Next generation sequencing of Cytokeratin 20-negative Merkel cell carcinoma reveals ultraviolet-signature mutations and recurrent TP53 and RB1 inactivation

Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Antibody in Tumor and Plasma Specimens in Patients with Merkel Cell Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is associated with Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) infection. MCPyV antibodies (MCPyV-Ab) in plasma correlate with survival, while MCPyV-Ab within the tumor has never been investigated. This study evaluated plasma MCPyV-Ab and tumor MCPyV-Ab titers to evaluate their role in outcomes and prognostication.

METHODS

A single-institution, prospective database was retrospectively reviewed for patients diagnosed with MCC from 2014 to 2021. MCPyV-Ab plasma and tumor titers, as well as patient and treatment factors, were collected. Two-year overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) were examined based on MCPyV-Ab presence in tumor.

RESULTS

Forty patients were identified, with a median follow-up of 27.6 months. Patients were stratified into four groups based on the presence of MCPyV-Ab in plasma (P+, P-) and tumor (T+, T-). Most patients (60.0%) were P-/T-. Of the remaining patients, 22.5% were P+/T+, 12.5% were P-/T+, and 5.0% were P+/T-. Two-year DFS of the P-/T- group was 16.6 months, which was not different from the other groups (p = 0.79). Two-year OS of P-/T- was 18.3 months, and 2-year OS of P-/T+ was 28.1 months, which was similar between groups (p = 0.80).

CONCLUSIONS

Most patients P+ for MCPyV had antibody-positive tumors (T+), and P- patients were also T-; however, there was a subset of patients where plasma and tumor antibody findings were incongruent. Patients with MCPyV-Ab in either plasma or tumor had a trend toward improved 2-year DFS and OS, but was limited by a small cohort. This study offers an exploratory investigation into the relationship between plasma and tumor antibodies to MCPyV on which to base future work.

Integrative Drug Screening and Multiomic Characterization of Patient-derived Bladder Cancer Organoids Reveal Novel Molecular Correlates of Gemcitabine Response

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Predicting response to therapy for each patient's tumor is critical to improving long-term outcomes for muscle-invasive bladder cancer. This study aims to establish ex vivo bladder cancer patient-derived organoid (PDO) models that are representative of patients' tumors and determine the potential efficacy of standard of care and curated experimental therapies.

METHODS

Tumor material was collected prospectively from consented bladder cancer patients to generate short-term PDO models, which were screened against a panel of clinically relevant drugs in ex vivo three-dimensional culture. Multiomic profiling was utilized to validate the PDO models, establish the molecular characteristics of each tumor, and identify potential biomarkers of drug response. Gene expression (GEX) patterns between paired primary tissue and PDO samples were assessed using Spearman's rank correlation coefficients. Molecular correlates of therapy response were identified using Pearson correlation coefficients and Kruskal-Wallis tests with Dunn's post hoc pairwise comparison testing.

KEY FINDINGS AND LIMITATIONS

A total of 106 tumors were collected from 97 patients, with 65 samples yielding sufficient material for complete multiomic molecular characterization and PDO screening with six to 32 drugs/combinations. Short-term PDOs faithfully represent the tumor molecular characteristics, maintain diverse cell types, and avoid shifts in GEX-based subtyping that accompany long-term PDO cultures. Utilizing an integrative approach, novel correlations between ex vivo drug responses and genomic alterations, GEX, and protein expression were identified, including a multiomic signature of gemcitabine response. The positive predictive value of ex vivo drug responses and the novel multiomic gemcitabine response signature need to be validated in future studies.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Short-term PDO cultures retain the molecular characteristics of tumor tissue and avoid shifts in expression-based subtyping that have plagued long-term cultures. Integration of multiomic profiling and ex vivo drug screening data identifies potential predictive biomarkers, including a novel signature of gemcitabine response.

PATIENT SUMMARY

Better models are needed to predict patient response to therapy in bladder cancer. We developed a platform that uses short-term culture to best mimic each patient's tumor and assess potential sensitivity to therapeutics.

Merkel cell carcinoma: updates in tumor biology, emerging therapies, and preclinical models

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive cutaneous neuroendocrine carcinoma thought to arise via either viral (Merkel cell polyomavirus) or ultraviolet-associated pathways. Surgery and radiotherapy have historically been mainstays of management, and immunotherapy has improved outcomes for advanced disease. However, there remains a lack of effective therapy for those patients who fail to respond to these established approaches, underscoring a critical need to better understand MCC biology for more effective prognosis and treatment. Here, we review the fundamental aspects of MCC biology and the recent advances which have had profound impact on management. The first genetically-engineered mouse models for MCC tumorigenesis provide opportunities to understand the potential MCC cell of origin and may prove useful for preclinical investigation of novel therapeutics. The MCC cell of origin debate has also been advanced by recent observations of MCC arising in association with a clonally related hair follicle tumor or squamous cell carcinoma in situ. These studies also suggested a role for epigenetics in the origin of MCC, highlighting a potential utility for this therapeutic avenue in MCC. These and other therapeutic targets form the basis for a wealth of ongoing clinical trials to improve MCC management. Here, we review these recent advances in the context of the existing literature and implications for future investigations.

Recurrent Merkel Cell Carcinoma Following COVID-19 Treatment

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer influenced by the immune system. Recent studies suggest that viral infections, notably COVID-19, may exacerbate such malignancies. This case report explores potential mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, could influence the behavior and proliferation of malignant tumor cells. Emerging evidence indicates that COVID-19 may disrupt immune surveillance and modulation, which are critical in controlling the spread and severity of cancers, including MCC. Additionally, the cytokine storm induced by COVID-19 is proposed to facilitate tumorigenic activity, potentially enhancing MCC aggressiveness. By integrating clinical findings with contemporary immunological and virological theories, this report aims to contribute to the understanding of COVID-19's impact on cancer progression, specifically MCC, emphasizing the need for comprehensive management strategies in cancer patients during the pandemic.

Integrative analysis reveals therapeutic potential of pyrvinium pamoate in Merkel cell carcinoma

Merkel Cell Carcinoma (MCC) is a highly aggressive neuroendocrine cutaneous malignancy arising from either ultraviolet-induced mutagenesis or Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) integration. It is the only known neuroendocrine tumor (NET) with a virus etiology. Despite extensive research, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving the transition from normal cells to MCC remains limited. To address this knowledge gap, we assessed the impact of inducible MCPyV T antigens into normal human fibroblasts by performing RNA sequencing. Our findings suggested that the WNT signaling pathway plays a critical role in the development of MCC. To test this model, we bioinformatically evaluated various perturbagens for their ability to reverse the MCC gene expression signature and identified pyrvinium pamoate, an FDA-approved anthelminthic drug known for its anti-tumor potential in multiple cancers. Leveraging transcriptomic, network, and molecular analyses, we found that pyrvinium effectively targets multiple MCC vulnerabilities. Specifically, pyrvinium not only reverses the neuroendocrine features of MCC by modulating canonical and non-canonical WNT signaling pathways but also inhibits cancer cell growth by activating the p53-mediated apoptosis pathway, disrupting mitochondrial function, and inducing endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Pyrvinium also effectively inhibits tumor growth in an MCC mouse xenograft model. These findings offer new avenues for the development of therapeutic strategies for neuroendocrine cancer and highlight the utility of pyrvinium as a potential treatment for MCC.

Skin cancer: understanding the journey of transformation from conventional to advanced treatment approaches

Skin cancer is a global threat to the healthcare system and is estimated to incline tremendously in the next 20 years, if not diagnosed at an early stage. Even though it is curable at an early stage, novel drug identification, clinical success, and drug resistance is another major challenge. To bridge the gap and bring effective treatment, it is important to understand the etiology of skin carcinoma, the mechanism of cell proliferation, factors affecting cell growth, and the mechanism of drug resistance. The current article focusses on understanding the structural diversity of skin cancers, treatments available till date including phytocompounds, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photothermal therapy, surgery, combination therapy, molecular targets associated with cancer growth and metastasis, and special emphasis on nanotechnology-based approaches for downregulating the deleterious disease. A detailed analysis with respect to types of nanoparticles and their scope in overcoming multidrug resistance as well as associated clinical trials has been discussed.

