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Bonanno GA, Westphal M. The three axioms of resilience. J Trauma Stress 2024. [PMID: 38840482 DOI: 10.1002/jts.23071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
This article summarizes the growing literature on resilience in the face of aversive and potentially traumatic events (PTEs) in three basic axioms: (a) resilience is a common outcome, 2) there are no "key" traits to resilience (resilience is not a type), and (c) resilient outcomes occur through flexible self-regulation. The first axiom highlights the limitation of a traditional, binary view of trauma in terms of the presence-absence of posttraumatic stress disorder, emphasizing instead the heterogeneity of trauma outcomes. Four prototypical trajectories are reviewed: chronic symptoms; delayed symptoms; recovery; and the most common trajectory, resilience. The second axiom reviews the paradoxical inability of known correlates of resilience to adequately predict resilient outcomes. Resilience is instead described as a multifaceted phenomenon with no singular set of key traits, as various factors contribute to resilient outcomes in complex ways. The third axiom provides an explanation of how resilience can emerge from this complex array by introducing the concept of flexible self-regulation. The flexibility mindset is described as providing the motivation for flexible responding. The flexibility sequence is described as explaining the mechanisms underlying flexibility in terms of three serial stages: context sensitivity, strategy repertoire, and feedback adjustment. The final section briefly considers clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Bonanno
- Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Maren Westphal
- Department of Psychology, Pace University, Pleasantville, New York, USA
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2
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Tsutsui K, Tanaka R, Takeda K, Fujii K. Collaborative hunting in artificial agents with deep reinforcement learning. eLife 2024; 13:e85694. [PMID: 38711355 DOI: 10.7554/elife.85694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Collaborative hunting, in which predators play different and complementary roles to capture prey, has been traditionally believed to be an advanced hunting strategy requiring large brains that involve high-level cognition. However, recent findings that collaborative hunting has also been documented in smaller-brained vertebrates have placed this previous belief under strain. Here, using computational multi-agent simulations based on deep reinforcement learning, we demonstrate that decisions underlying collaborative hunts do not necessarily rely on sophisticated cognitive processes. We found that apparently elaborate coordination can be achieved through a relatively simple decision process of mapping between states and actions related to distance-dependent internal representations formed by prior experience. Furthermore, we confirmed that this decision rule of predators is robust against unknown prey controlled by humans. Our computational ecological results emphasize that collaborative hunting can emerge in various intra- and inter-specific interactions in nature, and provide insights into the evolution of sociality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazushi Tsutsui
- Graduate School of Informatics, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
- Institute for Advanced Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Ryoya Tanaka
- Institute for Advanced Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
- Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kazuya Takeda
- Graduate School of Informatics, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
- Institute of Innovation for Future Society, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Keisuke Fujii
- Graduate School of Informatics, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
- Institute for Advanced Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project, Tokyo, Japan
- PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo, Japan
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3
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Hansen KW, Ranc N, Morgan J, Jordan NR, McNutt JW, Wilson A, Wilmers CC. How territoriality and sociality influence the habitat selection and movements of a large carnivore. Ecol Evol 2024; 14:e11217. [PMID: 38628916 PMCID: PMC11019303 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.11217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
While territoriality is one of the key mechanisms influencing carnivore space use, most studies quantify resource selection and movement in the absence of conspecific influence or territorial structure. Our analysis incorporated social information in a resource selection framework to investigate mechanisms of territoriality and intra-specific competition on the habitat selection of a large, social carnivore. We fit integrated step selection functions to 3-h GPS data from 12 collared African wild dog packs in the Okavango Delta and estimated selection coefficients using a conditional Poisson likelihood with random effects. Packs selected for their neighbors' 30-day boundary (defined as their 95% kernel density estimate) and for their own 90-day core (defined as their 50% kernel density estimate). Neighbors' 30-day boundary had a greater influence on resource selection than any habitat feature. Habitat selection differed when they were within versus beyond their neighbors' 30-day boundary. Pack size, pack tenure, pup presence, and seasonality all mediated how packs responded to neighbors' space use, and seasonal dynamics altered the strength of residency. While newly-formed packs and packs with pups avoided their neighbors' boundary, older packs and those without pups selected for it. Packs also selected for the boundary of larger neighboring packs more strongly than that of smaller ones. Social structure within packs has implications for how they interact with conspecifics, and therefore how they are distributed across the landscape. Future research should continue to investigate how territorial processes are mediated by social dynamics and, in turn, how territorial structure mediates resource selection and movement. These results could inform the development of a human-wildlife conflict (HWC) mitigation tool by co-opting the mechanisms of conspecific interactions to manage space use of endangered carnivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Whitney Hansen
- Environmental Studies Department University of California Santa Cruz California USA
- Botswana Predator Conservation Maun Botswana
| | - Nathan Ranc
- Université de Toulouse, INRAE, CEFS Castanet-Tolosan France
| | - John Morgan
- Environmental Studies Department University of California Santa Cruz California USA
| | - Neil R Jordan
- Botswana Predator Conservation Maun Botswana
- Center for Ecosystem Science University of New South Wales Sydney New South Wales Australia
- Taronga Conservation Society Australia Dubbo New South Wales Australia
| | | | - Alan Wilson
- Structure & Motion Lab, Comparative Biomedical Sciences Royal Veterinary College London UK
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4
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English HM, Börger L, Kane A, Ciuti S. Advances in biologging can identify nuanced energetic costs and gains in predators. MOVEMENT ECOLOGY 2024; 12:7. [PMID: 38254232 PMCID: PMC10802026 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-024-00448-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Foraging is a key driver of animal movement patterns, with specific challenges for predators which must search for mobile prey. These patterns are increasingly impacted by global changes, principally in land use and climate. Understanding the degree of flexibility in predator foraging and social strategies is pertinent to wildlife conservation under global change, including potential top-down effects on wider ecosystems. Here we propose key future research directions to better understand foraging strategies and social flexibility in predators. In particular, rapid continued advances in biologging technology are helping to record and understand dynamic behavioural and movement responses of animals to environmental changes, and their energetic consequences. Data collection can be optimised by calibrating behavioural interpretation methods in captive settings and strategic tagging decisions within and between social groups. Importantly, many species' social systems are increasingly being found to be more flexible than originally described in the literature, which may be more readily detectable through biologging approaches than behavioural observation. Integrating the effects of the physical landscape and biotic interactions will be key to explaining and predicting animal movements and energetic balance in a changing world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly M English
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Luca Börger
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Adam Kane
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Simone Ciuti
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
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5
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Bonanno GA, Chen S, Bagrodia R, Galatzer-Levy IR. Resilience and Disaster: Flexible Adaptation in the Face of Uncertain Threat. Annu Rev Psychol 2024; 75:573-599. [PMID: 37566760 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-011123-024224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Disasters cause sweeping damage, hardship, and loss of life. In this article, we first consider the dominant psychological approach to disasters and its narrow focus on psychopathology (e.g., posttraumatic stress disorder). We then review research on a broader approach that has identified heterogeneous, highly replicable trajectories of outcome, the most common being stable mental health or resilience. We review trajectory research for different types of disasters, including the COVID-19 pandemic. Next, we consider correlates of the resilience trajectory and note their paradoxically limited ability to predict future resilient outcomes. Research using machine learning algorithms improved prediction but has not yet illuminated the mechanism behind resilient adaptation. To that end, we propose a more direct psychological explanation for resilience based on research on the motivational and mechanistic components of regulatory flexibility. Finally, we consider how future research might leverage new computational approaches to better capture regulatory flexibility in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Bonanno
- Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; , ,
| | - Shuquan Chen
- Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; , ,
| | - Rohini Bagrodia
- Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; , ,
| | - Isaac R Galatzer-Levy
- Department of Psychiatry, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, USA;
- Google LLC, Mountain View, California
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6
