Combination delivery of TGF-β inhibitor and IL-2 by nanoscale liposomal polymeric gels enhances tumour immunotherapy

Lipid-based nanosystems: the next generation of cancer immune therapy

Immunotherapy has become an important part of the oncotherapy arsenal. Its applicability in various cancer types is impressive, as well as its use of endogenous mechanisms to achieve desired ends. However, off-target or on-target-off-tumor toxicity, limited activity, lack of control in combination treatments and, especially for solid tumors, low local accumulation, have collectively limited clinical use thereof. These limitations are partially alleviated by delivery systems. Lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as revolutionary carriers due to favorable physicochemical characteristics, with specific applications and strengths particularly useful in immunotherapeutic agent delivery. The aim of this review is to highlight the challenges faced by immunotherapy and how lipid-based NPs have been, and may be further utilized to address such challenges. We discuss recent fundamental and clinical applications of NPs in a range of areas and provide a detailed discussion of the main obstacles in immune checkpoint inhibition therapies, adoptive cellular therapies, and cytokine therapies. We highlight how lipid-based nanosystems could address these through either delivery, direct modulation of the immune system, or targeting of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. We explore advanced and emerging liposomal and lipid nanoparticle (LNP) systems for nucleic acid delivery, intrinsic and extrinsic stimulus-responsive formulations, and biomimetic lipid-based nanosystems in immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the key challenges relating to the clinical use of lipid-based NP immunotherapies, suggesting future research directions for the near term to realize the potential of these innovative lipid-based nanosystems, as they become the crucial steppingstone towards the necessary enhancement of the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Exploring nanocarriers as innovative materials for advanced drug delivery strategies in onco-immunotherapies

In recent years, Onco-immunotherapies (OIMTs) have been shown to be a potential therapy option for cancer. Several immunotherapies have received regulatory approval, while many others are now undergoing clinical testing or are in the early stages of development. Despite this progress, a large number of challenges to the broad use of immunotherapies to treat cancer persists. To make immunotherapy more useful as a treatment while reducing its potentially harmful side effects, we need to know more about how to improve response rates to different types of immunotherapies. Nanocarriers (NCs) have the potential to harness immunotherapies efficiently, enhance the efficiency of these treatments, and reduce the severe adverse reactions that are associated with them. This article discusses the necessity to incorporate nanomedicines in OIMTs and the challenges we confront with current anti-OIMT approaches. In addition, it examines the most important considerations for building nanomedicines for OIMT, which may improve upon current immunotherapy methods. Finally, it highlights the applications and future scenarios of using nanotechnology.

Nanomaterials Boost CAR-T Therapy for Solid Tumors

T cell engineering, particularly via chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) modifications for enhancing tumor specificity, has shown efficacy in treating hematologic malignancies. The extension of CAR-T cell therapy to solid tumors, however, is impeded by several challenges: The absence of tumor-specific antigens, antigen heterogeneity, a complex immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and physical barriers to cell infiltration. Additionally, limitations in CAR-T cell manufacturing capacity and the high costs associated with these therapies restrict their widespread application. The integration of nanomaterials into CAR-T cell production and application offers a promising avenue to mitigate these challenges. Utilizing nanomaterials in the production of CAR-T cells can decrease product variability and lower production expenses, positively impacting the targeting and persistence of CAR-T cells in treatment and minimizing adverse effects. This review comprehensively evaluates the use of various nanomaterials in the production of CAR-T cells, genetic modification, and in vivo delivery. It discusses their underlying mechanisms and potential for clinical application, with a focus on improving specificity and safety in CAR-T cell therapy.