Merkel cell carcinoma: an update

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an uncommon primary cutaneous neuroendocrine carcinoma associated with an adverse prognosis. In recent years, our understanding of MCC biology has markedly progressed. Since the discovery of the Merkel cell polyomavirus, it has become clear that MCC represents an ontogenetically dichotomous group of neoplasms with overlapping histopathology. Specifically, most MCCs arise secondary to viral oncogenesis, while a smaller subset is the direct result of UV-associated mutations. The distinction of these groups bears relevance in their immunohistochemical and molecular characterization, as well as in disease prognosis. Further recent developments relate to the landmark utilization of immunotherapeutics in MCC, providing optimistic options for the management of this aggressive disease. In this review, we discuss both fundamental and emerging concepts in MCC, with a particular focus on topics of practical relevance to the surgical or dermatopathologist.

Distinct Regulation of EZH2 and its Repressive H3K27me3 Mark in Polyomavirus-Positive and -Negative Merkel Cell Carcinoma

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer for which Merkel cell polyomavirus integration and expression of viral oncogenes small T and Large T have been identified as major oncogenic determinants. Recently, a component of the PRC2 complex, the histone methyltransferase enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) that induces H3K27 trimethylation as a repressive mark has been proposed as a potential therapeutic target in MCC. Because divergent results have been reported for the levels of EZH2 and trimethylation of lysine 27 on histone 3, we analyzed these factors in a large MCC cohort to identify the molecular determinants of EZH2 activity in MCC and to establish MCC cell lines' sensitivity to EZH2 inhibitors. Immunohistochemical expression of EZH2 was observed in 92% of MCC tumors (156 of 170), with higher expression levels in virus-positive than virus-negative tumors (P = 0.026). For the latter, we showed overexpression of EZHIP, a negative regulator of the PRC2 complex. In vitro, ectopic expression of the large T antigen in fibroblasts led to the induction of EZH2 expression, whereas the knockdown of T antigens in MCC cell lines resulted in decreased EZH2 expression. EZH2 inhibition led to selective cytotoxicity on virus-positive MCC cell lines. This study highlights the distinct mechanisms of EZH2 induction between virus-negative and -positive MCC.

Lymph Node Metastases from Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck

Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) represents the most common malignancy in the world, comprising exceedingly common lesions such as basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) and rare lesions such as Merkel cell carcinoma. Risk factors are widely recognized and include ultraviolet (UV) light exposure, radiation exposure, immunosuppression, and many others. As a whole, survival and functional outcomes are favorable, but each histopathological subtype of NMSC behaves differently. Treatment regimens for the primary site usually include wide surgical excision and neck dissection in cases of clinically involved metastatic lymph nodes. The elective management of draining nodal basins, however, is a contested topic. Nearly all subtypes, excluding BCC, have a significant risk of lymphatic metastases, and have been studied with regard to sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) and elective neck dissection. To date, no studies have definitively established a true single standard of care, as exists for melanoma, for any of the NMSCs. As a result, the authors have sought to summarize the current literature and identify indications and management options for the management of the cervical lymphatics for each major subtype of NMSC. Further research remains critically necessary in order to develop complete treatment algorithms.

Chromosomal Aberrations Accumulate during Metastasis of Virus-Negative Merkel Cell Carcinoma

Merkel cell carcinoma is a rare, aggressive skin tumor initiated by polyomavirus integration or UV light DNA damage. In New Zealand, there is a propensity toward the UV-driven form (31 of 107, 29% virus positive). Using archival formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues, we report targeted DNA sequencing covering 246 cancer genes on 71 tumor tissues and 38 nonmalignant tissues from 37 individuals, with 33 of 37 being negative for the virus. Somatic variants of New Zealand virus-negative Merkel cell carcinomas partially overlapped with those reported overseas, including TP53 variants in all tumors and RB1, LRP1B, NOTCH1, and EPHA3/7 variants each found in over half of the cohort. Variants in genes not analyzed or reported in previous studies were also found. Cataloging variants in TP53 and RB1 from published datasets revealed a broad distribution across these genes. Chr 1p gain and Chr 3p loss were identified in around 50% of New Zealand virus-negative Merkel cell carcinomas, and RB1 loss of heterozygosity was found in 90% of cases. Copy number variants accumulate in most metastases. Virus-negative Merkel cell carcinomas have complex combinations of somatic DNA-sequence variants and copy number variants. They likely carry the small genomic changes permissive for metastasis from early tumor development; however, chromosomal alterations may contribute to driving metastatic progression.

Association of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Status With p53, RB1, and PD-L1 Expression and Patient Prognosis in Merkel Cell Carcinomas: Clinical, Morphologic, and Immunohistochemical Evaluation of 17 Cases

BACKGROUND

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, aggressive, primary neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin whose main risk factors are immunosuppression, UV radiation exposure, and Merkel cell polyomavirus. Programmed death-1/programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1)-based immunotherapy is currently the first choice for treating patients with metastatic MCC.

METHODS

MCC biopsies (17) were evaluated for their nucleus and cytoplasm characteristics and growth patterns, as well as for intratumor lymphocytes, mitotic number, and lymphovascular invasion. Paraffin-embedded tissue samples of the biopsies were stained with MCPyV large T-antigen (LTag), RB1, p53, and PD-L1.

RESULTS

We observed MCPyV LTag expression in 9 out of the 17 tumors, and all 9 cases were positive for RB1 (P<0.000). p53 staining was not significantly correlated with MCPyV LTag. We observed no relationship between p53 expression and any other parameters, and PD-L1 expression was low in the MCC samples. We evaluated PD-L1 using both the combined positive score and tumor proportion score (TPS), and found that TPS was correlated with MCPyV LTag expression (P=0.016). Tumors with tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes showed a better prognosis than those without these lymphocytes (P=0.006).

DISCUSSION

Our data demonstrated that RB1 was effective for immunohistochemically investigating the MCPyV status of tumors. TPS was superior to the combined positive score in evaluating PD-L1 in MCC. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes were the only parameters that were associated with survival. Further studies with larger series are required to confirm these results.

Epidemiology of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Infection and Merkel Cell Carcinoma

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is a ubiquitous virus replicating in human dermal fibroblasts. MCPyV DNA can be detected on healthy skin in 67−90% of various body sites, and intact virions are regularly shed from the skin. Infection occurs early in life, and seropositivity increases from 37 to 42% in 1- to 6-year-olds to 92% in adults. Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare but very aggressive neuroendocrine tumor of the skin. It develops mainly on sun-exposed areas as a fast-growing, reddish nodule. Two MCC entities exist: about 80% of MCC are MCPyV-associated. Tumorigenesis is driven by viral integration into the host genome and MCPyV oncogene expression. In MCPyV-negative MCC, UV radiation causes extensive DNA damage leading to the deregulation of the cell cycle. In recent decades, MCC incidence rates have increased worldwide, e.g., in the United States, from 0.15 in 1986 to 0.7/100,000 in 2016. Risk factors for the development of MCC include male sex, older age (>75 years), fair skin, intense UV exposure, and immunosuppression. Projections suggest that due to aging populations, an increase in immunosuppressed patients, and enhanced UV exposure, MCC incidence rates will continue to rise. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are crucial to reducing high MCC morbidity and mortality.