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Hansen MJ, Domenici P, Bartashevich P, Burns A, Krause J. Mechanisms of group-hunting in vertebrates. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:1687-1711. [PMID: 37199232 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Group-hunting is ubiquitous across animal taxa and has received considerable attention in the context of its functions. By contrast much less is known about the mechanisms by which grouping predators hunt their prey. This is primarily due to a lack of experimental manipulation alongside logistical difficulties quantifying the behaviour of multiple predators at high spatiotemporal resolution as they search, select, and capture wild prey. However, the use of new remote-sensing technologies and a broadening of the focal taxa beyond apex predators provides researchers with a great opportunity to discern accurately how multiple predators hunt together and not just whether doing so provides hunters with a per capita benefit. We incorporate many ideas from collective behaviour and locomotion throughout this review to make testable predictions for future researchers and pay particular attention to the role that computer simulation can play in a feedback loop with empirical data collection. Our review of the literature showed that the breadth of predator:prey size ratios among the taxa that can be considered to hunt as a group is very large (<100 to >102 ). We therefore synthesised the literature with respect to these predator:prey ratios and found that they promoted different hunting mechanisms. Additionally, these different hunting mechanisms are also related to particular stages of the hunt (search, selection, capture) and thus we structure our review in accordance with these two factors (stage of the hunt and predator:prey size ratio). We identify several novel group-hunting mechanisms which are largely untested, particularly under field conditions, and we also highlight a range of potential study organisms that are amenable to experimental testing of these mechanisms in connection with tracking technology. We believe that a combination of new hypotheses, study systems and methodological approaches should help push the field of group-hunting in new directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Hansen
- Fish Biology, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, Berlin, 12587, Germany
| | - Paolo Domenici
- IBF-CNR, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Area di Ricerca San Cataldo, Via G. Moruzzi No. 1, Pisa, 56124, Italy
- IAS-CNR, Località Sa Mardini, Torregrande, Oristano, 09170, Italy
| | - Palina Bartashevich
- Faculty of Life Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 42, Berlin, 10115, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence "Science of Intelligence," Technical University of Berlin, Marchstr. 23, Berlin, 10587, Germany
| | - Alicia Burns
- Faculty of Life Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 42, Berlin, 10115, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence "Science of Intelligence," Technical University of Berlin, Marchstr. 23, Berlin, 10587, Germany
| | - Jens Krause
- Fish Biology, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, Berlin, 12587, Germany
- Faculty of Life Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 42, Berlin, 10115, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence "Science of Intelligence," Technical University of Berlin, Marchstr. 23, Berlin, 10587, Germany
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7
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Rafiq K, Appleby RG, Davies A, Abrahms B. SensorDrop: A system to remotely detach individual sensors from wildlife tracking collars. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10220. [PMID: 37408628 PMCID: PMC10318577 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The growing diversity of animal-borne sensor types is revolutionizing our understanding of wildlife biology. For example, researcher-developed sensors, such as audio and video loggers, are being increasingly attached to wildlife tracking collars to provide insights into a range of topics from species interactions to physiology. However, such devices are often prohibitively power-intensive, relative to conventional wildlife collar sensors, and their retrieval without compromising long-term data collection and animal welfare remains a challenge. We present an open-source system (SensorDrop) for remotely detaching individual sensors from wildlife collars. SensorDrop facilitates the retrieval of power-intensive sensors while leaving non-resource-intensive sensors intact on animals. SensorDrop systems can be made using commercially available components and are a fraction of the cost of other timed drop-off devices that detach full wildlife tracking collars. From 2021 to 2022, eight SensorDrop units were successfully deployed on free-ranging African wild dog packs in the Okavango Delta as part of audio-accelerometer sensor bundles attached to wildlife collars. All SensorDrop units detached after 2-3 weeks and facilitated the collection of audio and accelerometer data while leaving wildlife GPS collars intact to continue collecting locational data (>1 year), critical for long-term conservation population monitoring in the region. SensorDrop offers a low-cost method to remotely detach and retrieve individual sensors from wildlife collars. By selectively detaching battery-depleted sensors, SensorDrop maximizes the amount of data collected per wildlife collar deployment and mitigates ethical concerns on animal rehandling. SensorDrop adds to the growing body of open-source animal-borne technologies being utilized by wildlife researchers to innovate and expand upon data collection practices and supports the continued ethical use of novel technologies within wildlife studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Rafiq
- Department of Biology, Center for Ecosystem SentinelsUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashingtonUSA
- Botswana Predator ConservationMaunBotswana
| | - R. G. Appleby
- Centre for Planetary Health and Food SecurityGriffith UniversityBrisbaneQueenslandAustralia
- Wild Spy Pty LtdBrisbaneQueenslandAustralia
| | | | - B. Abrahms
- Department of Biology, Center for Ecosystem SentinelsUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashingtonUSA
- Botswana Predator ConservationMaunBotswana
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8
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Zhao ZD, Zhang L, Xiang X, Kim D, Li H, Cao P, Shen WL. Neurocircuitry of Predatory Hunting. Neurosci Bull 2023; 39:817-831. [PMID: 36705845 PMCID: PMC10170020 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-022-01018-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Predatory hunting is an important type of innate behavior evolutionarily conserved across the animal kingdom. It is typically composed of a set of sequential actions, including prey search, pursuit, attack, and consumption. This behavior is subject to control by the nervous system. Early studies used toads as a model to probe the neuroethology of hunting, which led to the proposal of a sensory-triggered release mechanism for hunting actions. More recent studies have used genetically-trackable zebrafish and rodents and have made breakthrough discoveries in the neuroethology and neurocircuits underlying this behavior. Here, we review the sophisticated neurocircuitry involved in hunting and summarize the detailed mechanism for the circuitry to encode various aspects of hunting neuroethology, including sensory processing, sensorimotor transformation, motivation, and sequential encoding of hunting actions. We also discuss the overlapping brain circuits for hunting and feeding and point out the limitations of current studies. We propose that hunting is an ideal behavioral paradigm in which to study the neuroethology of motivated behaviors, which may shed new light on epidemic disorders, including binge-eating, obesity, and obsessive-compulsive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Dong Zhao
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
- Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Li Zhang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences (NIBS), Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Xinkuan Xiang
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Daesoo Kim
- Department of Cognitive Brain Science, Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea.
| | - Haohong Li
- MOE Frontier Research Center of Brain & Brain-machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
- Affiliated Mental Health Centre and Hangzhou Seventh People`s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310013, China.
| | - Peng Cao
- National Institute of Biological Sciences (NIBS), Beijing, 102206, China.
| | - Wei L Shen
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.
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9
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Comley J, Wijers M, Leslie AJ, Groom RJ, Watermeyer JP. Finding a safe space: Denning range dynamics of African wild dogs in Zimbabwe. Afr J Ecol 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/aje.13140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Comley
- Wildlife and Reserve Management Research Group, Department of Zoology and Entomology Rhodes University Grahamstown South Africa
- Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science Universiti Brunei Darussalam Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei
| | - Matthew Wijers
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati‐Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology University of Oxford Oxford UK
| | - Alison Jane Leslie
- Department Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Faculty of AgriSciences Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch South Africa
| | - Rosemary Joy Groom
- African Wildlife Conservation Fund, Chishakwe Ranch Savé Valley Conservancy Chichindwe Zimbabwe
- Zoological Society of London, Regents Park London UK
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10
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Dwyer GK, Stoffels RJ, Silvester E, Rees GN. Two wild carnivores selectively forage for prey but not amino acids. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3254. [PMID: 36828827 PMCID: PMC9958011 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28231-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In nutritional ecology the intake target is the diet that maximises consumer fitness. A key hypothesis of nutritional ecology is that natural selection has acted upon the behavioural and physiological traits of consumers to result in them Selectively Consuming prey to match the Intake Target (SCIT). SCIT has been documented in some herbivores and omnivores, which experience strong heterogeneity in the nutritional quality of available foods. Although carnivores experience a prey community with a much more homogeneous nutrient composition, SCIT by carnivores has nevertheless been deemed highly likely by some researchers. Here we test for SCIT for micronutrients (amino acids) in two freshwater carnivores: the river blackfish and the two-spined blackfish. Although both blackfishes exhibited non-random consumption of prey from the environment, this resulted in non-random consumption of amino acids in only one species, the river blackfish. Non-random consumption of amino acids by river blackfish was not SCIT, but instead an artefact of habitat-specific foraging. We present hypotheses to explain why wild populations of freshwater carnivores may not exhibit SCIT for amino acids. Our work highlights the need for careful, critical tests of the hypotheses and assumptions of nutritional ecology and its application to wild populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia K Dwyer
- Centre for Regional and Rural Futures, Deakin University, Locked Bag 20000, Geelong, VIC, 3220, Australia.
