemical reactions assessed via protein arrays; transcriptome assessed via gene arrays, and cell surface activation markers evaluated via flow cytometry. The results showed that, compared to untreated cultures, NiO increased markers for dendritic cell activation, trafficking, and antigen presentation; oxidative stress and cytoskeletal changes, and gene and cytokine expression of neutrophil and other leukocyte chemoattractants. The chemokines and cytokines CCL3, CCL7, CXCL5, IL-6, and IL-8 were identified as potential biomarkers of respiratory sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Gibb
- Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
| | - Christie M Sayes
- Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
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3
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Sabatel C, Bureau F. The innate immune brakes of the lung. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1111298. [PMID: 36776895 PMCID: PMC9915150 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1111298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Respiratory mucosal surfaces are continuously exposed to not only innocuous non-self antigens but also pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) originating from environmental or symbiotic microbes. According to either "self/non-self" or "danger" models, this should systematically result in homeostasis breakdown and the development of immune responses directed to inhaled harmless antigens, such as T helper type (Th)2-mediated asthmatic reactions, which is fortunately not the case in most people. This discrepancy implies the existence, in the lung, of regulatory mechanisms that tightly control immune homeostasis. Although such mechanisms have been poorly investigated in comparison to the ones that trigger immune responses, a better understanding of them could be useful in the development of new therapeutic strategies against lung diseases (e.g., asthma). Here, we review current knowledge on innate immune cells that prevent the development of aberrant immune responses in the lung, thereby contributing to mucosal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Sabatel
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium,*Correspondence: Catherine Sabatel,
| | - Fabrice Bureau
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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4
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Zhong B, Seah JJ, Liu F, Ba L, Du J, Wang DY. The role of hypoxia in the pathophysiology of chronic rhinosinusitis. Allergy 2022; 77:3217-3232. [PMID: 35603933 DOI: 10.1111/all.15384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the nasal cavity characterized by excessive nasal mucus secretion and nasal congestion. The development of CRS is related to pathological mechanisms induced by hypoxia. Under hypoxic conditions, the stable expression of both Hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) α and HIF-2α are involved in the immune response and inflammatory pathways of CRS. The imbalance in the composition of nasal microbiota may affect the hypoxic state of CRS and perpetuate existing inflammation. Hypoxia affects the differentiation of nasal epithelial cells such as ciliated cells and goblet cells, induces fibroblast proliferation, and leads to epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and tissue remodeling. Hypoxia also affects the proliferation and differentiation of macrophages, eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells in sinonasal mucosa, and thus influences the inflammatory state of CRS by regulating T cells and B cells. Given the multifactorial nature in which HIF is linked to CRS, this study aims to elucidate the effect of hypoxia on the pathogenic mechanisms of CRS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Zhong
- Upper Airways Research Laboratory, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Department of Otolaryngology, Infectious Diseases Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jun Jie Seah
- Department of Otolaryngology, Infectious Diseases Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Feng Liu
- Upper Airways Research Laboratory, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Luo Ba
- Department of Otolaryngology, People's Hospital of Tibet Autonomous Region, Lhasa, China
| | - Jintao Du
- Upper Airways Research Laboratory, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - De Yun Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Infectious Diseases Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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5
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Pulmonary macrophages and their different roles in health and disease. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2021; 141:106095. [PMID: 34653619 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2021.106095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are a heterogeneous population of myeloid cells with phenotype and function modulated according to the microenvironment in which they are found. The lung resident macrophages known as Alveolar Macrophages (AM) and Interstitial Macrophages (IM) are localized in two different compartments. During lung homeostasis, macrophages can remove inhaled particulates, cellular debris and contribute to some metabolic processes. Macrophages may assume a pro-inflammatory phenotype after being classically activated (M1) or anti-inflammatory when being alternatively activated (M2). M1 and M2 have different transcription profiles and act by eliminating bacteria, viruses and fungi from the host or repairing the damage triggered by inflammation, respectively. Nevertheless, macrophages also may contribute to lung damage during persistent inflammation or continuous exposure to antigens. In this review, we discuss the origin and function of pulmonary macrophages in the context of homeostasis, infectious and non-infectious lung diseases.