A landscape of recent advances in lipid nanoparticles and their translational potential for the treatment of solid tumors

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are biocompatible drug delivery systems that have found numerous applications in medicine. Their versatile nature enables the encapsulation and targeting of various types of medically relevant molecular cargo, including oligonucleotides, proteins, and small molecules for the treatment of diseases, such as cancer. Cancers that form solid tumors are particularly relevant for LNP-based therapeutics due to the enhanced permeation and retention effect that allows nanoparticles to accumulate within the tumor tissue. Additionally, LNPs can be formulated for both locoregional and systemic delivery depending on the tumor type and stage. To date, LNPs have been used extensively in the clinic to reduce systemic toxicity and improve outcomes in cancer patients by encapsulating chemotherapeutic drugs. Next-generation lipid nanoparticles are currently being developed to expand their use in gene therapy and immunotherapy, as well as to enable the co-encapsulation of multiple drugs in a single system. Other developments include the design of targeted LNPs to specific cells and tissues, and triggerable release systems to control cargo delivery at the tumor site. This review paper highlights recent developments in LNP drug delivery formulations and focuses on the treatment of solid tumors, while also discussing some of their current translational limitations and potential opportunities in the field.

Nanoplatform-Mediated Autophagy Regulation and Combined Anti-Tumor Therapy for Resistant Tumors

The overall cancer incidence and death toll have been increasing worldwide. However, the conventional therapies have some obvious limitations, such as non-specific targeting, systemic toxic effects, especially the multidrug resistance (MDR) of tumors, in which, autophagy plays a vital role. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new treatments to reduce adverse reactions, improve the treatment efficacy and expand their therapeutic indications more effectively and accurately. Combination therapy based on autophagy regulators is a very feasible and important method to overcome tumor resistance and sensitize anti-tumor drugs. However, the less improved efficacy, more systemic toxicity and other problems limit its clinical application. Nanotechnology provides a good way to overcome this limitation. Co-delivery of autophagy regulators combined with anti-tumor drugs through nanoplatforms provides a good therapeutic strategy for the treatment of tumors, especially drug-resistant tumors. Notably, the nanomaterials with autophagy regulatory properties have broad therapeutic prospects as carrier platforms, especially in adjuvant therapy. However, further research is still necessary to overcome the difficulties such as the safety, biocompatibility, and side effects of nanomedicine. In addition, clinical research is also indispensable to confirm its application in tumor treatment.

Cancer Nano-Immunotherapy: The Novel and Promising Weapon to Fight Cancer

Cancer is a complex disease that, despite advances in treatment and the greater understanding of the tumor biology until today, continues to be a prevalent and lethal disease. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery are the conventional treatments, which have increased the survival for cancer patients. However, the complexity of this disease together with the persistent problems due to tumor progression and recurrence, drug resistance, or side effects of therapy make it necessary to explore new strategies that address the challenges to obtain a positive response. One important point is that tumor cells can interact with the microenvironment, promoting proliferation, dissemination, and immune evasion. Therefore, immunotherapy has emerged as a novel therapy based on the modulation of the immune system for combating cancer, as reflected in the promising results both in preclinical studies and clinical trials obtained. In order to enhance the immune response, the combination of immunotherapy with nanoparticles has been conducted, improving the access of immune cells to the tumor, antigen presentation, as well as the induction of persistent immune responses. Therefore, nanomedicine holds an enormous potential to enhance the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. Here, we review the most recent advances in specific molecular and cellular immunotherapy and in nano-immunotherapy against cancer in the light of the latest published preclinical studies and clinical trials.

Harnessing Nanotechnology: Emerging Strategies for Multiple Myeloma Therapy

Advances in nanotechnology have provided novel avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of multiple myeloma (MM), a hematological malignancy characterized by the clonal proliferation of plasma cells in the bone marrow. This review elucidates the potential of nanotechnology to revolutionize myeloma therapy, focusing on nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems, nanoscale imaging techniques, and nano-immunotherapy. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems offer enhanced drug targeting, reduced systemic toxicity, and improved therapeutic efficacy. We discuss the latest developments in nanocarriers, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, used for the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents, siRNA, and miRNA in MM treatment. We delve into nanoscale imaging techniques which provide spatial multi-omic data, offering a holistic view of the tumor microenvironment. This spatial resolution can help decipher the complex interplay between cancer cells and their surrounding environment, facilitating the development of highly targeted therapies. Lastly, we explore the burgeoning field of nano-immunotherapy, which employs nanoparticles to modulate the immune system for myeloma treatment. Specifically, we consider how nanoparticles can be used to deliver tumor antigens to antigen-presenting cells, thus enhancing the body's immune response against myeloma cells. In conclusion, nanotechnology holds great promise for improving the prognosis and quality of life of MM patients. However, several challenges remain, including the need for further preclinical and clinical trials to assess the safety and efficacy of these emerging strategies. Future research should also focus on developing personalized nanomedicine approaches, which could tailor treatments to individual patients based on their genetic and molecular profiles.