| | - Rick J Stoffels
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Riccarton, PO Box 8602, Christchurch, 8440, New Zealand
| | - Ewen Silvester
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution, Centre for Freshwater Ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Wodonga, VIC, 3690, Australia
| | - Gavin N Rees
- CSIRO Land and Water, and Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW, 2640, Australia
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Togunov RR, Derocher AE, Lunn NJ, Auger-Méthé M. Drivers of polar bear behavior and the possible effects of prey availability on foraging strategy. MOVEMENT ECOLOGY 2022; 10:50. [PMID: 36384775 PMCID: PMC9670556 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-022-00351-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Change in behavior is one of the earliest responses to variation in habitat suitability. It is therefore important to understand the conditions that promote different behaviors, particularly in areas undergoing environmental change. Animal movement is tightly linked to behavior and remote tracking can be used to study ethology when direct observation is not possible. METHODS We used movement data from 14 polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in Hudson Bay, Canada, during the foraging season (January-June), when bears inhabit the sea ice. We developed an error-tolerant method to correct for sea ice drift in tracking data. Next, we used hidden Markov models with movement and orientation relative to wind to study three behaviors (stationary, area-restricted search, and olfactory search) and examine effects of 11 covariates on behavior. RESULTS Polar bears spent approximately 47% of their time in the stationary drift state, 29% in olfactory search, and 24% in area-restricted search. High energy behaviors occurred later in the day (around 20:00) compared to other populations. Second, olfactory search increased as the season progressed, which may reflect a shift in foraging strategy from still-hunting to active search linked to a shift in seal availability (i.e., increase in haul-outs from winter to the spring pupping and molting seasons). Last, we found spatial patterns of distribution linked to season, ice concentration, and bear age that may be tied to habitat quality and competitive exclusion. CONCLUSIONS Our observations were generally consistent with predictions of the marginal value theorem, and differences between our findings and other populations could be explained by regional or temporal variation in resource availability. Our novel movement analyses and finding can help identify periods, regions, and conditions of critical habitat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ron R. Togunov
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, The University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4 Vancouver, Canada
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Andrew E. Derocher
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2E9 Canada
| | - Nicholas J. Lunn
- Wildlife Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Edmonton, T6G 2E9 Canada
| | - Marie Auger-Méthé
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, The University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4 Vancouver, Canada
- Department of Statistics, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4 Canada
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12
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Hansen MJ, Krause S, Dhellemmes F, Pacher K, Kurvers RHJM, Domenici P, Krause J. Mechanisms of prey division in striped marlin, a marine group hunting predator. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1161. [PMID: 36316537 PMCID: PMC9622829 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03951-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many terrestrial group-hunters cooperate to kill prey but then compete for their share with dominance being a strong predictor of prey division. In contrast, little is known about prey division in group-hunting marine predators that predominately attack small, evasive prey (e.g. fish schools). We identified individual striped marlin (Kajikia audax) hunting in groups. Groups surrounded prey but individuals took turns attacking. We found that competition for prey access led to an unequal division of prey among the predators, with 50% of the most frequently attacking marlin capturing 70–80% of the fish. Neither aggression, body size nor variation in hunting efficiency explained this skewed prey division. We did find that newly arrived groups of marlin gained on average more access to the prey. This raises the possibility that newly arrived marlin were hungrier and more motivated to feed. However, this result does not necessarily explain the unequal prey division among the predators because the skew in prey captures was found at the level of these groups. Dynamic prey division is probably widespread but under-reported in marine group-hunters and the inability of individuals to monopolize prey until satiation likely reduces the importance of social hierarchies for prey division. Striped marlin use a dynamic prey division method when hunting as a group, taking turns to feed but without doing so equally.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. J. Hansen
- grid.419247.d0000 0001 2108 8097Department of Fish Biology, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany
| | - S. Krause
- grid.4562.50000 0001 0057 2672Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Lübeck University of Applied Sciences, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - F. Dhellemmes
- grid.419247.d0000 0001 2108 8097Department of Fish Biology, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany
| | - K. Pacher
- grid.7468.d0000 0001 2248 7639Faculty of Life Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - R. H. J. M. Kurvers
- grid.419247.d0000 0001 2108 8097Department of Fish Biology, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany ,grid.419526.d0000 0000 9859 7917Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - P. Domenici
- grid.5326.20000 0001 1940 4177IBF-CNR, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Area di Ricerca San Cataldo, Via G. Moruzzi N°1, 56124 Pisa, Italy ,IAS-CNR, Località Sa Mardini, 09170 Torregrande, Oristano Italy
| | - J. Krause
- grid.419247.d0000 0001 2108 8097Department of Fish Biology, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany ,grid.6734.60000 0001 2292 8254Cluster of Excellence “Science of Intelligence,” Technical University of Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany ,grid.7468.d0000 0001 2248 7639Present Address: Faculty of Life Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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13
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Struble MK, Gibb AC. Do we all walk the walk? A comparison of walking behaviors across tetrapods. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:icac125. [PMID: 35945645 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A walking gait has been identified in a range of vertebrate species with different body plans, habitats, and life histories. With increased application of this broad umbrella term, it has become necessary to assess the physical characteristics, analytical approaches, definitions, and diction used to describe walks. To do this, we reviewed studies of slow speed locomotion across a range of vertebrates to refine the parameters used to define walking, evaluate analytical techniques, and propose approaches to maximize consistency across subdisciplines. We summarize nine key parameters used to characterize walking behaviors in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes. After identifying consistent patterns across groups, we propose a comprehensive definition for a walking gait. A walk is a form of locomotion where the majority of the forward propulsion of the animal comes from forces generated by the appendages interacting with the ground. During a walk, an appendage must be out of phase with the opposing limb in the same girdle and there is always at least one limb acting as ground-support (no suspension phase). Additionally, walking occurs at dimensionless speeds <1 v* and the duty factor of the limbs is always >0.5. Relative to other gaits used by the same species, the stance duration of a walk is long, the cycle frequency is low, and the cycle distance is small. Unfortunately, some of these biomechanical parameters, while effectively describing walks, may also characterize other, non-walking gaits. Inconsistent methodology likely contributes to difficulties in comparing data across many groups of animals; consistent application of data collection and analytical techniques in research methodology can improve these comparisons. Finally, we note that the kinetics of quadrupedal movements are still poorly understood and much work remains to be done to understand the movements of small, exothermic tetrapods.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Struble
- Northern Arizona University S San Francisco St, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
- Department of Biological Sciences 617 S Beaver St, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
| | - A C Gibb
- Northern Arizona University S San Francisco St, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
- Department of Biological Sciences 617 S Beaver St, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
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14
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Groom RJ, Comley J, Rabaiotti D, Wolton A, Jackson C, Ngwenya N, Watermeyer JP. African Wild Dog Reproductive Capabilities Revisited: Successfully Raising Three Litters in Less than 14 Months is Possible. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.3957/056.052.0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rosemary J. Groom
- African Wildlife Conservation Fund, Chishakwe Ranch, Savé Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe
| | - Jessica Comley
- Wildlife and Reserve Management Research Group, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, P.O. Box 94, Grahamstown/Makhanda, 6140 South Africa
| | | | - Amy Wolton
- African Wildlife Conservation Fund, Chishakwe Ranch, Savé Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe
| | - Craig Jackson
- Department of Terrestrial Ecology, Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Høgskoleringen 9, 7034 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Nkosilathi Ngwenya
- African Wildlife Conservation Fund, Chishakwe Ranch, Savé Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe
| | - Jessica P. Watermeyer
- African Wildlife Conservation Fund, Chishakwe Ranch, Savé Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe
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15
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Parsons MA, Garcia A, Young JK. Scavenging vs hunting affects behavioral traits of an opportunistic carnivore. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13366. [PMID: 35529483 PMCID: PMC9070321 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Human-induced changes to ecosystems transform the availability of resources to predators, including altering prey populations and increasing access to anthropogenic foods. Opportunistic predators are likely to respond to altered food resources by changing the proportion of food they hunt versus scavenge. These shifts in foraging behavior will affect species interactions through multiple pathways, including by changing other aspects of predator behavior such as boldness, innovation, and social structure. Methods To understand how foraging behavior impacts predator behavior, we conducted a controlled experiment to simulate hunting by introducing a prey model to captive coyotes (Canis latrans) and compared their behavior to coyotes that continued to scavenge over one year. We used focal observations to construct behavioral budgets, and conducted novel object, puzzle box, and conspecific tests to evaluate boldness, innovation, and response to conspecifics. Results We documented increased time spent resting by hunting coyotes paired with decreased time spent active. Hunting coyotes increased boldness and persistence but there were no changes in innovation. Our results illustrate how foraging behavior can impact other aspects of behavior, with potential ecological consequences to predator ecology, predator-prey dynamics, and human-wildlife conflict; however, the captive nature of our study limits specific conclusions related to wild predators. We conclude that human-induced behavioral changes could have cascading ecological implications that are not fully understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell A. Parsons
- Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States of America,National Wildlife Research Center - Predator Research Facility, USDA, Millville, UT, USA
| | - Andrew Garcia
- National Wildlife Research Center - Predator Research Facility, USDA, Millville, UT, USA
| | - Julie K. Young
- Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States of America,National Wildlife Research Center - Predator Research Facility, USDA, Millville, UT, USA
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16
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Neural circuit control of innate behaviors. SCIENCE CHINA. LIFE SCIENCES 2022; 65:466-499. [PMID: 34985643 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-021-2043-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
All animals possess a plethora of innate behaviors that do not require extensive learning and are fundamental for their survival and propagation. With the advent of newly-developed techniques such as viral tracing and optogenetic and chemogenetic tools, recent studies are gradually unraveling neural circuits underlying different innate behaviors. Here, we summarize current development in our understanding of the neural circuits controlling predation, feeding, male-typical mating, and urination, highlighting the role of genetically defined neurons and their connections in sensory triggering, sensory to motor/motivation transformation, motor/motivation encoding during these different behaviors. Along the way, we discuss possible mechanisms underlying binge-eating disorder and the pro-social effects of the neuropeptide oxytocin, elucidating the clinical relevance of studying neural circuits underlying essential innate functions. Finally, we discuss some exciting brain structures recurrently appearing in the regulation of different behaviors, which suggests both divergence and convergence in the neural encoding of specific innate behaviors. Going forward, we emphasize the importance of multi-angle and cross-species dissections in delineating neural circuits that control innate behaviors.