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6
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de Los Reyes Jiménez M, Lechner A, Alessandrini F, Bohnacker S, Schindela S, Trompette A, Haimerl P, Thomas D, Henkel F, Mourão A, Geerlof A, da Costa CP, Chaker AM, Brüne B, Nüsing R, Jakobsson PJ, Nockher WA, Feige MJ, Haslbeck M, Ohnmacht C, Marsland BJ, Voehringer D, Harris NL, Schmidt-Weber CB, Esser-von Bieren J. An anti-inflammatory eicosanoid switch mediates the suppression of type-2 inflammation by helminth larval products. Sci Transl Med 2021; 12:12/540/eaay0605. [PMID: 32321863 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aay0605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Revised: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Eicosanoids are key mediators of type-2 inflammation, e.g., in allergy and asthma. Helminth products have been suggested as remedies against inflammatory diseases, but their effects on eicosanoids are unknown. Here, we show that larval products of the helminth Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri (HpbE), known to modulate type-2 responses, trigger a broad anti-inflammatory eicosanoid shift by suppressing the 5-lipoxygenase pathway, but inducing the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway. In human macrophages and granulocytes, the HpbE-driven induction of the COX pathway resulted in the production of anti-inflammatory mediators [e.g., prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and IL-10] and suppressed chemotaxis. HpbE also abrogated the chemotaxis of granulocytes from patients suffering from aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), a severe type-2 inflammatory condition. Intranasal treatment with HpbE extract attenuated allergic airway inflammation in mice, and intranasal transfer of HpbE-conditioned macrophages led to reduced airway eosinophilia in a COX/PGE2-dependent fashion. The induction of regulatory mediators in macrophages depended on p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), and Hpb glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), which we identify as a major immunoregulatory protein in HpbE Hpb GDH activity was required for anti-inflammatory effects of HpbE in macrophages, and local administration of recombinant Hpb GDH to the airways abrogated allergic airway inflammation in mice. Thus, a metabolic enzyme present in helminth larvae can suppress type-2 inflammation by inducing an anti-inflammatory eicosanoid switch, which has important implications for the therapy of allergy and asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta de Los Reyes Jiménez
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Antonie Lechner
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Francesca Alessandrini
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Sina Bohnacker
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Sonja Schindela
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Aurélien Trompette
- Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Service de Pneumologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Haimerl
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Dominique Thomas
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Fiona Henkel
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - André Mourão
- Protein Expression and Purification Facility (PEPF), Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Center Munich, Germany
| | - Arie Geerlof
- Protein Expression and Purification Facility (PEPF), Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Center Munich, Germany
| | - Clarissa Prazeres da Costa
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Adam M Chaker
- Department of Otolaryngology, Allergy Section, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Bernhard Brüne
- Institute of Biochemistry I, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Rolf Nüsing
- Institute of Biochemistry I, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Per-Johan Jakobsson
- Rheumatology Unit, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute Stockholm, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Wolfgang A Nockher
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiochemistry, Molecular Diagnostics, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Matthias J Feige
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich at the Department of Chemistry and Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Martin Haslbeck
- Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Caspar Ohnmacht
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Benjamin J Marsland
- Department of Immunology and Pathology, Central Clinical School, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
| | - David Voehringer
- Department of Infection Biology, University Hospital Center, Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Nicola L Harris
- Department of Immunology and Pathology, Central Clinical School, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
| | - Carsten B Schmidt-Weber
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany.,Member of the German Center of Lung Research (DZL)
| | - Julia Esser-von Bieren
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany.