Multifunctional nanocomposites modulating the tumor microenvironment for enhanced cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has gained momentum for treating malignant tumors over the past decade. Checkpoint blockade and chimeric antigen receptor cell therapy (CAR-T) have shown considerable potency against liquid and solid cancers. However, the tumor microenvironment (TME) is highly immunosuppressive and hampers the effect of currently available cancer immunotherapies on overall treatment outcomes. Advancements in the design and engineering of nanomaterials have opened new avenues to modulate the TME. Progress in the current nanocomposite technology can overcome immunosuppression and trigger robust immunotherapeutic responses by integrating synergistic functions of different molecules. We will review recent advancements in nanomedical applications and discuss specifically designed nanocomposites modulating the TME for cancer immunotherapy. In addition, we provide information on the current landscape of clinical-stage nanocomposites for cancer immunotherapy.

Nanomedicine - Immune System Interactions: Limitations and Opportunities for the Treatment of Cancer

Nanoparticles interact with immune cells in many different ways. These interactions are crucially important for determining nanoparticles' ability to be used for cancer therapy. Traditionally, strategies such as PEGylation have been employed to reduce (the kinetics of) nanoparticle uptake by immune cells, to endow them with long circulation properties, and to enable them to exploit the Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect to accumulate in tumors. More recently, with immunotherapy becoming an increasingly important cornerstone in the clinical management of cancer, ever more research efforts in academia and industry are focusing on specifically targeting immune cells with nanoparticles. In this chapter, we describe the barriers and opportunities of immune cell targeting with nanoparticles, and we discuss how nanoparticle-based drug delivery to specific immune cell populations in tumors as well as in secondary myeloid and lymphoid organs (such as bone marrow, lymph nodes, and spleen) can be leveraged to boost the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy.

Revitalizing Cytokine-Based Cancer Immunotherapy through Advanced Delivery Systems

Cytokines can coordinate robust immune responses, holding great promise as therapeutics against infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancers. In cancer treatment, numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines have displayed promising efficacy in preclinical studies. However, their clinical application is hindered by poor pharmacokinetics, significant toxicity and unsatisfactory anticancer efficacy. Thus, while IFN-α and IL-2 are approved for specific cancer treatments, other cytokines still remain subject of intense investigation. To accelerate the application of cytokines as cancer immunotherapeutics, strategies need to be directed to improve their safety and anticancer performance. In this regard, delivery systems could be used to generate innovative therapies by targeting the cytokines or nucleic acids, such as DNA and mRNA, encoding the cytokines to tumor tissues. This review centers on these innovative delivery strategies for cytokines, summarizing key approaches, such as gene delivery and protein delivery, and critically examining their potential and challenges for clinical translation.

Biomimetic nanovaccine-mediated multivalent IL-15 self-transpresentation (MIST) for potent and safe cancer immunotherapy

Cytokine therapy, involving interleukin-15 (IL-15), is a promising strategy for cancer immunotherapy. However, clinical application has been limited due to severe toxicity and the relatively low immune response rate, caused by wide distribution of cytokine receptors, systemic immune activation and short half-life of IL-15. Here we show that a biomimetic nanovaccine, developed to co-deliver IL-15 and an antigen/major histocompatibility complex (MHC) selectively targets IL-15 to antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), thereby reducing off-target toxicity. The biomimetic nanovaccine is composed of cytomembrane vesicles, derived from genetically engineered dendritic cells (DC), onto which IL-15/IL-15 receptor α (IL-15Rα), tumor-associated antigenic (TAA) peptide/MHC-I, and relevant costimulatory molecules are simultaneously anchored. We demonstrate that, in contrast to conventional IL-15 therapy, the biomimetic nanovaccine with multivalent IL-15 self-transpresentation (biNV-IL-15) prolonged blood circulation of the cytokine with an 8.2-fold longer half-life than free IL-15 and improved the therapeutic window. This dual targeting strategy allows for spatiotemporal manipulation of therapeutic T cells, elicits broad spectrum antigen-specific T cell responses, and promotes cures in multiple syngeneic tumor models with minimal systemic side effects.