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17
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Apps P, Claase M, van Mourik E, Lostrom S, Yexley B, Webster H, McNutt JW. A description of a new discovery: African wild dog packs communicate with other packs by posting scent-mark messages at a shared marking site. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03148-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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18
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McGowan NE, Marks NJ, Maule AG, Schmidt-Küntzel A, Marker LL, Scantlebury DM. Categorising cheetah behaviour using tri-axial accelerometer data loggers: a comparison of model resolution and data logger performance. MOVEMENT ECOLOGY 2022; 10:7. [PMID: 35123592 PMCID: PMC8818224 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-022-00305-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extinction is one of the greatest threats to the living world, endangering organisms globally, advancing conservation to the forefront of species research. To maximise the efficacy of conservation efforts, understanding the ecological, physiological, and behavioural requirements of vulnerable species is vital. Technological advances, particularly in remote sensing, enable researchers to continuously monitor movement and behaviours of multiple individuals simultaneously with minimal human intervention. Cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, constitute a "vulnerable" species for which only coarse behaviours have been elucidated. The aims of this study were to use animal-attached accelerometers to (1) determine fine-scale behaviours in cheetahs, (2) compare the performances of different devices in behaviour categorisation, and (3) provide a behavioural categorisation framework. METHODS Two different accelerometer devices (CEFAS, frequency: 30 Hz, maximum capacity: ~ 2 g; GCDC, frequency: 50 Hz, maximum capacity: ~ 8 g) were mounted onto collars, fitted to five individual captive cheetahs. The cheetahs chased a lure around a track, during which time their behaviours were videoed. Accelerometer data were temporally aligned with corresponding video footage and labelled with one of 17 behaviours. Six separate random forest models were run (three per device type) to determine the categorisation accuracy for behaviours at a fine, medium, and coarse resolution. RESULTS Fine- and medium-scale models had an overall categorisation accuracy of 83-86% and 84-88% respectively. Non-locomotory behaviours were best categorised on both loggers with GCDC outperforming CEFAS devices overall. On a coarse scale, both devices performed well when categorising activity (86.9% (CEFAS) vs. 89.3% (GCDC) accuracy) and inactivity (95.5% (CEFAS) vs. 95.0% (GCDC) accuracy). This study defined cheetah behaviour beyond three categories and accurately determined stalking behaviours by remote sensing. We also show that device specification and configuration may affect categorisation accuracy, so we recommend deploying several different loggers simultaneously on the same individual. CONCLUSION The results of this study will be useful in determining wild cheetah behaviour. The methods used here allowed broad-scale (active/inactive) as well as fine-scale (e.g. stalking) behaviours to be categorised remotely. These findings and methodological approaches will be useful in monitoring the behaviour of wild cheetahs and other species of conservation interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha E McGowan
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast, BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Nikki J Marks
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast, BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Aaron G Maule
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast, BT9 5DL, UK
| | | | - Laurie L Marker
- Cheetah Conservation Fund, PO Box 1755, Otjiwarongo, Namibia
| | - David M Scantlebury
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast, BT9 5DL, UK.
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19
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Menzies A, Studd EK, Seguin JL, Derbyshire RE, Murray D, Boutin S, Humphries MM. Activity, heart rate, and energy expenditure of a cold-climate mesocarnivore, the Canada lynx. CAN J ZOOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2021-0142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The energetic consequences of body size, behaviour, and fine-scale environmental variation remain understudied, particularly among free-ranging carnivores, due to logistical and methodological challenges of studying them in the field. Here, we present novel activity, heart rate, and metabolic data on free-ranging Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis Kerr, 1792) to a) investigate intraspecific patterns of energy expenditure, particularly how they relate to body size, environmental conditions, and activity variation, and b) position lynx - a cold-climate, mesocarnivore - within interspecific allometries of carnivore energetics. Lynx demonstrated limited behavioural and metabolic responses to environmental conditions, despite extreme cold and moderate snow depths during our study, but marked body size patterns with larger lynx having higher activity and lower resting heart rate than smaller lynx. Compared to similar-sized carnivores, lynx were less active and had lower heart rate, likely due to their ambush hunting style, but higher energy expenditure, likely due to their cold-climate existence and access to abundant prey. Overall, lynx were more similar to other ambush hunters than to sympatric cold-climate species and mesocarnivores. Our data provide insight into the relative importance of abiotic and biotic drivers of carnivore energetics and the ways in which predators maintain energy balance in variable environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allyson Menzies
- University of Guelph School of Environmental Sciences, 170218, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1
| | | | - Jacob Luc Seguin
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rachael Elizabeth Derbyshire
- Trent University, Biology, DNA B 108.8, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, K9L 0G2,
- 204-180 Edingburgh St.Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, K9H 3E2,
| | - D.L. Murray
- Departments of Biology and Environmental, Studies, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, K9J 7B8
| | - Stan Boutin
- University of Alberta, Department of Biological Sciences, Cw405 Biological Sciences, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G 2E9
| | - Murray M Humphries
- McGill University, Natural Resource Sciences, 21111 Lakeshore, Ste-Ane-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada, H9X 3V9
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20
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Alting BF, Bennitt E, Golabek KA, Pitcher BJ, McNutt JW, Wilson AM, Bates H, Jordan NR. The characteristics and consequences of African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) den site selection. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03047-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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21
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Tshimologo BT, Reading RP, Mills MG, Bonyongo MC, Rutina L, Collins K, Maude G. Prey Selection by African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Northern Botswana. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.3957/056.051.0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Richard P. Reading
- Butterfly Pavilion, 6252 East 104th Avenue, Westminster, CO 80020, U.S.A
| | - Michael G.L Mills
- School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela, South Africa
| | - Mpaphi C. Bonyongo
- Okavango-River Basin Water Commission, P.O. Box 25741 Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Lucas Rutina
- United Nations Environment Program, Katima Mulilo, Namibia
| | - Kai Collins
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Glyn Maude
- Kalahari Research and Conservation, P.O. Box 25650, Gaborone, Botswana
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22
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Parker DM, Vyver DB, Bissett C. The influence of an apex predator introduction on an already established subordinate predator. J Zool (1987) 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. M. Parker
- Wildlife and Reserve Management Research Group Department of Zoology and Entomology Rhodes University Grahamstown South Africa
- School of Biology and Environmental Sciences University of Mpumalanga Nelspruit South Africa
| | - D. B. Vyver
- Wildlife and Reserve Management Research Group Department of Zoology and Entomology Rhodes University Grahamstown South Africa
- South African National Parks Pretoria South Africa
| | - C. Bissett
- Wildlife and Reserve Management Research Group Department of Zoology and Entomology Rhodes University Grahamstown South Africa
- South African National Parks Pretoria South Africa
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23
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Smith HF, Adrian B, Koshy R, Alwiel R, Grossman A. Adaptations to cursoriality and digit reduction in the forelimb of the African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus). PeerJ 2020; 8:e9866. [PMID: 33194359 PMCID: PMC7482643 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), an endangered canid native to southern and eastern Africa, is distinct among canids in being described as entirely tetradactyl and in its nomadic lifestyle and use of exhaustive predation to capture its prey instead of speed, strength, or stealth. These behavioral and morphological traits suggest a potentially unique set of adaptations. Methods Here, we dissected the forelimbs of an adult male L. pictus specimen and performed detailed descriptions and quantitative analyses of the musculoskeletal anatomy. Results Statistical comparisons of muscle masses and volumes revealed that L. pictus has relatively smaller wrist rotators (mm. pronator teres, pronator quadratus, supinator) than any other included carnivoran taxon, suggesting adaptive pressures for antebrachial stability over rotatory movement in the carpus of L. pictus. While a complete digit I is absent in L. pictus, a vestigial first metacarpal was discovered, resulting in changes to insertions of mm. extensor digiti I et II, abductor (et opponens) digiti I and flexor digiti I brevis. Mm. anconeus, brachialis and flexor carpi ulnaris caput ulnare all have more extensive origins in L. pictus than other canids suggesting an emphasis on posture and elbow stability. M. triceps brachii caput laterale has a larger origin in L. pictus and m. triceps brachii caput longum has an additional accessory head. Electromyographic studies have shown this muscle is active during the stance phase of trotting and galloping and is important for storing elastic energy during locomotion. We interpret these differences in size and attachments of muscles in L. pictus as adaptations for long distance running in this highly cursorial species, likely important for exhaustive predation. Absence of a full digit I in L. pictus may increase speed and stride length; however, the retention of a vestigial digit permits the attachment of reduced pollical muscles which may provide additional stability and proprioception to the carpus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather F Smith
- Department of Anatomy, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA.,School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.,Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Brent Adrian
- Department of Anatomy, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Rahul Koshy
- Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Ryan Alwiel
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Aryeh Grossman
- Department of Anatomy, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA.,Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
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24