RB1-deficient squamous cell carcinoma: the proposed source of combined Merkel cell carcinoma

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive cutaneous neuroendocrine (NE) carcinoma arising from integration of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) DNA into a host cell or from ultraviolet light-induced genetic damage (proportions vary geographically). Tumors in the latter group include those with "pure" NE phenotype and those "combined" with other elements, most often squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). We performed comprehensive genomic profiling (CGP) of MCPyV+ and MCPyV- (pure and combined) tumors, to better understand their mutational profiles and shed light on their pathogenesis. Supplemental immunohistochemistry for Rb expression was also undertaken. After eliminating low quality samples, 37 tumors were successfully analyzed (14 MCPyV+, 8 pure MCPyV- and 15 combined MCPyV-). The SCC and NE components were sequenced separately in 5 combined tumors. Tumor mutational burden was lower in MCPyV+ tumors (mean 1.66 vs. 29.9/Mb, P < 0.0001). MCPyV- tumors featured frequent mutations in TP53 (95.6%), RB1 (87%), and NOTCH family genes (95.6%). No recurrently mutated genes were identified in MCPyV+ tumors. Mutational overlap in the NE and SCC components of combined tumors was substantial ('similarity index' >24% in 4/5 cases). Loss of Rb expression correlated with RB1 mutational (P < 0.0001) and MCPyV- status (P < 0.0001) in MCCs and it was observed more frequently in the SCC component of combined MCC than in a control group of conventional cutaneous SCC (P = 0.0002). Our results (i) support existing evidence that MCPyV+ and MCPyV- MCCs are pathogenetically distinct entities (ii) concur with earlier studies linking the NE and SCC components of combined MCCs via shared genetic profiles and (iii) lend credence to the proposal that an Rb-deficient subset of SCC's is the source of phenotypically divergent combined MCCs.

Therapeutic Potential of 5'-Methylschweinfurthin G in Merkel Cell Polyomavirus-Positive Merkel Cell Carcinoma

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare but aggressive form of skin cancer predominantly caused by the human Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Treatment for MCC includes excision and radiotherapy of local disease, and chemotherapy or immunotherapy for metastatic disease. The schweinfurthin family of natural compounds previously displayed potent and selective growth inhibitory activity against the NCI-60 panel of human-derived cancer cell lines. Here, we investigated the impact of schweinfurthin on human MCC cell lines. Treatment with the schweinfurthin analog, 5'-methylschweinfurth G (MeSG also known as TTI-3114), impaired metabolic activity through induction of an apoptotic pathway. MeSG also selectively inhibited PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK pathways in the MCPyV-positive MCC cell line, MS-1. Interestingly, expression of the MCPyV small T (sT) oncogene selectively sensitizes mouse embryonic fibroblasts to MeSG. These results suggest that the schweinfurthin family of compounds display promising potential as a novel therapeutic option for virus-induced MCCs.

Genomic evidence suggests that cutaneous neuroendocrine carcinomas can arise from squamous dysplastic precursors

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive cutaneous neuroendocrine carcinoma without a known dysplastic precursor. In some cases, MCC is associated with SCCIS in the overlying epidermis; however, the MCC and SCCIS populations display strikingly different morphologies, and thus far a relationship between these components has not been demonstrated. To better understand the relationship between these distinct tumor cell populations, we evaluated 7 pairs of MCC-SCCIS for overlapping genomic alterations by cancer profiling panel. A subset was further characterized by transcriptional profiling and immunohistochemistry. In 6 of 7 MCC-SCCIS pairs there was highly significant mutational overlap including shared TP53 and/or RB1 mutations. In some cases, oncogenic events previously implicated in MCC (MYCL gain, MDM4 gain, HRAS mutation) were detected in both components. Although FBXW7 mutations were enriched in MCC, no gene mutation was unique to the MCC component across all cases. Transcriptome analysis identified 2736 differentially expressed genes between MCC and SCCIS. Genes upregulated in the MCC component included Polycomb repressive complex targets; downregulated transcripts included epidermal markers, and immune genes such as HLA-A. Immunohistochemical studies revealed increased expression of SOX2 in the MCC component, with diminished H3K27Me3, Rb, and HLA-A expression. In summary, MCC-SCCIS pairs demonstrate clonal relatedness. The shift to neuroendocrine phenotype is associated with loss of Rb protein expression, decrease in global H3K27Me3, and increased expression of Merkel cell genes such as SOX2. Our findings suggest an epidermal origin of MCC in this setting, and to our knowledge provide the first molecular evidence that intraepithelial squamous dysplasia may represent a direct precursor for small cell carcinoma.

Merkel cell polyomavirus-negative Merkel cell carcinoma is associated with JAK-STAT and MEK-ERK pathway activation

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is monoclonally integrated into the genomes of approximately 80% of Merkel cell carcinomas (MCCs). While the presence of MCPyV affects the clinicopathological features of MCC, the molecular mechanisms of MCC pathogenesis after MCPyV infection are unclear. This study investigates the association between MCPyV infection and activation of the MEK-ERK and JAK-STAT signaling pathways in MCC to identify new molecular targets for MCC treatment. The clinicopathological characteristics of 30 MCPyV-positive and 20 MCPyV-negative MCC cases were analyzed. The phosphorylation status of MEK, ERK, JAK, and STAT was determined by immunohistochemical analysis. The activation status of the MEK-ERK and JAK-STAT pathways and the effects of a JAK inhibitor (ruxolitinib) was analyzed in MCC cell lines. Immunohistochemically, the expression of pJAK2 (P = .038) and pERK1/2 (P = .019) was significantly higher in MCPyV-negative than in MCPyV-positive MCCs. Male gender (hazard ratio [HR] 2.882, P = .039), older age (HR 1.137, P < .001), negative MCPyV status (HR 0.324, P = .013), and advanced cancer stage (HR 2.672, P = .041) were identified as unfavorable prognostic factors; however, the phosphorylation states of JAK2, STAT3, MEK1/2, and ERK1/2 were unrelated to the prognosis. The inhibition of cell proliferation by ruxolitinib was greater in MCPyV-negative MCC cell lines than in an MCPyV-positive MCC cell line. The expression of pERK1/2 and pMEK was higher in MCPyV-negative than in MCPyV-positive cell lines. These results suggest that activation of the JAK2 and MEK-ERK pathways was more prevalent in MCPyV-negative than in MCPyV-positive MCC and the JAK inhibitor ruxolitinib inhibited MEK-ERK pathway activation. Consequently, the JAK-STAT and MEK-ERK signaling pathways may be potential targets for MCPyV-negative MCC treatment.

From Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Infection to Merkel Cell Carcinoma Oncogenesis

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) infection causes near-ubiquitous, asymptomatic infection in the skin, but occasionally leads to an aggressive skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Epidemiological evidence suggests that poorly controlled MCPyV infection may be a precursor to MCPyV-associated MCC. Clearer understanding of host responses that normally control MCPyV infection could inform prophylactic measures in at-risk groups. Similarly, the presence of MCPyV in most MCCs could imbue them with vulnerabilities that-if better characterized-could yield targeted intervention solutions for metastatic MCC cases. In this review, we discuss recent developments in elucidating the interplay between host cells and MCPyV within the context of viral infection and MCC oncogenesis. We also propose a model in which insufficient restriction of MCPyV infection in aging and chronically UV-damaged skin causes unbridled viral replication that licenses MCC tumorigenesis.

Relationship between p63 and p53 expression in Merkel cell carcinoma and corresponding abnormalities in TP63 and TP53: a study and a proposal

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, aggressive cutaneous neuroendocrine carcinoma. Oncogenesis occurs via Merkel cell polyomavirus-mediated (MCPyV+) and/or ultraviolet radiation-associated (MCPyV-) pathways. Advanced clinical stage and an MCPyV- status are important adverse prognostic indicators. There is mounting evidence that p63 expression is a negative prognostic indicator in MCC and that it correlates with MCPyV- status. p63 is a member of the p53 family of proteins among which complex interactions occur. It has two main isoforms (proapoptotic TAp63 and oncogenic ΔNp63). Paradoxically, TAp63 predominates in MCC. To explore this quandary, we examined relationships between p63 and p53 expression and corresponding abnormalities in the TP63 and TP53 genes in MCC. A cohort of 26 MCCs (12 MCPyV+ and 14 MCPyV-) was studied. Comparative immunohistochemical expression of p63 and p53 was evaluated semiquantitatively (H scores) and qualitatively (aberrant patterns). The results were compared with genetic abnormalities in TP63 and TP53 via next-generation sequencing. p63 was positive in 73% of cases. p53 showed "wild-type" expression in 69%, with "aberrant" staining in 31%. TP63 mutations (predominantly low-level copy gains; 23% of cases) and mainly pathogenic mutations in TP53 (50% of cases) featured in the MCPyV- subset of cases. p63 expression correlated quantitatively with p53 expression and qualitatively with aberrant patterns of the latter. Increased expression of p63 and p53 and aberrant p53 staining correlated best with TP53 mutation. We propose that p63 expression (ie, proapoptotic TAp63) in MCC is most likely functionally driven as a compensatory response to defective p53 tumor suppressor activity.