Anti-EGFR bioengineered bacterial outer membrane vesicles as targeted immunotherapy candidate in triple-negative breast tumor murine model

Cancer immunotherapy employing checkpoint inhibitors holds great promise across diverse cancers; nonetheless, a substantial proportion of patients (ranging from 55 to 87%) remain unresponsive to this treatment. To amplify therapeutic efficiency, we propose a synergistic therapeutic strategy that entails the deployment of targeted nano-sized particles carrying Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists to the tumor site. This innovative approach seeks to activate intratumoral antigen-presenting cells using bioengineered outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) derived from gram-negative bacteria. These OMVs possess inherent attributes of surface-exposed immune stimulators and TLR-activating components, rendering them intriguing candidates for investigation. These OMVs were meticulously designed to selectively target cancer cells exhibiting an overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). To gauge the precision of this targeting, the conducted affinity-based assays aimed at determining the equilibrium dissociation constant of the single-chain variable fragment employed for this purpose. In vitro experiments confirmed the OMVs' proficiency in adhering to EGFR-overexpressed cancer cells. Moreover, the evaluation extended to an in vivo context, where the therapeutic effect of nanovesicles was appraised within the tumor microenvironment of the triple-negative breast cancer mouse model. Notably, both intraperitoneal and intratumoral administrations of nanovesicles exhibited the ability to activate natural killer cells and skew M2 macrophage towards an M1 phenotype. The combined scrutiny of in vitro and in vivo findings underscores the potential efficiency of OMVs as a promising strategy for future anti-tumor endeavors.

Artificial Macrophage with Hierarchical Nanostructure for Biomimetic Reconstruction of Antitumor Immunity

Artificial cells are constructed from synthetic materials to imitate the biological functions of natural cells. By virtue of nanoengineering techniques, artificial cells with designed biomimetic functions provide alternatives to natural cells, showing vast potential for biomedical applications. Especially in cancer treatment, the deficiency of immunoactive macrophages results in tumor progression and immune resistance. To overcome the limitation, a BaSO4@ZIF-8/transferrin (TRF) nanomacrophage (NMΦ) is herein constructed as an alternative to immunoactive macrophages. Alike to natural immunoactive macrophages, NMΦ is stably retained in tumors through the specific affinity of TRF to tumor cells. Zn2+ as an "artificial cytokine" is then released from the ZIF-8 layer of NMΦ under tumor microenvironment. Similar as proinflammatory cytokines, Zn2+ can trigger cell anoikis to expose tumor antigens, which are selectively captured by the BaSO4 cavities. Therefore, the hierarchical nanostructure of NMΦs allows them to mediate immunogenic death of tumor cells and subsequent antigen capture for T cell activation to fabricate long-term antitumor immunity. As a proof-of-concept, the NMΦ mimics the biological functions of macrophage, including tumor residence, cytokine release, antigen capture and immune activation, which is hopeful to provide a paradigm for the design and biomedical applications of artificial cells.

Systematic investigation of chemo-immunotherapy synergism to shift anti-PD-1 resistance in cancer

Chemo-immunotherapy combinations have been regarded as one of the most practical ways to improve immunotherapy response in cancer patients. In this study, we integrated the transcriptomics data from immunotherapy-treated tumors and compound-treated cell lines to systematically identify chemo-immunotherapy synergisms and their underlying mechanisms. Through analyzing anti-PD-1 treatment induced expression changes in patient tumors, we developed a shift ability score that can measure whether a chemotherapy treatment shifts anti-PD-1 response. By applying the shift ability analysis on 41,321 compounds and 16,853 shRNA treated cancer cell line expression profiles, we characterized a systematic landscape of chemo-immunotherapy synergism and prioritized 17 potential synergy targets. Further investigation of the treatment induced transcriptomic data revealed that a mitophagy-dsRNA-MAVS-dependent activation of type I IFN signaling may be a novel mechanism for chemo-immunotherapy synergism. Our study represents the first comprehensive effort to mechanistically characterize chemo-immunotherapy synergism and will facilitate future pre-clinical and clinical studies.