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Behr DM, McNutt JW, Ozgul A, Cozzi G. When to stay and when to leave? Proximate causes of dispersal in an endangered social carnivore. J Anim Ecol 2020; 89:2356-2366. [PMID: 32654130 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Reliable estimates of birth, death, emigration and immigration rates are fundamental to understanding and predicting the dynamics of wild populations and, consequently, inform appropriate management actions. However, when individuals disappear from a focal population, inference on their fate is often challenging. Here we used 30 years of individual-based mark-recapture data from a population of free-ranging African wild dogs Lycaon pictus in Botswana and a suite of individual, social and environmental predictors to investigate factors affecting the decision to emigrate from the pack. We subsequently used this information to assign an emigration probability to those individuals that were no longer sighted within their pack (i.e. missing individuals). Natal dispersal (i.e. emigration from the natal pack) showed seasonal patterns with female dispersal peaking prior to the mating season and male dispersal peaking at the beginning of the wet season. For both sexes, natal dispersal rate increased in the absence of unrelated individuals of the opposite sex in the pack. Male natal dispersal decreased with increasing number of pups in the pack and increased in larger packs. Female natal dispersal decreased with increasing number of pups in larger packs, but increased with increasing number of pups in smaller packs. Individuals of both sexes were less likely to exhibit secondary dispersal (i.e. emigration from a pack other than the natal pack) if they were dominant and if many pups were present in the pack. Our models predicted that 18% and 25% of missing females and males, respectively, had likely dispersed from the natal pack, rather than having died. A misclassification of this order of magnitude between dispersal and mortality can have far-reaching consequences in the evaluation and prediction of population dynamics and persistence, and potentially mislead conservation actions. Our study showed that the decision to disperse is context-dependent and that the effect of individual, social and environmental predictors differs between males and females and between natal and secondary dispersal related to different direct and indirect fitness consequences. Furthermore, we demonstrated how a thorough understanding of the proximate causes of dispersal can be used to assign a dispersal probability to missing individuals. Knowledge of causes of dispersal can then be used within an integrated framework to more reliably estimate mortality rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik M Behr
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Botswana Predator Conservation Trust, Maun, Botswana
| | - John W McNutt
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust, Maun, Botswana
| | - Arpat Ozgul
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Gabriele Cozzi
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Botswana Predator Conservation Trust, Maun, Botswana
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25
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Halsey LG, Bryce CM. Are humans evolved specialists for running in the heat? Man
vs
. horse races provide empirical insights. Exp Physiol 2020; 106:258-268. [DOI: 10.1113/ep088502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lewis G. Halsey
- Department of Life Sciences University of Roehampton London SW15 4JD UK
| | - Caleb M. Bryce
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust Private Bag 13 Maun Botswana
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26
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Spatial planning with long visual range benefits escape from visual predators in complex naturalistic environments. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3057. [PMID: 32546681 PMCID: PMC7298009 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-16102-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
It is uncontroversial that land animals have more elaborated cognitive abilities than their aquatic counterparts such as fish. Yet there is no apparent a-priori reason for this. A key cognitive faculty is planning. We show that in visually guided predator-prey interactions, planning provides a significant advantage, but only on land. During animal evolution, the water-to-land transition resulted in a massive increase in visual range. Simulations of behavior identify a specific type of terrestrial habitat, clustered open and closed areas (savanna-like), where the advantage of planning peaks. Our computational experiments demonstrate how this patchy terrestrial structure, in combination with enhanced visual range, can reveal and hide agents as a function of their movement and create a selective benefit for imagining, evaluating, and selecting among possible future scenarios-in short, for planning. The vertebrate invasion of land may have been an important step in their cognitive evolution.
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27
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Dececchi TA, Mloszewska AM, Holtz TR, Habib MB, Larsson HCE. The fast and the frugal: Divergent locomotory strategies drive limb lengthening in theropod dinosaurs. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0223698. [PMID: 32401793 PMCID: PMC7220109 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Limb length, cursoriality and speed have long been areas of significant interest in theropod paleobiology, since locomotory capacity, especially running ability, is critical in the pursuit of prey and to avoid becoming prey. The impact of allometry on running ability, and the limiting effect of large body size, are aspects that are traditionally overlooked. Since several different non-avian theropod lineages have each independently evolved body sizes greater than any known terrestrial carnivorous mammal, ~1000kg or more, the effect that such large mass has on movement ability and energetics is an area with significant implications for Mesozoic paleoecology. Here, using expansive datasets that incorporate several different metrics to estimate body size, limb length and running speed, we calculate the effects of allometry on running ability. We test traditional metrics used to evaluate cursoriality in non-avian theropods such as distal limb length, relative hindlimb length, and compare the energetic cost savings of relative hindlimb elongation between members of the Tyrannosauridae and more basal megacarnivores such as Allosauroidea or Ceratosauridae. We find that once the limiting effects of body size increase is incorporated there is no significant correlation to top speed between any of the commonly used metrics, including the newly suggested distal limb index (Tibia + Metatarsus/ Femur length). The data also shows a significant split between large and small bodied theropods in terms of maximizing running potential suggesting two distinct strategies for promoting limb elongation based on the organisms’ size. For small and medium sized theropods increased leg length seems to correlate with a desire to increase top speed while amongst larger taxa it corresponds more closely to energetic efficiency and reducing foraging costs. We also find, using 3D volumetric mass estimates, that the Tyrannosauridae show significant cost of transport savings compared to more basal clades, indicating reduced energy expenditures during foraging and likely reduced need for hunting forays. This suggests that amongst theropods, hindlimb evolution was not dictated by one particular strategy. Amongst smaller bodied taxa the competing pressures of being both a predator and a prey item dominant while larger ones, freed from predation pressure, seek to maximize foraging ability. We also discuss the implications both for interactions amongst specific clades and Mesozoic paleobiology and paleoecological reconstructions as a whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Alexander Dececchi
- Division of Natural Sciences, Department of Biology, Mount Marty College, Yankton, South Dakota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Thomas R. Holtz
- Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Michael B. Habib
- Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of USC, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
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28
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Rafiq K, Hayward MW, Wilson AM, Meloro C, Jordan NR, Wich SA, McNutt JW, Golabek KA. Spatial and temporal overlaps between leopards (
Panthera pardus
) and their competitors in the African large predator guild. J Zool (1987) 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Rafiq
- School of Natural Sciences and Psychology Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool UK
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust Maun Botswana
| | - M. W. Hayward
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences University of Newcastle Newcastle NSW Australia
- Centre for African Conservation Ecology Nelson Mandela University Port Elizabeth South Africa
| | - A. M. Wilson
- Structure and Motion Lab Royal Veterinary College University of London Hatfield UK
| | - C. Meloro
- School of Natural Sciences and Psychology Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool UK
| | - N. R. Jordan
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust Maun Botswana
- Centre for Ecosystem Science University of New South Wales Sydney NSW Australia
- Taronga Conservation Society Dubbo NSW Australia
| | - S. A. Wich
- School of Natural Sciences and Psychology Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool UK
| | - J. W. McNutt
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust Maun Botswana
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Bauer U, Poppinga S, Müller UK. Mechanical Ecology-Taking Biomechanics to the Field. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 60:820-828. [PMID: 32275745 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Synopsis Interdisciplinary research can have strong and surprising synergistic effects, leading to rapid knowledge gains. Equally important, it can help to reintegrate fragmented fields across increasingly isolated specialist sub-disciplines. However, the lack of a common identifier for research "in between fields" can make it difficult to find relevant research outputs and network effectively. We illustrate and address this issue for the emerging interdisciplinary hotspot of "mechanical ecology," which we define here as the intersection of quantitative biomechanics and field ecology at the organism level. We show that an integrative approach crucially advances our understanding in both disciplines by (1) putting biomechanical mechanisms into a biologically meaningful ecological context and (2) addressing the largely neglected influence of mechanical factors in organismal and behavioral ecology. We call for the foundation of knowledge exchange platforms such as meeting symposia, special issues in journals, and focus groups dedicated to mechanical ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Bauer
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Simon Poppinga
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.,Freiburg Materials Research Center (FMF), University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Ulrike K Müller
- Department of Biology, California State University Fresno, Fresno, CA, USA
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30