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7
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Lindner HA, Velásquez SY, Thiel M, Kirschning T. Lung Protection vs. Infection Resolution: Interleukin 10 Suspected of Double-Dealing in COVID-19. Front Immunol 2021; 12:602130. [PMID: 33746948 PMCID: PMC7966717 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.602130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathological processes by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection that make the virus a major threat to global health are insufficiently understood. Inefficient viral clearance at any stage is a hallmark of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Disease severity is associated with increases in peripheral blood cytokines among which interleukin 10 (IL-10) increases particularly early and independent of patient age, which is not seen in active SARS-CoV infection. Here, we consider the known multi-faceted immune regulatory role of IL-10, both in protecting the lung from injury and in defense against infections, as well as its potential cellular source. While the absence of an IL-10 response in SARS is thought to contribute to early deterioration, we suspect IL-10 to protect the lung from early immune-mediated damage and to interfere with viral clearance in COVID-19. This may further both viral spread and poor outcome in many high-risk patients. Identifying the features of the viral genotype, which specifically underlie the different IL-10 dynamics as an etiological endotype and the different viral load kinetics and outcomes as clinical phenotype, may unveil a new immune evasive strategy of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger A. Lindner
- Department of Anesthesiology and Surgical Intensive Care Medicine, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
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8
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Tran CW, Gold MJ, Garcia-Batres C, Tai K, Elford AR, Himmel ME, Elia AJ, Ohashi PS. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha limits dendritic cell stimulation of CD8 T cell immunity. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0244366. [PMID: 33382742 PMCID: PMC7775062 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells are sentinels of the immune system and represent a key cell in the activation of the adaptive immune response. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α)–a crucial oxygen sensor stabilized during hypoxic conditions–has been shown to have both activating and inhibitory effects in immune cells in a context- and cell-dependent manner. Previous studies have demonstrated that in some immune cell types, HIF-1α serves a pro-inflammatory role. Genetic deletion of HIF-1α in macrophages has been reported to reduce their pro-inflammatory function. In contrast, loss of HIF-1α enhanced the pro-inflammatory activity of dendritic cells in a bacterial infection model. In this study, we aimed to further clarify the effects of HIF-1α in dendritic cells. Constitutive expression of HIF-1α resulted in diminished immunostimulatory capacity of dendritic cells in vivo, while conditional deletion of HIF-1α in dendritic cells enhanced their ability to induce a cytotoxic T cell response. HIF-1α-expressing dendritic cells demonstrated increased production of inhibitory mediators including IL-10, iNOS and VEGF, which correlated with their reduced capacity to drive effector CD8+ T cell function. Altogether, these data reveal that HIF-1α can promote the anti-inflammatory functions of dendritic cells and provides insight into dysfunctional immune responses in the context of HIF-1α activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles W. Tran
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | - Kelly Tai
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | - Andrew J. Elia
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Pamela S. Ohashi
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Zhang N, Yang K, Bai J, Yi J, Gao C, Zhao J, Liang S, Wei T, Feng L, Song L, Han H, Qin H. Myeloid-specific blockade of Notch signaling alleviates murine pulmonary fibrosis through regulating monocyte-derived Ly6c lo MHCII hi alveolar macrophages recruitment and TGF-β secretion. FASEB J 2020; 34:11168-11184. [PMID: 32638441 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201903086rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages in lung, including resident alveolar macrophages (AMs) and interstitial macrophages (IMs), and monocyte-derived macrophages, play important roles in pulmonary fibrosis (PF), but mechanisms underlying their differential regulation remain unclear. Recombination signal-binding protein Jκ (RBP-J)-mediated Notch signaling regulates macrophage development and phenotype. Here, using bleomycin-induced fibrosis model combined with myeloid-specific RBP-J disruption (RBP-JcKO ) mouse, we investigated the role of Notch signaling in macrophages during PF. Compared with the control, RBP-JcKO mice exhibited alleviated lung fibrosis as manifested by reduced collagen deposition and inflammation, and decreased TGF-β production. FACS analysis suggested that decreased Ly6clo MHCIIhi AMs might make the major contribution to attenuated fibrogenesis in RBP-JcKO mice, probably by reduced inflammatory factor release and enhanced matrix metalloproteinases expression. Using clodronate-mediated macrophage depletion in RBP-JckO mice, we demonstrated that embryonic-derived AMs play negligible role in lung fibrosis, which was further supported by adoptive transfer experiments. Moreover, on CCR2 knockout background, the effect of RBP-J deficiency on fibrogenesis was not elicited, suggesting that Notch regulated monocyte-derived AMs. Co-culture experiment showed that monocyte-derived AMs from RBP-JcKO mice exhibit reduced myofibroblast activation due to decreased TGF-β secretion. In conclusion, monocyte-derived Ly6clo MHCIIhi AMs, which are regulated by RBP-J-mediated Notch signaling, play an essential role in lung fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ni Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.,Department of Basic Medicine, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Kui Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.,Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jian Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jing Yi
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Chunchen Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Junlong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Shiqian Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Tiaoxia Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Lei Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Liqiang Song
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Hua Han
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Hongyan Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Medical Genetics and Developmental Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
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10
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Lung Macrophage Functional Properties in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21030853. [PMID: 32013028 PMCID: PMC7037150 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is caused by the chronic exposure of the lungs to toxic particles and gases. These exposures initiate a persistent innate and adaptive immune inflammatory response in the airways and lung tissues. Lung macrophages (LMs) are key innate immune effector cells that identify, engulf, and destroy pathogens and process inhaled particles, including cigarette smoke and particulate matter (PM), the main environmental triggers for COPD. The number of LMs in lung tissues and airspaces is increased in COPD, suggesting a potential key role for LMs in initiating and perpetuating the chronic inflammatory response that underpins the progressive nature of COPD. The purpose of this brief review is to discuss the origins of LMs, their functional properties (chemotaxis, recruitment, mediator production, phagocytosis and apoptosis) and changes in these properties due to exposure to cigarette smoke, ambient particulate and pathogens, as well as their persistent altered functional properties in subjects with established COPD. We also explore the potential to therapeutically modulate and restore LMs functional properties, to improve impaired immune system, prevent the progression of lung tissue destruction, and improve both morbidity and mortality related to COPD.