Progress on the pathological tissue microenvironment barrier-modulated nanomedicine

Imbalance in the tissue microenvironment is the main obstacle to drug delivery and distribution in the human body. Before penetrating the pathological tissue microenvironment to the target site, therapeutic agents are usually accompanied by three consumption steps: the first step is tissue physical barriers for prevention of their penetration, the second step is inactivation of them by biological molecules, and the third step is a cytoprotective mechanism for preventing them from functioning on specific subcellular organelles. However, recent studies in drug-hindering mainly focus on normal physiological rather than pathological microenvironment, and the repair of damaged physiological barriers is also rarely discussed. Actually, both the modulation of pathological barriers and the repair of damaged physiological barriers are essential in the disease treatment and the homeostasis maintenance. In this review, we present an overview describing the latest advances in the generality of these pathological barriers and barrier-modulated nanomedicine. Overall, this review holds considerable significance for guiding the design of nanomedicine to increase drug efficacy in the future.

Driving natural killer cell-based cancer immunotherapy for cancer treatment: An arduous journey to promising ground

Immunotherapy represents one of the most effective strategies for cancer treatment. Recently, progress has been made in using natural killer (NK) cells for cancer therapy. NK cells can directly kill tumor cells without pre-sensitization and thus show promise in clinical applications, distinct from the use of T cells. Whereas, research and development on NK cell-based immunotherapy is still in its infancy, and enhancing the therapeutic effects of NK cells remains a key problem to be solved. An incompletely understanding of the mechanisms of action of NK cells, immune resistance in the tumor microenvironment, and obstacles associated with the delivery of therapeutic agents in vivo, represent three mountains that need to be scaled. Here, we firstly describe the mechanisms underlying the development, activity, and maturation of NK cells, and the formation of NK‑cell immunological synapses. Secondly, we discuss strategies for NK cell-based immunotherapy strategies, including adoptive transfer of NK cell therapy and treatment with cytokines, monoclonal antibodies, and immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting NK cells. Finally, we review the use of nanotechnology to overcome immune resistance, including enhancing the anti-tumor efficiency of chimeric antigen receptor-NK, cytokines and immunosuppressive-pathways inhibitors, promoting NK cell homing and developing NK cell-based nano-engagers.

Shaping the "hot" immunogenic tumor microenvironment by nanoparticles co-delivering oncolytic peptide and TGF-β1 siRNA for boosting checkpoint blockade therapy

Induction of potent immune responses toward tumors remains challenging in cancer immunotherapy, in which it only showed benefits in a minority of patients with "hot" tumors, which possess pre-existing effector immune cells within the tumor. In this study, we proposed a nanoparticle-based strategy to fire up the "cold" tumor by upregulating the components associated with T and NK cell recruitment and activation and suppressing TGF-β1 secretion by tumor cells. Specifically, LTX-315, a first-in-class oncolytic cationic peptide, and TGF-β1 siRNA were co-entrapped in a polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticle comprising PLGA, DSPE-mPEG, and DSPE-PEG-conjugated with cRGD peptide (LTX/siR-NPs). The LTX/siR-NPs showed significant inhibition of TGF-β1 expression, induction of type I interferon release, and triggering immunogenic cell death (ICD) in treated tumor cells, indicated via the increased levels of danger molecules, an in vitro setting. The in vivo data showed that the LTX/siR-NPs could effectively protect the LTX-315 peptide from degradation in serum, which highly accumulated in tumor tissue. Consequently, the LTX/siR-NPs robustly suppressed TGF-β1 production by tumor cells and created an immunologically active tumor with high infiltration of antitumor effector immune cells. As a result, the combination of LTX/siR-NP treatment with NKG2A checkpoint inhibitor therapy remarkably increased numbers of CD8+NKG2D+ and NK1.1+NKG2D+ within tumor masses, and importantly, inhibited the tumor growth and prolonged survival rate of treated mice. Taken together, this study suggests the potential of the LTX/siR-NPs for inflaming the "cold" tumor for potentiating the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy.