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Henninger J, Krahe R, Sinz F, Benda J. Tracking activity patterns of a multispecies community of gymnotiform weakly electric fish in their neotropical habitat without tagging. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb206342. [PMID: 31937524 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.206342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Field studies on freely behaving animals commonly require tagging and often are focused on single species. Weakly electric fish generate a species- and individual-specific electric organ discharge (EOD) and therefore provide a unique opportunity for individual tracking without tagging. Here, we present and test tracking algorithms based on recordings with submerged electrode arrays. Harmonic structures extracted from power spectra provide fish identity. Localization of fish based on weighted averages of their EOD amplitudes is found to be more robust than fitting a dipole model. We apply these techniques to monitor a community of three species, Apteronotus rostratus, Eigenmannia humboldtii and Sternopygus dariensis, in their natural habitat in Darién, Panama. We found consistent upstream movements after sunset followed by downstream movements in the second half of the night. Extrapolations of these movements and estimates of fish density obtained from additional transect data suggest that some fish cover at least several hundreds of meters of the stream per night. Most fish, including E. humboldtii, were traversing the electrode array solitarily. From in situ measurements of the decay of the EOD amplitude with distance of individual animals, we estimated that fish can detect conspecifics at distances of up to 2 m. Our recordings also emphasize the complexity of natural electrosensory scenes resulting from the interactions of the EODs of different species. Electrode arrays thus provide an unprecedented window into the so-far hidden nocturnal activities of multispecies communities of weakly electric fish at an unmatched level of detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Henninger
- Institut für Neurobiologie, Eberhard Karls Universität, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Krahe
- Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstr. 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
- McGill University, Department of Biology, 1205 Ave. Docteur Penfield, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3A 1B1
| | - Fabian Sinz
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Eberhard Karls Universität, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Institut für Informatik, Eberhard Karls Univzersität, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Center for Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jan Benda
- Institut für Neurobiologie, Eberhard Karls Universität, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Eberhard Karls Universität, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
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31
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Socially tolerant lions (Panthera leo) solve a novel cooperative problem. Anim Cogn 2019; 23:327-336. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01336-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Revised: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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32
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Rafiq K, Jordan NR, Wilson AM, McNutt JW, Hayward MW, Meloro C, Wich SA, Golabek KA. Spatio‐temporal factors impacting encounter occurrences between leopards and other large African predators. J Zool (1987) 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Rafiq
- School of Natural Sciences and Psychology Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool UK
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust Maun Botswana
| | - N. R. Jordan
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust Maun Botswana
- Centre for Ecosystem Science University of New South Wales Sydney New South Wales Australia
- Taronga Conservation Society Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | - A. M. Wilson
- Structure and Motion Lab Royal Veterinary College University of London Hatfield Herts UK
| | - J. W. McNutt
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust Maun Botswana
| | - M. W. Hayward
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences University of Newcastle Newcastle New South Wales Australia
| | - C. Meloro
- School of Natural Sciences and Psychology Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool UK
| | - S. A. Wich
- School of Natural Sciences and Psychology Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool UK
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33
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Hunter P. The evolution of human endurance: Research on the biology of extreme endurance gives insights into its evolution in humans and animals. EMBO Rep 2019; 20:e49396. [PMID: 31633860 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201949396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Research into the extreme feats of endurance that humans and some animals achieve has uncovered a range of metabolic and physiological adaptations along with their evolutionary origins.
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34
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Tsutsui K, Shinya M, Kudo K. Underlying structure in the dynamics of chase and escape interactions. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15051. [PMID: 31636328 PMCID: PMC6803680 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51524-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Chase and escape behaviors are important skills in many sports. Previous studies have described the behaviors of the attacker (escaper) and defender (chaser) by focusing on their positional relationship and have presented several key parameters that affect the outcome (successful attack or defense). However, it remains unclear how each individual agent moves, and how the outcome is determined in this type of interaction. To address these questions, we constructed a chase and escape task in a virtual space that allowed us to manipulate agents' kinematic parameters. We identified the basic strategies of each agent and their robustness to changes in their parameters. Moreover, we identified the determinants of the outcome and a geometrical explanation of their importance. Our results revealed the underlying structure of a simplified human chase and escape interaction and provided the insight that, although each agent apparently moves freely, their strategies in two-agent interactions are in fact rather constrained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazushi Tsutsui
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Toyko, Japan.
| | - Masahiro Shinya
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Toyko, Japan.,Graduate School of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Kazutoshi Kudo
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Toyko, Japan. .,Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies, The University of Tokyo, Toyko, Japan.
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35
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Rabaiotti D, Woodroffe R. Coping with climate change: limited behavioral responses to hot weather in a tropical carnivore. Oecologia 2019; 189:587-599. [PMID: 30740614 PMCID: PMC6418050 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-04329-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Climate change is widely accepted to be one of the greatest threats to species globally. Identifying the species most at risk is, therefore, a conservation priority. Some species have the capacity to adapt to rising temperatures through changing their phenology, behavior, distribution, or physiology, and, therefore, may be more likely to persist under rising temperatures. Recent findings suggest that the African wild dog Lycaon pictus may be impacted by climate change, since reproductive success is consistently lower when pup-rearing coincides with periods of high ambient temperature. We used GPS collars, combined with generalized linear mixed-effects models, to assess wild dogs' potential to adapt to high ambient temperatures through flexible timing of hunting behavior. On days with higher maximum temperatures, wild dogs showed lower daytime activity and greater nocturnal activity, although nocturnal activity did not fully balance the decrease in daytime activity, particularly during the denning period. Increases in nocturnal activity were confined mainly to moonlit nights, and were seldom observed when packs were raising pups. Our findings suggest that nocturnal activity helps this cursorial hunter to cope with high daytime temperatures. However, wild dogs appear not to use this coping strategy when they are raising pups, suggesting that their resource needs may not be fulfilled during the pup-rearing period. Given that moonlight availability-which will not change as the climate changes-constrains wild dogs' nocturnal activity, the species may have insufficient behavioral plasticity to mitigate increasing diurnal temperatures. These findings raise concerns about climate change impacts on this endangered species, and highlight the need for behavior to be considered when assessing species' vulnerability to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Rabaiotti
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK. .,Division of Biosciences, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1H 0AG, UK.
| | - Rosie Woodroffe
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
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36
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Fraser-Celin VL, Hovorka AJ. Compassionate Conservation: Exploring the Lives of African Wild Dogs ( Lycaon pictus) in Botswana. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9010016. [PMID: 30621013 PMCID: PMC6356948 DOI: 10.3390/ani9010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary This paper argues that animals should be positioned as subjects in research and scholarship to further develop compassionate conservation, a new field that aims to bridge conservation biology and animal welfare science. Animals can be treated as subjects by attending to their lived experiences and by recognizing their capacity to act. This paper merges interviews, blog posts, biological research, and observations to position African wild dogs as subjects in conservation research and scholarship using responsible anthropomorphism. It presents wild dogs as thinking, feeling, and sentient animals who have agency (capacity to act), and whose welfare is negatively affected by habitat loss and conflict with farmers. By positioning wild dogs as subjects, we can develop an ethical starting point for a more compassionate conservation. This ‘enriched’ scholarship allows us to more fully appreciate the complex lives of wildlife, their circumstances, and their experiences. Abstract This paper argues for a more compassionate conservation by positioning animals as subjects in research and scholarship. Compassionate conservation is a multidisciplinary field of study that broadly attends to the ethical dimensions of conservation by merging conservation biology and animal welfare science. However, animal geography is rarely discussed in the compassionate conservation scholarship despite sharing similar tenets. This paper argues that responsible anthropomorphism and animal geography concepts of animal subjectivity (lived experiences) and agency (capacity to act) positions African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) as subjects in conservation research and scholarship. It merges biological research, public communication, and interview and participant observation data to present wild dogs as thinking, feeling, self-conscious animals with agency, and whose welfare is negatively affected in human-dominated landscapes in Botswana. This paper argues for more attention to be paid to animal subjectivity and agency to foster more compassionate relations with wildlife. It argues that positioning animals as subjects in research and scholarship is an ethical starting point for moving compassionate conservation forward. This ‘enriched’ scholarly approach moves us closer to appreciating the lives of wildlife and the complexity of their circumstances and experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alice J Hovorka
- Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada.