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11
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Myeloid cell deletion of Aryl hydrocarbon Receptor Nuclear Translocator (ARNT) induces non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0225332. [PMID: 31800592 PMCID: PMC6892561 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0225332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and aim Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is predicted to become the most common cause of cirrhosis and liver failure. Risk factors include obesity, insulin resistance and diabetes. Macrophages and other myeloid cells play crucial roles in initiating and driving inflammation. Aryl hydrocarbon Receptor Nuclear Translocator (ARNT) is a transcription factor which binds to a range of partners to mediate responses to environmental signals, including the diet. In people with diabetes it is decreased in liver. We hypothesised that myeloid cell ARNT activity may contribute to the development of liver pathology. Methods Floxed-ARNT mice were bred with LysM-Cre mice to generate mice with reduced ARNT in myeloid cells. Animals were fed a high fat diet (HFD) and liver pathology was assessed. Histology, mRNA, fat accumulation and metabolism were studied. Results Animals with reduced myeloid ARNT developed steatohepatitis on a HFD, with additional alterations of metabolism and fat deposition. Steatohepatitis was accompanied by hepatic macrophage infiltration and expression of both M1 and M2 markers. Expression of mRNAs for Cxcl1, Mcp-1, Tnf-α and Tgf-β1 were increased. Human livers from controls and people with NASH were tested; ARNT mRNA was decreased by 80% (p = 0.0004). Conclusions Decreased myeloid ARNT may play a role in the conversion from non-alcoholic fatty liver to steatohepatitis. Increasing ARNT may be a therapeutic strategy to reduce NASH.
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12
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Macrophage Origin, Metabolic Reprogramming and IL-1 Signaling: Promises and Pitfalls in Lung Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11030298. [PMID: 30832375 PMCID: PMC6468621 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11030298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are tissue-resident cells that act as immune sentinels to maintain tissue integrity, preserve self-tolerance and protect against invading pathogens. Lung macrophages within the distal airways face around 8000–9000 L of air every day and for that reason are continuously exposed to a variety of inhaled particles, allergens or airborne microbes. Chronic exposure to irritant particles can prime macrophages to mediate a smoldering inflammatory response creating a mutagenic environment and favoring cancer initiation. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) represent the majority of the tumor stroma and maintain intricate interactions with malignant cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME) largely influencing the outcome of cancer growth and metastasis. A number of macrophage-centered approaches have been investigated as potential cancer therapy and include strategies to limit their infiltration or exploit their antitumor effector functions. Recently, strategies aimed at targeting IL-1β signaling pathway using a blocking antibody have unexpectedly shown great promise on incident lung cancer. Here, we review the current understanding of the bridge between TAM metabolism, IL-1β signaling, and effector functions in lung adenocarcinoma and address the challenges to successfully incorporating these pathways into current anticancer regimens.
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Lung Interstitial Macrophages: Past, Present, and Future. J Immunol Res 2018; 2018:5160794. [PMID: 29854841 PMCID: PMC5952507 DOI: 10.1155/2018/5160794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
For a long time, investigations about the lung myeloid compartment have been mainly limited to the macrophages located within the airways, that is, the well-known alveolar macrophages specialized in recycling of surfactant molecules and removal of debris. However, a growing number of reports have highlighted the complexity of the lung myeloid compartment, which also encompass different subsets of dendritic cells, tissue monocytes, and nonalveolar macrophages, called interstitial macrophages (IM). Recent evidence supports that, in mice, IM perform important immune functions, including the maintenance of lung homeostasis and prevention of immune-mediated allergic airway inflammation. In this article, we describe lung IM from a historical perspective and we review current knowledge on their characteristics, ontogeny, and functions, mostly in rodents. Finally, we emphasize some important future challenges for the field.