RB1 gene mutations are a distinct predictive factor in Merkel cell carcinoma

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare cutaneous neuroendocrine carcinoma that tends to show local recurrence and metastasis. Typically, MCC is polyomavirus (MCPyV)-associated and cytokeratin 20 (CK20) positive. However, little is known about this tumor and its origins. Here, we aimed to determine the developmental origins of MCC and to identify prognostic clinicopathologic factors. Initial examinations revealed that CK20 and MCPyV expression (CK20+, MCPyV+ (60%); CK20+, MCPyV- (10%); CK20-, and MCPyV- (30%)) did not affect overall survival. With RB1 gene sequencing of FFPE specimens, which covered an entire exon, all RB1 mutation-positive cases showed positive regional lymph node and/or distant metastases (8/8 cases, 100%), whereas the frequency of the metastasis was statistically significantly lower in RB1 mutation-negative cases, (10/16 cases, 62%, P = 0.033). The results were also confirmed with immunohistochemistry, and either RB1 alterations, entire exon sequencing, or immunohistochemistry was associated with the metastasis (P = 0.007). RB1 alterations may be used to access the aggressive clinical course of MCC.

Distinct Signatures of Genomic Copy Number Variants Define Subgroups of Merkel Cell Carcinoma Tumors

Simple Summary

Cancer results from genetic changes in cells. These changes are often mutations that alter the DNA sequence of critical genes. However, duplications and deletions in cancer-related genes can also contribute to malignant transformation. In this study we use Nanostring technology to assess DNA copy number changes in samples of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare and aggressive neuroendocrine skin tumor. We were able to identify recurrent amplifications and deletions in cancer-related genes. We also found that MCC tumors grouped into three distinct copy number variant profiles. The first group consisted of tumors with multiple deletions. The second group contained tumors with low levels of genomic structural alterations. The last group comprised tumors containing multiple amplifications. Our study suggests that most MCC tumors are associated with deletions in cancer-related genes or are lacking in copy number changes, whereas a small percentage of tumors are associated with genomic amplifications.

Abstract

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer. Most MCC tumors contain integrated Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA (virus-positive MCC, VP-MCC) and carry a low somatic mutation burden whereas virus-negative MCC (VN-MCC) possess numerous ultraviolet-signature mutations. In contrast to viral oncogenes and sequence mutations, little is known about genomic structural variants in MCC. To identify copy number variants in commonly altered genes, we analyzed genomic DNA from 31 tumor samples using the Nanostring nCounter copy number cancer panel. Unsupervised clustering revealed three tumor groups with distinct genomic structural variant signatures. The first cluster was characterized by multiple recurrent deletions in genes such as RB1 and WT1. The second cluster contained eight VP-MCC and displayed very few structural variations. The final cluster contained one VP-MCC and four VN-MCC with predominantly genomic amplifications in genes like MDM4, SKP2, and KIT and deletions in TP53. Overall, VN-MCC contained more structure variation than VP-MCC but did not cluster separately from VP-MCC. The observation that most MCC tumors demonstrate a deletion-dominated structural group signature, independent of virus status, suggests a shared pathophysiology among most VP-MCC and VN-MCC tumors.

Mutational Landscape of Virus- and UV-Associated Merkel Cell Carcinoma Cell Lines Is Comparable to Tumor Tissue

Simple Summary

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive, rare skin cancer which is caused either by a virus or chronic UV exposure. For both forms, distinct genetic alterations have been described; however, these observations were mostly made in tumor tissue. Since cancer cell lines are frequently used as preclinical models to investigate biological function, we considered it necessary to establish the genomic landscape of MCC cell lines by whole-exome sequencing. We confirmed the presence of UV-induced DNA damage, a high number of mutations and several coding mutations in virus-negative cell lines which were absent in virus-positive cell lines; these, however, harbored characteristic copy number variations, suggesting some virally caused genetic instability. Knowing the genomic features of MCC cell lines validates previous, and facilitates upcoming, experimental studies to discover their biological and translational relevance.

Abstract

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, highly aggressive cutaneous malignancy that is either associated with the integration of the Merkel cell polyomavirus or chronic UV exposure. These two types of carcinogenesis are reflected in characteristic mutational features present in MCC tumor lesions. However, the genomic characteristics of MCC cell lines used as preclinical models are not well established. Thus, we analyzed the exomes of three virus-negative and six virus-positive MCC cell lines, all showing a classical neuroendocrine growth pattern. Virus-negative cell lines are characterized by a high tumor mutational burden (TMB), UV-light-induced DNA damage, functionally relevant coding mutations, e.g., in RB1 and TP53, and large amounts of copy number variations (CNVs). In contrast, virus-positive cell lines have a low TMB with few coding mutations and lack prominent mutational signatures, but harbor characteristic CNVs. One of the virus-negative cell lines has a local MYC amplification associated with high MYC mRNA expression. In conclusion, virus-positive and -negative MCC cell lines with a neuroendocrine growth pattern resemble mutational features observed in MCC tissue samples, which strengthens their utility for functional studies.

Virus-positive Merkel Cell Carcinoma Is an Independent Prognostic Group with Distinct Predictive Biomarkers

PURPOSE

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive cutaneous neuroendocrine carcinoma that can be divided into two classes: virus-positive (VP) MCC, associated with oncogenic Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV); and virus-negative (VN) MCC, associated with photodamage.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We classified 346 MCC tumors from 300 patients for MCPyV using a combination of IHC, ISH, and qPCR assays. In a subset of tumors, we profiled mutation status and expression of cancer-relevant genes. MCPyV and molecular profiling results were correlated with disease-specific outcomes. Potential prognostic biomarkers were further validated by IHC.

RESULTS

A total of 177 tumors were classified as VP-MCC, 151 tumors were VN-MCC, and 17 tumors were indeterminate. MCPyV positivity in primary tumors was associated with longer disease-specific and recurrence-free survival in univariate analysis, and in multivariate analysis incorporating age, sex, immune status, and stage at presentation. Prioritized oncogene or tumor suppressor mutations were frequent in VN-MCC but rare in VP-MCC. TP53 mutation developed with recurrence in one VP-MCC case. Importantly, for the first time we find that VP-MCC and VN-MCC display distinct sets of prognostic molecular biomarkers. For VP-MCC, shorter survival was associated with decreased expression of immune markers including granzyme and IDO1. For VN-MCC, shorter survival correlated with high expression of several genes including UBE2C.

CONCLUSIONS

MCPyV status is an independent prognostic factor for MCC. Features of the tumor genome, transcriptome, and microenvironment may modify prognosis in a manner specific to viral status. MCPyV status has clinicopathologic significance and allows for identification of additional prognostic subgroups.

Evaluation of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus DNA in Tissue Samples from Italian Patients with Diagnosis of MCC

Because the incidence of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) has increased significantly during the last 10 years and it is recognized that Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation represent two different etiological inputs sharing clinical, histopathological, and prognostic similar features, although with different prognosis, this study investigated the detection of MCPyV in skin and lymph nodes with histological diagnosis of MCC. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue (FFPE) were retrieved from archived specimens and MCPyV non-coding control region (NCCR) and viral capsid protein 1 (VP1) sequences were amplified and sequenced. Results provide an interesting observation concerning the discrepancy between the MCPyV DNA status in primary and metastatic sites: in fact, in all cases in which primary and metastatic lesions were investigated, MCPyV DNA was detected only in the primary lesions. Our data further support the “hit-and-run” theory, also proposed by other authors, and may lead to speculation that in some MCCs the virus is only necessary for the process of tumor initiation and that further mutations may render the tumor independent from the virus. Few point mutations were detected in the NCCR and only silent mutations were observed in the VP1 sequence compared to the MCPyV MCC350 isolate. To unequivocally establish a role of MCPyV in malignancies, additional well-controlled investigations are required, and larger cohorts should be examined.