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37
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Curtin NA, Bartlam-Brooks HLA, Hubel TY, Lowe JC, Gardner-Medwin AR, Bennitt E, Amos SJ, Lorenc M, West TG, Wilson AM. Remarkable muscles, remarkable locomotion in desert-dwelling wildebeest. Nature 2018; 563:393-396. [PMID: 30356212 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0602-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Large mammals that live in arid and/or desert environments can cope with seasonal and local variations in rainfall, food and climate1 by moving long distances, often without reliable water or food en route. The capacity of an animal for this long-distance travel is substantially dependent on the rate of energy utilization and thus heat production during locomotion-the cost of transport2-4. The terrestrial cost of transport is much higher than for flying (7.5 times) and swimming (20 times)4. Terrestrial migrants are usually large1-3 with anatomical specializations for economical locomotion5-9, because the cost of transport reduces with increasing size and limb length5-7. Here we used GPS-tracking collars10 with movement and environmental sensors to show that blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus, 220 kg) that live in a hot arid environment in Northern Botswana walked up to 80 km over five days without drinking. They predominantly travelled during the day and locomotion appeared to be unaffected by temperature and humidity, although some behavioural thermoregulation was apparent. We measured power and efficiency of work production (mechanical work and heat production) during cyclic contractions of intact muscle biopsies from the forelimb flexor carpi ulnaris of wildebeest and domestic cows (Bos taurus, 760 kg), a comparable but relatively sedentary ruminant. The energetic costs of isometric contraction (activation and force generation) in wildebeest and cows were similar to published values for smaller mammals. Wildebeest muscle was substantially more efficient (62.6%) than the same muscle from much larger cows (41.8%) and comparable measurements that were obtained from smaller mammals (mouse (34%)11 and rabbit (27%)). We used the direct energetic measurements on intact muscle fibres to model the contribution of high working efficiency of wildebeest muscle to minimizing thermoregulatory challenges during their long migrations under hot arid conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy A Curtin
- Structure & Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK.
| | | | - Tatjana Y Hubel
- Structure & Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK
| | - John C Lowe
- Structure & Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK
| | | | - Emily Bennitt
- Okavango Research Institute, University of Botswana, Maun, Botswana
| | - Stephen J Amos
- Structure & Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK
| | - Maja Lorenc
- Structure & Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK
| | - Timothy G West
- Structure & Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK
| | - Alan M Wilson
- Structure & Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK.
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38
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Hubel TY, Golabek KA, Rafiq K, McNutt JW, Wilson AM. Movement patterns and athletic performance of leopards in the Okavango Delta. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:20172622. [PMID: 29695443 PMCID: PMC5936723 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.2622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although leopards are the most widespread of all the big cats and are known for their adaptability, they are elusive and little is known in detail about their movement and hunting energetics. We used high-resolution GPS/IMU (inertial measurement unit) collars to record position, activity and the first high-speed movement data on four male leopards in the Okavango Delta, an area with high habitat diversity and habitat fragmentation. Leopards in this study were generally active and conducted more runs during the night, with peaks in activity and number of runs in the morning and evening twilight. Runs were generally short (less than 100 m) and relatively slow (maximum speed 5.3 m s-1, mean of individual medians) compared to other large predators. Average daily travel distance was 11 km and maximum daily travel distance was 29 km. No direct correlation was found between average daily temperature and travel distance or between season and travel distance. Total daily energy requirements based on locomotor cost and basal metabolic rate varied little between individuals and over time. This study provides novel insights into movement patterns and athletic performance of leopards through quantitative high-resolution measurement of the locomotor, energetic, spatial and temporal movement characteristics. The results are unbiased by methodological and observational limitations characteristic of previous studies and demonstrate the utility of applying new technologies to field studies of elusive nocturnal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Y Hubel
- Structure & Motion Lab, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK
| | | | - Kasim Rafiq
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust, Private Bag 13, Maun, Botswana
- Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - J Weldon McNutt
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust, Private Bag 13, Maun, Botswana
| | - Alan M Wilson
- Structure & Motion Lab, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK
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39
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Shumba T, Montgomery RA, Rasmussen GSA, Macdonald DW. African Wild Dog Habitat Use Modelling Using Telemetry Data and Citizen Scientist Sightings: Are the Results Comparable? AFRICAN JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.3957/056.048.013002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tafadzwa Shumba
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Tubney, Abingdon OX13 5QL, U.K
- Painted Dog Research Trust, P.O. Box 285, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
| | - Robert A. Montgomery
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Tubney, Abingdon OX13 5QL, U.K
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, U.S.A
| | - Gregory S. A. Rasmussen
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Tubney, Abingdon OX13 5QL, U.K
- Painted Dog Research Trust, P.O. Box 285, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
| | - David W. Macdonald
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Tubney, Abingdon OX13 5QL, U.K
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40
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Lailvaux SP, Husak JF. Predicting Life-History Trade-Offs with Whole-Organism Performance. Integr Comp Biol 2018; 57:325-332. [PMID: 28859417 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icx073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
SYNOPSIS Whole-organism performance traits are key intermediaries between the organism and the environment. Because performance traits are energetically costly to both build and maintain, performance will compete with other life-history traits over a limited pool of acquired energetic resources at any given time, potentially leading to trade-offs in performance expression. Although these trade-offs can have important implications for organismal fitness we currently lack a conceptual framework for predicting both where trade-offs might be expected, and which traits may be especially prone to trade-offs with other fitness-related life-history traits. We propose such a framework based on an estimate of the energetic requirements of locomotion in vertebrates, the ecological cost of transport. By analyzing existing data on mammalian energetic budgets and life-history, we found that species with higher costs of locomotion also tended to be those with "slow" life histories that invest relatively less in current reproduction than "fast" life-history species. We discuss the potential implications of ectothermy for masking such relationships, and how this framework might be expanded upon in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon P Lailvaux
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of New Orleans, 2000 Lakeshore Drive, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA
| | - Jerry F Husak
- Department of Biology, University of St. Thomas, 2115 Summit Avenue, St Paul, MN 55105, USA
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41
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Biomechanics of predator-prey arms race in lion, zebra, cheetah and impala. Nature 2018; 554:183-188. [PMID: 29364874 DOI: 10.1038/nature25479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The fastest and most manoeuvrable terrestrial animals are found in savannah habitats, where predators chase and capture running prey. Hunt outcome and success rate are critical to survival, so both predator and prey should evolve to be faster and/or more manoeuvrable. Here we compare locomotor characteristics in two pursuit predator-prey pairs, lion-zebra and cheetah-impala, in their natural savannah habitat in Botswana. We show that although cheetahs and impalas were universally more athletic than lions and zebras in terms of speed, acceleration and turning, within each predator-prey pair, the predators had 20% higher muscle fibre power than prey, 37% greater acceleration and 72% greater deceleration capacity than their prey. We simulated hunt dynamics with these data and showed that hunts at lower speeds enable prey to use their maximum manoeuvring capacity and favour prey survival, and that the predator needs to be more athletic than its prey to sustain a viable success rate.
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42
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Wheatley R, Niehaus AC, Fisher DO, Wilson RS. Ecological context and the probability of mistakes underlie speed choice. Funct Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Wheatley
- School of Biological Sciences University of Queensland Brisbane Australia
| | - Amanda C. Niehaus
- School of Biological Sciences University of Queensland Brisbane Australia
| | - Diana O. Fisher
- School of Biological Sciences University of Queensland Brisbane Australia
| | - Robbie S. Wilson
- School of Biological Sciences University of Queensland Brisbane Australia
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43
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Vogel JT, Somers MJ, Venter JA. The foraging ecology of reintroduced African wild dog in small protected areas. WILDLIFE BIOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.2981/wlb.00424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John T. Vogel
- J. T. Vogel and J. A. Venter , School of Natural Resource Management, Faculty of Science, George Campus, Nelson Mandela Univ., South Africa
| | - Michael J. Somers
- M. J. Somers, Centre for Wildlife Management, Mammal Research Inst., Centre for Invasion Biology, Univ. of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jan A. Venter
- J. T. Vogel and J. A. Venter , School of Natural Resource Management, Faculty of Science, George Campus, Nelson Mandela Univ., South Africa
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44
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Bryce CM, Wilmers CC, Williams TM. Energetics and evasion dynamics of large predators and prey: pumas vs. hounds. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3701. [PMID: 28828280 PMCID: PMC5563439 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Quantification of fine-scale movement, performance, and energetics of hunting by large carnivores is critical for understanding the physiological underpinnings of trophic interactions. This is particularly challenging for wide-ranging terrestrial canid and felid predators, which can each affect ecosystem structure through distinct hunting modes. To compare free-ranging pursuit and escape performance from group-hunting and solitary predators in unprecedented detail, we calibrated and deployed accelerometer-GPS collars during predator-prey chase sequences using packs of hound dogs (Canis lupus familiaris, 26 kg, n = 4-5 per chase) pursuing simultaneously instrumented solitary pumas (Puma concolor, 60 kg, n = 2). We then reconstructed chase paths, speed and turning angle profiles, and energy demands for hounds and pumas to examine performance and physiological constraints associated with cursorial and cryptic hunting modes, respectively. Interaction dynamics revealed how pumas successfully utilized terrain (e.g., fleeing up steep, wooded hillsides) as well as evasive maneuvers (e.g., jumping into trees, running in figure-8 patterns) to increase their escape distance from the overall faster hounds (avg. 2.3× faster). These adaptive strategies were essential to evasion in light of the mean 1.6× higher mass-specific energetic costs of the chase for pumas compared to hounds (mean: 0.76 vs. 1.29 kJ kg-1 min-1, respectively). On an instantaneous basis, escapes were more costly for pumas, requiring exercise at ≥90% of predicted [Formula: see text] and consuming as much energy per minute as approximately 5 min of active hunting. Our results demonstrate the marked investment of energy for evasion by a large, solitary carnivore and the advantage of dynamic maneuvers to postpone being overtaken by group-hunting canids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb M. Bryce