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14
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Liegeois M, Legrand C, Desmet CJ, Marichal T, Bureau F. The interstitial macrophage: A long-neglected piece in the puzzle of lung immunity. Cell Immunol 2018; 330:91-96. [PMID: 29458975 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Lung macrophages have mostly been studied considering only their most accessible and well-defined representative, the alveolar macrophage (AM). In contrast, the identity and putative immune functions of their tissue counterpart, the interstitial macrophage (IM), have long remained much more elusive. Yet, recent evidence supports the notion that IMs perform important immune functions in the lung, notably in terms of innate immunoregulation. Here, we review current knowledge on the phenotype, ontogeny and function of IMs and propose strategies for the unambiguous identification and study of this important and dynamic lung innate immune cell population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maude Liegeois
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, GIGA-Research, Liege University, 4000 Liege, Belgium
| | - Celine Legrand
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, GIGA-Research, Liege University, 4000 Liege, Belgium
| | - Christophe J Desmet
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, GIGA-Research, Liege University, 4000 Liege, Belgium
| | - Thomas Marichal
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, GIGA-Research, Liege University, 4000 Liege, Belgium.
| | - Fabrice Bureau
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, GIGA-Research, Liege University, 4000 Liege, Belgium.
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15
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Respiratory sensitization: toxicological point of view on the available assays. Arch Toxicol 2017; 92:803-822. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-2088-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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16
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Toussaint M, Jackson DJ, Swieboda D, Guedán A, Tsourouktsoglou TD, Ching YM, Radermecker C, Makrinioti H, Aniscenko J, Bartlett NW, Edwards MR, Solari R, Farnir F, Papayannopoulos V, Bureau F, Marichal T, Johnston SL. Host DNA released by NETosis promotes rhinovirus-induced type-2 allergic asthma exacerbation. Nat Med 2017; 23:681-691. [PMID: 28459437 PMCID: PMC5821220 DOI: 10.1038/nm.4332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory viral infections represent the most common cause of allergic asthma exacerbations. Amplification of the type-2 immune response is strongly implicated in asthma exacerbation, but how virus infection boosts type-2 responses is poorly understood. We report a significant correlation between the release of host double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) following rhinovirus infection and the exacerbation of type-2 allergic inflammation in humans. In a mouse model of allergic airway hypersensitivity, we show that rhinovirus infection triggers dsDNA release associated with the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), known as NETosis. We further demonstrate that inhibiting NETosis by blocking neutrophil elastase or by degrading NETs with DNase protects mice from type-2 immunopathology. Furthermore, the injection of mouse genomic DNA alone is sufficient to recapitulate many features of rhinovirus-induced type-2 immune responses and asthma pathology. Thus, NETosis and its associated extracellular dsDNA contribute to the pathogenesis and may represent potential therapeutic targets of rhinovirus-induced asthma exacerbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Toussaint
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
| | - David J Jackson
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
- Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
- Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Dawid Swieboda
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
| | - Anabel Guedán
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
| | | | - Yee Man Ching
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
| | - Coraline Radermecker
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Génoprotéomique Appliquée (GIGA), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Heidi Makrinioti
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
| | - Julia Aniscenko
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
| | - Nathan W Bartlett
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
| | - Michael R Edwards
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
| | - Roberto Solari
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
| | - Frédéric Farnir
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals &Health, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | | | - Fabrice Bureau
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Génoprotéomique Appliquée (GIGA), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- WELBIO, Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Wallonia, Belgium
| | - Thomas Marichal
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Génoprotéomique Appliquée (GIGA), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Sebastian L Johnston
- Airway Disease Infection Section, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK
- Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
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17
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Lin N, Simon MC. Hypoxia-inducible factors: key regulators of myeloid cells during inflammation. J Clin Invest 2016; 126:3661-3671. [PMID: 27599290 DOI: 10.1172/jci84426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia is a prominent characteristic of many acute or chronic inflammatory diseases, and exerts significant influence on their progression. Macrophages and neutrophils are major cellular components of innate immunity and contribute not only to O2 deprivation at the site of inflammation, but also alter many of their functions in response to hypoxia to either facilitate or suppress inflammation. Hypoxia stabilizes HIF-αs in macrophages and neutrophils, and these O2-sensitive transcription factors are key regulators of inflammatory responses in myeloid cells. In this review, we will summarize our current understanding of the role of HIF-αs in shaping macrophage and neutrophil functions in the pathogenesis and progression of multiple inflammatory diseases.