Comprehensive genetic features of gastric mixed adenoneuroendocrine carcinomas and pure neuroendocrine carcinomas

We aimed to determine the pathogenesis of gastric mixed adenoneuroendocrine carcinoma (MANEC) and pure neuroendocrine carcinoma (NEC), which is largely unknown. Targeted DNA sequencing was performed on 34 tumor samples from 21 patients - 13 adenocarcinoma (ADC)/NEC components from MANECs and eight pure NECs - and 21 matched non-neoplastic gastric tissues. Mutational profiles of MANECs/NECs were compared with those of other tumors using public databases. The majority (64.1%; 59/92) of mutations in MANEC were shared by both ADC and NEC components. TP53 was the most commonly mutated gene in MANEC (69.2%, 9/13) and pure NEC (87.5%, 8/9). All TP53 mutations in MANEC were pathogenic mutations and were shared by both ADC and NEC components. A subset of TP53^WT MANECs had a microsatellite-unstable phenotype or amplifications in various oncogenes including ERBB2 and NMYC, and the only TP53^WT pure NEC harbored MYC amplification. Compared to NEC in other organs, NECs arising from the stomach had unique features including less frequent RB1 mutations. Differentially altered genes of MANEC ADC components were significantly associated with receptor tyrosine kinase signaling pathways, while differentially altered genes of MANEC NEC components were significantly associated with the NOTCH signaling pathway. Our data provide evidence suggesting a possible clonal origin of ADC and NEC components of MANEC, and we found that gastric MANECs and pure NECs are distinct entities with unique mutational profiles and underlying protein networks. © 2020 The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Is Merkel Cell Carcinoma of Lymph Node Actually Metastatic Cutaneous Merkel Cell Carcinoma?

OBJECTIVES

The possibility of a so-called primary lymph node neuroendocrine carcinoma has been described in the literature. Here we evaluate cases fitting such a diagnosis and find that the cases demonstrate a convincing and pervasive pattern consistent with metastatic Merkel cell carcinoma.

METHODS

Six cases of primary lymph node Merkel cell carcinoma and one case of metastatic neuroendocrine carcinoma at a bony site, all with unknown primary, were sequenced using a combination of whole-exome and targeted panel methods. Sequencing results were analyzed for the presence of an ultraviolet (UV) mutational signature or off-target detection of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV).

RESULTS

Four of six primary lymph node cases were positive for a UV mutational signature, with the remaining two cases positive for off-target alignment of MCPyV. One case of neuroendocrine carcinoma occurring at a bony site was also positive for a UV mutational signature.

CONCLUSIONS

We find no evidence to corroborate the existence of so-called primary Merkel cell carcinoma of lymph node.

High-resolution analysis of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus in Merkel Cell Carcinoma reveals distinct integration patterns and suggests NHEJ and MMBIR as underlying mechanisms

Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the etiological agent of the majority of Merkel Cell Carcinomas (MCC). MCPyV positive MCCs harbor integrated, defective viral genomes that constitutively express viral oncogenes. Which molecular mechanisms promote viral integration, if distinct integration patterns exist, and if integration occurs preferentially at loci with specific chromatin states is unknown. We here combined short and long-read (nanopore) next-generation sequencing and present the first high-resolution analysis of integration site structure in MCC cell lines as well as primary tumor material. We find two main types of integration site structure: Linear patterns with chromosomal breakpoints that map closely together, and complex integration loci that exhibit local amplification of genomic sequences flanking the viral DNA. Sequence analysis suggests that linear patterns are produced during viral replication by integration of defective/linear genomes into host DNA double strand breaks via non-homologous end joining, NHEJ. In contrast, our data strongly suggest that complex integration patterns are mediated by microhomology-mediated break-induced replication, MMBIR. Furthermore, we show by ChIP-Seq and RNA-Seq analysis that MCPyV preferably integrates in open chromatin and provide evidence that viral oncogene expression is driven by the viral promoter region, rather than transcription from juxtaposed host promoters. Taken together, our data explain the characteristics of MCPyV integration and may also provide a model for integration of other oncogenic DNA viruses such as papillomaviruses.

Merkel Cell Polyomavirus and Merkel Cell Carcinoma

Viruses are the cause of approximately 15% of all human cancers. Both RNA and DNA human tumor viruses have been identified, with Merkel cell polyomavirus being the most recent one to be linked to cancer. This virus is associated with about 80% of Merkel cell carcinomas, a rare, but aggressive cutaneous malignancy. Despite its name, the cells of origin of this tumor may not be Merkel cells. This review provides an update on the structure and life cycle, cell tropism and epidemiology of the virus and its oncogenic properties. Putative strategies to prevent viral infection or treat virus-positive Merkel cell carcinoma patients are discussed.

Inhibition of PI3K by copanlisib exerts potent antitumor effects on Merkel cell carcinoma cell lines and mouse xenografts

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a highly aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer with steadily increasing incidence and poor prognosis. Despite recent success with immunotherapy, 50% of patients still succumb to their diseases. To date, there is no Food and Drug Administration-approved targeted therapy for advanced MCC. Aberrant activation of phosphatidylinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mTOR pathway is frequently detected in MCC, making it an attractive therapeutic target. We previously found PI3K pathway activation in human MCC cell lines and tumors and demonstrated complete clinical response in a Stage IV MCC patient treated with PI3K inhibitor idelalisib. Here, we found that both PI3K-α and -δ isoforms are abundantly expressed in our MCC cell lines and clinical samples; we therefore examined antitumor efficacy across a panel of five PI3K inhibitors with distinctive isoform-specificities, including idelalisib (PI3K-δ), copanlisib (PI3K-α/δ), duvelisib (PI3K-γ/δ), alpelisib (PI3K-α), and AZD8186 (PI3K-β/δ). Of these, copanlisib exerts the most potent antitumor effects, markedly inhibiting cell proliferation, survival, and tumor growth by suppressing PI3K/mTOR/Akt activities in mouse models generated from MCC cell xenografts and patient-derived tumor xenografts. These results provide compelling preclinical evidence for application of copanlisib in advanced MCC with aberrant PI3K activation for which immunotherapy is insufficient, or patients who are unsuitable for immunotherapy.

Next-generation sequencing implicates oncogenic roles for p53 and JAK/STAT signaling in microcystic adnexal carcinomas

Microcystic adnexal carcinoma is a locally aggressive sweat gland carcinoma characterized by its infiltrative growth and histopathologic overlap with benign adnexal tumors, often posing challenges to both diagnosis and management. Understanding the molecular underpinnings of microcystic adnexal carcinoma may allow for more accurate diagnosis and identify potential targetable oncogenic drivers. We characterized 18 microcystic adnexal carcinomas by targeted, multiplexed PCR-based DNA next-generation sequencing of the coding sequence of over 400 cancer-relevant genes. The majority of cases had relatively few (<8) prioritized somatic mutations, and lacked an ultraviolet (UV) signature. The most recurrent mutation was TP53 inactivation in four (22%) tumors. Frame-preserving insertions affecting the kinase domain of JAK1 were detected in three (17%) cases, and were nonoverlapping with TP53 mutations. Seven (39%) cases demonstrated copy number gain of at least one oncogene. By immunohistochemistry, p53 expression was significantly higher in microcystic adnexal carcinomas with TP53 mutations compared with those without such mutations and syringomas. Similarly, phospho-STAT3 expression was significantly higher in microcystic adnexal carcinomas harboring JAK1 kinase insertions compared with those with wild-type JAK1 and syringomas. In conclusion, microcystic adnexal carcinomas are molecularly heterogeneous tumors, with inactivated p53 or activated JAK/STAT signaling in a subset. Unlike most other nonmelanoma skin cancers involving sun-exposed areas, most microcystic adnexal carcinomas lack evidence of UV damage, and hence likely originate from a relatively photo-protected progenitor population in the dermis. These findings have implications for the biology, diagnosis, and treatment of microcystic adnexal carcinomas, including potential for therapeutic targeting of p53 or the JAK/STAT pathway in advanced tumors.