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, United States of America
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust, Maun, Botswana
| | - Christopher C. Wilmers
- Center for Integrated Spatial Research, Environmental Studies Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, United States of America
| | - Terrie M. Williams
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, United States of America
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45
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Daley MA, Channon AJ, Nolan GS, Hall J. Preferred gait and walk-run transition speeds in ostriches measured using GPS-IMU sensors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 219:3301-3308. [PMID: 27802152 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.142588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The ostrich (Struthio camelus) is widely appreciated as a fast and agile bipedal athlete, and is a useful comparative bipedal model for human locomotion. Here, we used GPS-IMU sensors to measure naturally selected gait dynamics of ostriches roaming freely over a wide range of speeds in an open field and developed a quantitative method for distinguishing walking and running using accelerometry. We compared freely selected gait-speed distributions with previous laboratory measures of gait dynamics and energetics. We also measured the walk-run and run-walk transition speeds and compared them with those reported for humans. We found that ostriches prefer to walk remarkably slowly, with a narrow walking speed distribution consistent with minimizing cost of transport (CoT) according to a rigid-legged walking model. The dimensionless speeds of the walk-run and run-walk transitions are slower than those observed in humans. Unlike humans, ostriches transition to a run well below the mechanical limit necessitating an aerial phase, as predicted by a compass-gait walking model. When running, ostriches use a broad speed distribution, consistent with previous observations that ostriches are relatively economical runners and have a flat curve for CoT against speed. In contrast, horses exhibit U-shaped curves for CoT against speed, with a narrow speed range within each gait for minimizing CoT. Overall, the gait dynamics of ostriches moving freely over natural terrain are consistent with previous lab-based measures of locomotion. Nonetheless, ostriches, like humans, exhibit a gait-transition hysteresis that is not explained by steady-state locomotor dynamics and energetics. Further study is required to understand the dynamics of gait transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica A Daley
- Structure and Motion Lab, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL97TA, UK
| | - Anthony J Channon
- Structure and Motion Lab, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL97TA, UK
| | - Grant S Nolan
- Structure and Motion Lab, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL97TA, UK
| | - Jade Hall
- Structure and Motion Lab, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL97TA, UK
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46
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Woodroffe R, Groom R, McNutt JW. Hot dogs: High ambient temperatures impact reproductive success in a tropical carnivore. J Anim Ecol 2017; 86:1329-1338. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Rosemary Groom
- Institute of Zoology Zoological Society of London London UK
- Department of Zoology University of Johannesburg Auckland Park South Africa
- African Wildlife Conservation Fund Chishakwe Ranch Zimbabwe
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47
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Jordan NR, Buse C, Wilson AM, Golabek KA, Apps PJ, Lowe JC, Van der Weyde LK, Weldon McNutt J. Dynamics of direct inter-pack encounters in endangered African wild dogs. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-017-2338-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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48
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Borrego N. Big cats as a model system for the study of the evolution of intelligence. Behav Processes 2017; 141:261-266. [PMID: 28336301 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2017.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2016] [Revised: 02/11/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Currently, carnivores, and felids in particular, are vastly underrepresented in cognitive literature, despite being an ideal model system for tests of social and ecological intelligence hypotheses. Within Felidae, big cats (Panthera) are uniquely suited to studies investigating the evolutionary links between social, ecological, and cognitive complexity. Intelligence likely did not evolve in a unitary way but instead evolved as the result of mutually reinforcing feedback loops within the physical and social environments. The domain-specific social intelligence hypothesis proposes that social complexity drives only the evolution of cognitive abilities adapted only to social domains. The domain-general hypothesis proposes that the unique demands of social life serve as a bootstrap for the evolution of superior general cognition. Big cats are one of the few systems in which we can directly address conflicting predictions of the domain-general and domain-specific hypothesis by comparing cognition among closely related species that face roughly equivalent ecological complexity but vary considerably in social complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Borrego
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa; Lion Research Center, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, South Africa.
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49
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Van der Weyde LK, Hubel TY, Horgan J, Shotton J, McKenna R, Wilson AM. Movement patterns of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in farmlands in Botswana. Biol Open 2017; 6:118-124. [PMID: 27913453 PMCID: PMC5278424 DOI: 10.1242/bio.021055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Botswana has the second highest population of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) with most living outside protected areas. As a result, many cheetahs are found in farming areas which occasionally results in human-wildlife conflict. This study aimed to look at movement patterns of cheetahs in farming environments to determine whether cheetahs have adapted their movements in these human-dominated landscapes. We fitted high-time resolution GPS collars to cheetahs in the Ghanzi farmlands of Botswana. GPS locations were used to calculate home range sizes as well as number and duration of visits to landscape features using a time-based local convex hull method. Cheetahs had medium-sized home ranges compared to previously studied cheetah in similar farming environments. Results showed that cheetahs actively visited scent marking trees and avoided visiting homesteads. A slight preference for visiting game farms over cattle farms was found, but there was no difference in duration of visits between farm types. We conclude that cheetahs selected for areas that are important for their dietary and social needs and prefer to avoid human-occupied areas. Improved knowledge of how cheetahs use farmlands can allow farmers to make informed decisions when developing management practices and can be an important tool for reducing human-wildlife conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- L K Van der Weyde
- Cheetah Conservation Botswana, B5, Kgale Siding Office Park, Plot 1069-KO, Gaborone, Botswana
- San Diego Zoo, Institute for Conservation Research, 15600 San Pasqual Valley Road, Escondido, CA 92027-7000, USA
| | - T Y Hubel
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield AL97TA, UK
| | - J Horgan
- Cheetah Conservation Botswana, B5, Kgale Siding Office Park, Plot 1069-KO, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - J Shotton
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield AL97TA, UK
| | - R McKenna
- Cheetah Conservation Botswana, B5, Kgale Siding Office Park, Plot 1069-KO, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - A M Wilson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield AL97TA, UK
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50
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Dewhirst OP, Evans HK, Roskilly K, Harvey RJ, Hubel TY, Wilson AM. Improving the accuracy of estimates of animal path and travel distance using GPS drift-corrected dead reckoning. Ecol Evol 2016; 6:6210-22. [PMID: 27648238 PMCID: PMC5016644 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Revised: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Route taken and distance travelled are important parameters for studies of animal locomotion. They are often measured using a collar equipped with GPS. Collar weight restrictions limit battery size, which leads to a compromise between collar operating life and GPS fix rate. In studies that rely on linear interpolation between intermittent GPS fixes, path tortuosity will often lead to inaccurate path and distance travelled estimates. Here, we investigate whether GPS-corrected dead reckoning can improve the accuracy of localization and distance travelled estimates while maximizing collar operating life. Custom-built tracking collars were deployed on nine freely exercising domestic dogs to collect high fix rate GPS data. Simulations were carried out to measure the extent to which combining accelerometer-based speed and magnetometer heading estimates (dead reckoning) with low fix rate GPS drift correction could improve the accuracy of path and distance travelled estimates. In our study, median 2-dimensional root-mean-squared (2D-RMS) position error was between 158 and 463 m (median path length 16.43 km) and distance travelled was underestimated by between 30% and 64% when a GPS position fix was taken every 5 min. Dead reckoning with GPS drift correction (1 GPS fix every 5 min) reduced 2D-RMS position error to between 15 and 38 m and distance travelled to between an underestimation of 2% and an overestimation of 5%. Achieving this accuracy from GPS alone would require approximately 12 fixes every minute and result in a battery life of approximately 11 days; dead reckoning reduces the number of fixes required, enabling a collar life of approximately 10 months. Our results are generally applicable to GPS-based tracking studies of quadrupedal animals and could be applied to studies of energetics, behavioral ecology, and locomotion. This low-cost approach overcomes the limitation of low fix rate GPS and enables the long-term deployment of lightweight GPS collars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver P. Dewhirst
- Structure & Motion LaboratoryThe Royal Veterinary College, University of LondonHatfieldAL9 7TAUK
| | - Hannah K. Evans
- Structure & Motion LaboratoryThe Royal Veterinary College, University of LondonHatfieldAL9 7TAUK
| | - Kyle Roskilly
- Structure & Motion LaboratoryThe Royal Veterinary College, University of LondonHatfieldAL9 7TAUK
| | - Richard J. Harvey
- Structure & Motion LaboratoryThe Royal Veterinary College, University of LondonHatfieldAL9 7TAUK
| | - Tatjana Y. Hubel
- Structure & Motion LaboratoryThe Royal Veterinary College, University of LondonHatfieldAL9 7TAUK
| | - Alan M. Wilson
- Structure & Motion LaboratoryThe Royal Veterinary College, University of LondonHatfieldAL9 7TAUK
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