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18
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The regulation of pulmonary inflammation by the hypoxia-inducible factor-hydroxylase oxygen-sensing pathway. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2015; 11 Suppl 5:S271-6. [PMID: 25525731 DOI: 10.1513/annalsats.201403-108aw] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-hydroxylase oxygen-sensing pathway has been extensively reviewed in the context of cellular responses to hypoxia and cancer biology, its importance in regulating innate immune biology is less well described. In this review, we focus on the role of the HIF-hydroxylase pathway in regulating myeloid cell responses and its relevance to inflammatory lung disease. The more specific roles of individual HIF/ prolyl hydroxylase pathway members in vivo are discussed in the context of lineage-specific rodent models of inflammation, with final reference made to the therapeutic challenges of targeting the HIF/hydroxylase pathway in immune cells.
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20
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Jantsch J, Schödel J. Hypoxia and hypoxia-inducible factors in myeloid cell-driven host defense and tissue homeostasis. Immunobiology 2014; 220:305-14. [PMID: 25439732 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2014.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Revised: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The impact of tissue oxygenation and hypoxia on immune cells has been recognized as a major determinant of host defense and tissue homeostasis. In this review, we will summarize the available data on tissue oxygenation in inflamed and infected tissue and the effect of low tissue oxygenation on myeloid cell function. Furthermore, we will highlight effects of the master regulators of the cellular hypoxic response, hypoxia-inducible transcription factors (HIF), in myeloid cells in antimicrobial defense and tissue homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Jantsch
- Institut für Klinische Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Regensburg, Germany; Mikrobiologisches Institut - Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen und Friedrich-Alexander Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Johannes Schödel
- Medizinische Klinik 4, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen und Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany; Translational Research Center, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen und Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.
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21
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Scott C, Bonner J, Min D, Boughton P, Stokes R, Cha KM, Walters SN, Maslowski K, Sierro F, Grey ST, Twigg S, McLennan S, Gunton JE. Reduction of ARNT in myeloid cells causes immune suppression and delayed wound healing. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2014; 307:C349-57. [PMID: 24990649 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00306.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT) is a transcription factor that binds to partners to mediate responses to environmental signals. To investigate its role in the innate immune system, floxed ARNT mice were bred with lysozyme M-Cre recombinase animals to generate lysozyme M-ARNT (LAR) mice with reduced ARNT expression. Myeloid cells of LAR mice had altered mRNA expression and delayed wound healing. Interestingly, when the animals were rendered diabetic, the difference in wound healing between the LAR mice and their littermate controls was no longer present, suggesting that decreased myeloid cell ARNT function may be an important factor in impaired wound healing in diabetes. Deferoxamine (DFO) improves wound healing by increasing hypoxia-inducible factors, which require ARNT for function. DFO was not effective in wounds of LAR mice, again suggesting that myeloid cells are important for normal wound healing and for the full benefit of DFO. These findings suggest that myeloid ARNT is important for immune function and wound healing. Increasing ARNT and, more specifically, myeloid ARNT may be a therapeutic strategy to improve wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Scott
- Diabetes and Transcription Factors Group, Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - James Bonner
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Danqing Min
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Philip Boughton
- St. George Clinical School, St. George Hospital, Kogarah, New South Wales, Australia; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Rebecca Stokes
- Diabetes and Transcription Factors Group, Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kuan Minn Cha
- Diabetes and Transcription Factors Group, Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stacey N Walters
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kendle Maslowski
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Frederic Sierro
- Liver Immunology, Centenary Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Shane T Grey
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stephen Twigg
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Department of Endocrinology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Susan McLennan
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Department of Endocrinology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jenny E Gunton
- Diabetes and Transcription Factors Group, Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; and Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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22
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Abstract
The lungs are constantly exposed to antigens, most of which are non-pathogenic and do not require the induction of an immune response. Dendritic cells (DCs) are situated at the basolateral site of the lungs and continuously scan the environment to detect the presence of pathogens and subsequently initiate an immune response. They are a heterogeneous population of antigen-presenting cells that exert specific functions. Compelling evidence is now provided that DCs are both sufficient and necessary to induce allergic responses against several inhaled harmless allergens. How various DC subsets exactly contribute to the induction of allergic asthma is currently a subject of intense investigation. We here review the current progress in this field.
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