Triple collision tumor comprising Merkel cell carcinoma with an unusual immunophenotype, squamous cell carcinoma in situ, and basal cell carcinoma

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, aggressive primary cutaneous neuroendocrine cancer which almost always exhibits the cytokeratin (CK)20+/thyroid transcription factor (TTF)-1- immunophenotype. MCC may occur concurrently with squamous cell carcinoma, Bowen disease, and/or basal cell carcinoma (BCC), with some evidence that MCCs which occur in conjunction with other neoplasms exhibit different immunophenotypes compared to pure MCC cases. We present a case of CK20-/TTF-1+ MCC concurrent with Bowen disease and BCC, and discuss possible differences in the pathogenesis of pure vs combined MCC. We also review the literature for this unusual immunophenotype, noting that most cases occur in combined MCC.

Merkel Cell Polyomavirus DNA Replication Induces Senescence in Human Dermal Fibroblasts in a Kap1/Trim28-Dependent Manner

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the only polyomavirus known to be associated with tumorigenesis in humans. Similarly to other polyomaviruses, MCPyV expresses a large tumor antigen (LT-Ag) that, together with a small tumor antigen (sT-Ag), contributes to cellular transformation and that is of critical importance for the initiation of the viral DNA replication. Understanding the cellular protein network regulated by MCPyV early proteins will significantly contribute to our understanding of the natural MCPyV life cycle as well as of the mechanisms by which the virus contributes to cellular transformation. We here describe KRAB-associated protein 1 (Kap1), a chromatin remodeling factor involved in cotranscriptional regulation, as a novel protein interaction partner of MCPyV T antigens sT and LT. Kap1 knockout results in a significant increase in the level of viral DNA replication that is highly suggestive of Kap1 being an important host restriction factor during MCPyV infection. Differently from other DNA viruses, MCPyV gene expression is unaffected in the absence of Kap1 and Kap1 does not associate with the viral genome. Instead, we show that in primary normal human dermal fibroblast (nHDF) cells, MCPyV DNA replication, but not T antigen expression alone, induces ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase-dependent Kap1 S824 phosphorylation, a mechanism that typically facilitates repair of double-strand breaks in heterochromatin by arresting the cells in G2 We show that MCPyV-induced inhibition of cell proliferation is mainly conferred by residues within the origin binding domain and thereby by viral DNA replication. Our data suggest that phosphorylation of Kap1 and subsequent Kap1-dependent G2 arrest/senescence represent host defense mechanisms against MCPyV replication in nHDF cells.IMPORTANCE We here describe Kap1 as a restriction factor in MCPyV infection. We report a novel, indirect mechanism by which Kap1 affects MCPyV replication. In contrast with from other DNA viruses, Kap1 does not associate with the viral genome in MCPyV infection and has no impact on viral gene expression. In MCPyV-infected nHDF cells, Kap1 phosphorylation (pKap1 S824) accumulates because of genomic stress mainly induced by viral DNA replication. In contrast, ectopic expression of LT or LT MCPyV mutants, previously shown to be important for induction of genotoxic stress, does not result in a similar extent of pKap1 accumulation. We show that cells actively replicating MCPyV accumulate pKap1 (in a manner dependent on the presence of ATM) and display a senescence phenotype reflected by G2 arrest. These results are supported by transcriptome analyses showing that LT antigen, in a manner dependent on the presence of Kap1, induces expression of secreted factors, which is known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP).

The Ubiquitin-Specific Protease Usp7, a Novel Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Large T-Antigen Interaction Partner, Modulates Viral DNA Replication

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the major cause for Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare but highly aggressive skin cancer predominantly found in elderly and immunosuppressed patients. The early viral gene products large T-antigen (LT) and small T-antigen (sT) are important for efficient viral DNA replication, and both contribute to transformation processes. These functions are executed mainly through interactions with host factors. Here, we identify the cellular ubiquitin-specific processing protease 7 (Usp7) as a new interaction partner of the MCPyV LT. Using glutathione S-transferase pulldown experiments, we show that MCPyV LT directly binds to Usp7 and that N- as well as C-terminal regions of LT bind to the TRAF (tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated) domain of Usp7. We demonstrate that endogenous Usp7 coprecipitates with MCPyV T-antigens and relocalizes to viral DNA replication centers in cells actively replicating MCPyV genomes. We show that Usp7 does not alter ubiquitination levels of the T-antigens; however, Usp7 binding increases the binding affinity of LT to the origin of replication, thereby negatively regulating viral DNA replication. Together, these data identify Usp7 as a restriction factor of MCPyV replication. In contrast to other DNA viruses, Usp7 does not affect MCPyV gene expression via its ubiquitination activity but influences MCPyV DNA replication solely via a novel mechanism that modulates binding of LT to viral DNA.IMPORTANCE MCPyV is the only human polyomavirus that is associated with cancer; the majority of Merkel cell cancers have a viral etiology. While much emphasis was placed on investigations to understand the transformation process by MCPyV oncoproteins and cellular factors, we have only limited knowledge of cellular factors participating in the MCPyV life cycle. Here, we describe Usp7, a cellular deubiquitination enzyme, as a new factor involved in MCPyV replication. Usp7 is known in the context of large DNA tumor viruses, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus, to restrict viral replication. Similar to EBV, where Usp7 binding to EBNA1 increases EBNA1 binding affinity to viral DNA, we find MCPyV LT binding to the origin of replication to be increased in the presence of Usp7, resulting in restriction of viral DNA replication. However, Usp7-induced restriction of MCPyV replication is independent of its enzymatic activity, thereby constituting a novel mechanism of Usp7-induced restriction of viral replication.

DETECTing Merkel Cell Polyomavirus in Merkel Tumors

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, aggressive skin cancer caused either by Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) T antigen expression, post-integration (~80% cases), or by UV-mediated DNA damage. Interestingly, overall survival of MCV-positive Merkel cell carcinoma patients is better, making this differential information of significant diagnostic and prognostic value. Also, MCV provides a direct target for therapy in MCC patients. Currently, the methods used for diagnosis of MCV in tumors are often discordant and unreliable. Here we used a guided molecular scissors based-DNA Endonuclease Targeted CRISPR Trans Reporter (DETECTR) technique to develop an in vitro molecular diagnostic tool for MCV-positive MCC. DETECTR couples recombinase polymerase based amplification of target MCV DNA with Cas12a mediated detection. CRISPR diagnostics couple specific detection followed by cutting of the pathogenic DNA by the Cas enzyme-gRNA complex, with non-specific cutting of ssDNA that provides a measurable visual cue. To detect MCV DNA in MCC, we designed Cas12a gRNAs targeting the MCV DNA and tested their targeting efficiency, and sensitivity using a fluorophore quencher labeled reporter assay. We show that MCV DETECTR system can detect MCV integrated in Merkel tumor rapidly, specifically and with femto-molar sensitivity. Our study is a preliminary, proof-of-principle analysis showing the use of CRISPR for MCV diagnosis. Further validation in human tumor samples is needed for its clinical use in the near future. This new system is promising and we hope it can be coupled with immunohistochemical studies to diagnose the viral status of MCC in clinics soon.

Microbes as Master Immunomodulators: Immunopathology, Cancer and Personalized Immunotherapies

The intricate interplay between the immune system and microbes is an essential part of the physiological homeostasis in health and disease. Immunological recognition of commensal microbes, such as bacterial species resident in the gut or lung as well as dormant viral species, i.e., cytomegalovirus (CMV) or Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), in combination with a balanced immune regulation, is central to achieve immune-protection. Emerging evidence suggests that immune responses primed to guard against commensal microbes may cause unexpected pathological outcomes, e.g., chronic inflammation and/or malignant transformation. Furthermore, translocation of immune cells from one anatomical compartment to another, i.e., the gut-lung axis via the lymphatics or blood has been identified as an important factor in perpetrating systemic inflammation, tissue destruction, as well as modulating host-protective immune responses. We present in this review immune response patterns to pathogenic as well as non-pathogenic microbes and how these immune-recognition profiles affect local immune responses or malignant transformation. We discuss personalized immunological therapies which, directly or indirectly, target host biological pathways modulated by antimicrobial immune responses.

Merkel cell polyomavirus is implicated in a subset of Merkel cell carcinomas, in the Indian subcontinent

Merkel cell carcinoma is a rare, lethal cancer histopathologically composed of cells showing similarity with mechanoreceptor Merkel cells. Merkel cell tumors manifest in two distinct forms. While a virus called Merkel cell polyomavirus is involved in the pathogenesis of one form of Merkel tumors, the other is driven by ultraviolet (UV)-linked mutations. In this study we investigated 18 cases, from the Indian population, of Merkel cell carcinoma for immunohistochemical (IHC) expression of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) T antigen, including 12 cases tested by PCR, to identify viral etiopathology. We tested the tumors with two sensitive antibodies (CM2B4 and Ab3), targeting the viral large T antigen protein and with PCR primers targeting the N terminus of T antigen. Overall, we observed 38.8% (7/18) tumors displaying positive IHC expression of Merkel cell polyomavirus T antigen and 25% (3/12) tumors showing positive results, by both, immunohistochemistry and PCR. This constitutes the first report from India showing implication of MCV in Merkel cell carcinomas. Moreover, this is one of the larger series of Merkel cell carcinomas, tested for MCV, by both immunohistochemistry and PCR, in this part of the world. These results further indicate that a slightly more number of such cases in India are likely to be caused by UV-linked damage, as opposed to Merkel cell polyomavirus mediated tumorigenesis, which is definitely implicated in a subset of cases.

Morphologic and immunophenotypical features distinguishing Merkel cell polyomavirus-positive and negative Merkel cell carcinoma

In 2008, Feng et al. identified Merkel cell polyomavirus integration as the primary oncogenic event in ~80% of Merkel cell carcinoma cases. The remaining virus-negative Merkel cell carcinoma cases associated with a high mutational load are most likely caused by UV radiation. The current study aimed to compare the morphological and immunohistochemical features of 80 virus-positive and 21 virus-negative Merkel cell carcinoma cases. Microscopic evaluation revealed that elongated nuclei-similar to the spindle-shape variant of small cell lung cancer-were less frequent in Merkel cell polyomavirus-positive Merkel cell carcinoma compared to the virus-negative subset (p = 0.005). Moreover, virus-negative cases more frequently displayed a "large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma" phenotype with larger cell size (p = 0.0026), abundant cytoplasm (p = 4×10^-7) and prominent nucleoli (p = 0.002). Analysis of immunohistochemical data revealed frequent positivity for thyroid transcription factor 1 and cytokeratin 7, either absence or overexpression of p53, as well as frequent lack of neurofilament expression in virus-negative cases. By contrast, cytokeratin 8, 18 and 20 and a CD99 with a dot pattern as well as high EMA expression were identified as characteristic features of virus-positive Merkel cell carcinoma. In particular, the CD99 dot-like expression pattern was strongly associated with presence of the Merkel cell polyomavirus in Merkel cell carcinoma (sensitivity = 81%, specificity = 90%, positive likelihood ratio = 8.08). To conclude, virus-positive and -negative Merkel cell carcinoma are characterized by distinct morphological and immunohistochemical features, which implies a significant difference in tumor biology and behavior. Importantly, we identified the CD99 staining pattern as a marker indicating the virus status of this skin cancer.

Treatment of Advanced Merkel Cell Carcinoma: Current Therapeutic Options and Novel Immunotherapy Approaches

Advanced Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a very aggressive, rare neuroendocrine tumor of the skin with a high frequency of locoregional recurrence and metastasis, and a high mortality rate. Surgical resection, sentinel lymph node biopsy, and radiotherapy represent the gold standard of treatment in patients with localized disease, while chemotherapy has a significant role in the treatment of advanced disease. However, no definitive evidence on the survival impact of radiotherapy in the advanced stages has been provided to date, and response to chemotherapy remains brief in the majority of cases, indicating an urgent need for alternative approaches. Biological and genome sequencing studies have implicated multiple molecular pathways in MCC, thus leading to the development of new agents that target angiogenic factors, anti-apoptosis molecules, poly-ADP ribose polymerase, intracellular signal proteins such as the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, and peptide receptors such as somatostatin receptors. More recently, immunotherapy agents such as avelumab, pembrolizumab, and nivolumab, which act by blocking the programmed cell-death (PD)-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint, have shown promising results, especially in the advanced setting, and should now be considered standard of care for metastatic MCC. Current research is focusing on developing new immunotherapeutic strategies, identifying predictive biomarker to aid in the selection of patients responsive to immunotherapy, and defining combination approaches to increase efficacy in refractory patients.

Immunotherapy for skin cancer

Among all tumor types, skin cancers are profoundly sensitive to immunotherapy. Indeed, the recently reported response rates for anti-PD-1 (anti-programmed-death 1) therapy for cutaneous malignant melanomas (MM), Merkel cell carcinomas, basal cell carcinomas, cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas and Kaposi sarcomas are all above 40%. This unique immunogenicity renders skin cancers as a paradigm for tumor-immune interactions and is driven by high mutational burdens, over-expressed tumor antigens and/or viral antigens. However, despite the clear demonstration of immunologic cure of skin cancer in some patients, most tumors develop either early (primary) or late (adaptive) resistance to immunotherapy. Resistance mechanisms are complex, and include contributions of tumor cell-intrinsic, T cell and microenvironment factors that have been recently further elucidated with the advent of single-cell technologies. This review will focus on the exciting progress with immunotherapy for skin cancers to date, and also our current understanding of the mechanisms of resistance to immunotherapy.

Evaluation of Lymph Node Ratio Association With Long-term Patient Survival After Surgery for Node-Positive Merkel Cell Carcinoma

Importance

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) carries the highest mortality rate among cutaneous cancers and is rapidly rising in incidence. Identification of prognostic indicators may help guide patient counseling and treatment planning. Lymph node ratio (LNR), the ratio of positive lymph nodes to the total number of examined lymph nodes, is an established prognostic indicator in other cancers.

Objectives

The primary objective was to evaluate the association between LNR and patient survival after surgery for node-positive MCC. The secondary objective was to evaluate whether the survival rates associated with adjuvant therapies vary by patient LNR status.

Design, Setting, and Participants

Retrospective cohort study of patients with node-positive MCC treated with surgery and lymphadenectomy. We queried the National Cancer Database (NCDB) and the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) registry for patient records. Data originated from 2004 through 2017 for the NCDB and from 1973 through 2016 for the SEER registry. The SEER registry comprises a population-based US cohort while cases from the NCDB include all reportable cases from Commission on Cancer-accredited facilities and represents approximately 70% of all newly diagnosed cancers in the United States. All data analysis took place between August 1, 2018, and February 11, 2019.

Exposures

The ratio of positive lymph nodes to the total number of examined lymph nodes, LNR, was stratified into quartiles.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Overall survival (NCDB) and disease-specific survival (SEER).

Results

We identified 736 eligible cases in the NCDB and 538 eligible cases in the SEER registry. Among these 1274 patients, the mean (SD) age was 71.1 (11.5) years, and 401 (31.5%) were women. After controlling for clinical and tumor factors including AJCC N staging, patient LNR of 0.07 to 0.31 (hazard ratio [HR], 1.37; 95% CI, 1.03-1.81) and greater than 0.31 (HR, 2.84; 95% CI, 2.10-3.86) was associated with significantly worse survival than an LNR less than 0.07. Univariate supplementary analysis performed in the SEER data set revealed a similar association of LNR with disease-specific survival. For patients with an LNR greater than 0.31, treatment with surgery and adjuvant chemoradiation therapy was associated with improved survival compared with surgery and adjuvant radiation therapy alone (HR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.38-0.97), while this was not found for patients with an LNR of 0.31 or lower (HR, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.65-1.33).

Conclusions and Relevance

For lymph node-positive MCC, LNR offers a potentially prognostic metric alongside traditional TNM staging that may be useful for both patient counseling and treatment planning after surgery.

Merkel Cell Carcinoma in the HIV-1/AIDS Patient

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a highly aggressive, primary neuroendocrine cancer of the skin. The majority of MCC cases are associated with the recently discovered Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), while the remaining are caused by ultraviolet (UV) light-induced mutations from excessive sunlight exposure. The risk of developing MCC is much higher in the white population relative to all other races. Approximately 10% of all patients with MCC have some form of immunosuppression including HIV-1/AIDS, chronic inflammatory conditions, solid organ transplantation, or hematological malignancies. The age of onset of MCC is lower and the mortality is higher in immunosuppressed individuals than in immune-competent patients. It is plausible that HIV-1/AIDS predisposes to virus-positive MCC, but it should be noted that HIV-1/AIDS increases the risk for developing of UV-induced skin cancers such as cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma and therefore may also increase the risk for virus-negative MCC. Surgical management is considered standard of care for localized Merkel cell carcinoma with current recommendations advising a wide local excision of the lesion. Most international guidelines support the use of local adjuvant radiotherapy coupled with tumor staging to improve the frequency of cure. For advanced, metastatic, and recurrent MCC, checkpoint blockade inhibitors targeting PD-1 and PD-L1 have shown remarkable activity including durable long-term. MCC in patients living with HIV-1/AIDS are treated with similar modalities as HIV-1 uninfected individuals with MCC.

Histogenesis of Merkel Cell Carcinoma: A Comprehensive Review

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a primary neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin. This neoplasia features aggressive behavior, resulting in a 5-year overall survival rate of 40%. In 2008, Feng et al. identified Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) integration into the host genome as the main event leading to MCC oncogenesis. However, despite identification of this crucial viral oncogenic trigger, the nature of the cell in which MCC oncogenesis occurs is actually unknown. In fact, several hypotheses have been proposed. Despite the large similarity in phenotype features between MCC tumor cells and physiological Merkel cells (MCs), a specialized subpopulation of the epidermis acting as mechanoreceptor of the skin, several points argue against the hypothesis that MCC derives directly from MCs. Alternatively, MCPyV integration could occur in another cell type and induce acquisition of an MC-like phenotype. Accordingly, an epithelial as well as a fibroblastic or B-cell origin of MCC has been proposed mainly based on phenotype similarities shared by MCC and these potential ancestries. The aim of this present review is to provide a comprehensive review of the current knowledge of the histogenesis of MCC.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors and Beyond: An Overview of Immune-Based Therapies in Merkel Cell Carcinoma

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer. Until 2017, patients with advanced disease were typically treated with conventional chemotherapies, with a median response duration of 3 months. Increased evidence of the role of the immune system in controlling this cancer has paved the way for immune-based therapies, with programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)/programmed cell death protein ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors at the frontline. Avelumab, an anti-PD-L1 antibody, was the first-ever drug approved in advanced MCC after showing meaningful efficacy in a second-line setting. Objective responses were observed in one-third of patients and, most importantly, were durable with half of patients and one-third of patients still alive at 1 and 2 years, respectively. When used in a first-line setting, PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors (avelumab, pembrolizumab, nivolumab) are even more promising as objective responses are observed in approximately 50-70% of patients within the first 4-8 weeks of treatment. Safety profiles are acceptable with 10-20% of patients experiencing adverse events grade ≥ 3. PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors are considered the standard of care in advanced MCC and are currently being investigated in the adjuvant and neoadjuvant settings. However, innovative treatments are still needed in the metastatic setting, as approximately 50% of these patients will not persistently respond to currently available immunotherapies, and no predictors of response are available yet. Therefore, other immunotherapeutic strategies are now being investigated-ideally in combinations-to enhance the various aspects of the immune response against tumoral cells.

The biology and treatment of Merkel cell carcinoma: current understanding and research priorities

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and aggressive skin cancer associated with advanced age and immunosuppression. Over the past decade, an association has been discovered between MCC and either integration of the Merkel cell polyomavirus, which likely drives tumorigenesis, or somatic mutations owing to ultraviolet-induced DNA damage. Both virus-positive and virus-negative MCCs are immunogenic, and inhibition of the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)–programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) immune checkpoint has proved to be highly effective in treating patients with metastatic MCC; however, not all patients have a durable response to immunotherapy. Despite these rapid advances in the understanding and management of patients with MCC, many basic, translational and clinical research questions remain unanswered. In March 2018, an International Workshop on Merkel Cell Carcinoma Research was held at the US National Cancer Institute, at which academic, government and industry experts met to identify the highest-priority research questions. Here, we review the biology and treatment of MCC and report the consensus-based recommendations agreed upon during the workshop.

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and aggressive form of nonmelanoma skin cancer. The availability of immune checkpoint inhibition has improved the outcomes of a subset of patients with MCC, although many unmet needs continue to exist. In this Consensus Statement, the authors summarize developments in our understanding of MCC while also providing consensus recommendations for future research.

Diagnostic accuracy of a panel of immunohistochemical and molecular markers to distinguish Merkel cell carcinoma from other neuroendocrine carcinomas

Merkel cell carcinoma is a rare neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin mostly induced by Merkel cell polyomavirus integration. Cytokeratin 20 (CK20) positivity is currently used to distinguish Merkel cell carcinomas from other neuroendocrine carcinomas. However, this distinction may be challenging in CK20-negative cases and in cases without a primary skin tumor. The objectives of this study were first to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of previously described markers for the diagnosis of Merkel cell carcinoma and second to validate these markers in the setting of difficult-to-diagnose Merkel cell carcinoma variants. In a preliminary set (n = 30), we assessed optimal immunohistochemical patterns (CK20, thyroid transcription factor 1 [TTF-1], atonal homolog 1 [ATOH1], neurofilament [NF], special AT-rich sequence-binding protein 2 [SATB2], paired box protein 5, terminal desoxynucleotidyl transferase, CD99, mucin 1, and Merkel cell polyomavirus-large T antigen) and Merkel cell polyomavirus load thresholds (real-time PCR). The diagnostic accuracy of each marker was then assessed in a validation set of 103 Merkel cell carcinomas (9 CK20-negative cases and 15 cases without a primary skin tumor) and 70 extracutaneous neuroendocrine carcinoma cases. The most discriminant markers for a diagnosis of Merkel cell carcinoma were SATB2, NF expression, and Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA detection (positive likelihood ratios: 36.6, 44.4, and 28.2, respectively). Regarding Merkel cell carcinoma variants, cases without a primary skin tumor retained a similar immunohistochemical  profile and CK20-negative tumors displayed a different profile (decrease frequency of NF and SATB2 expression), but Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA remained detected (78% of cases by qPCR). Moreover, 8/9 (89%) CK20-negative Merkel cell carcinoma cases but only 3/61 (5%) CK20-negative extracutaneous neuroendocrine cases were positive for at least one of these markers. In conclusion, detection of SATB2 and NF expression and Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA helps distinguish between Merkel cell carcinoma classical and variant cases and extracutaneous neuroendocrine carcinomas.

ALK and EGFR expression by immunohistochemistry are associated with Merkel cell polyomavirus status in Merkel cell carcinoma

AIMS

Merkel cell carcinoma, a rare cutaneous neuroendocrine tumour of the skin, can be categorised into two groups according to Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) presence. MCV-negative tumours are more aggressive and frequently associated with gene mutations. Some of the genes are potential therapeutic targets. We have previously reported EGFR mutations in six of 27 MCC tumours and overexpression of ALK and EZH2 at mRNA level in MCC tumours. In this study, we sought to determine expression of ALK, EGFR and EZH2 in MCC samples and assess their correlation to MCV status and clinical parameters.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Tissue microarrays were utilised and stained with primary antibodies. Staining data were statistically compared to patient sex, tumour location and development of metastasis and MCC-specific death; 112 tumours and their corresponding patient data were included. We found strong expression of ALK in 51% and strong expression of EZH2 in 76% of the tumours. There was evident correlation of ALK expression with MCV-positivity. Expression of EGFR was infrequent, presenting only in seven MCV-negative tumours. None of the proteins associated with development of metastasis or MCC specific death.

CONCLUSIONS

ALK and EZH2 expression are frequent in MCC and ALK expression correlates to MCV positivity. EGFR positive tumours might respond to EGFR inhibiting treatment.