Biosynthesized gold nanoparticles that activate Toll-like receptors and elicit localized light-converting hyperthermia for pleiotropic tumor immunoregulation

Manipulating the tumor immune contexture towards a more active state can result in better therapeutic outcomes. Here we describe an easily accessible bacterial biomineralization-generated immunomodulator, which we name Ausome (Au + [exo]some). Ausome comprises a gold nanoparticle core covered by bacterial components; the former affords an inducible hyperthermia effect, while the latter mobilizes diverse immune responses. Multiple pattern recognition receptors actively participate in Ausome-initiated immune responses, which lead to the release of a broad spectrum of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the activation of effector immune cells. Upon laser irradiation, tumor-accumulated Ausome elicits a hyperthermic response, which improves tissue blood perfusion and contributes to enhanced infiltration of immunostimulatory modules, including cytokines and effector lymphocytes. This immune-modulating strategy mediated by Ausome ultimately brings about a comprehensive immune reaction and selectively amplifies the effects of local antitumor immunity, enhancing the efficacy of well-established chemo- or immuno-therapies in preclinical cancer models in female mice.

Polymeric biomaterial-inspired cell surface modulation for the development of novel anticancer therapeutics

Immune cell-based therapies are a rapidly emerging class of new medicines that directly treat and prevent targeted cancer. However multiple biological barriers impede the activity of live immune cells, and therefore necessitate the use of surface-modified immune cells for cancer prevention. Synthetic and/or natural biomaterials represent the leading approach for immune cell surface modulation. Different types of biomaterials can be applied to cell surface membranes through hydrophobic insertion, layer-by-layer attachment, and covalent conjugations to acquire surface modification in mammalian cells. These biomaterials generate reciprocity to enable cell-cell interactions. In this review, we highlight the different biomaterials (lipidic and polymeric)-based advanced applications for cell-surface modulation, a few cell recognition moieties, and how their interplay in cell-cell interaction. We discuss the cancer-killing efficacy of NK cells, followed by their surface engineering for cancer treatment. Ultimately, this review connects biomaterials and biologically active NK cells that play key roles in cancer immunotherapy applications.

Lipid-based nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy

As the fourth most important cancer management strategy except surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, cancer immunotherapy has been confirmed to elicit durable antitumor effects in the clinic by leveraging the patient's own immune system to eradicate the cancer cells. However, the limited population of patients who benefit from the current immunotherapies and the immune related adverse events hinder its development. The immunosuppressive microenvironment is the main cause of the failure, which leads to cancer immune evasion and immunity cycle blockade. Encouragingly, nanotechnology has been engineered to enhance the efficacy and reduce off-target toxicity of their therapeutic cargos by spatiotemporally controlling the biodistribution and release kinetics. Among them, lipid-based nanoparticles are the first nanomedicines to make clinical translation, which are now established platforms for diverse areas. In this perspective, we discuss the available lipid-based nanoparticles in research and market here, then describe their application in cancer immunotherapy, with special emphasis on the T cells-activated and macrophages-targeted delivery system. Through perpetuating each step of cancer immunity cycle, lipid-based nanoparticles can reduce immunosuppression and promote drug delivery to trigger robust antitumor response.

Emerging biomaterials for tumor immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

The immune system interacts with cancer cells in various intricate ways that can protect the individual from overproliferation of cancer cells; however, these interactions can also lead to malignancy. There has been a dramatic increase in the application of cancer immunotherapy in the last decade. However, low immunogenicity, poor specificity, weak presentation efficiency, and off-target side effects still limit its widespread application. Fortunately, advanced biomaterials effectively contribute immunotherapy and play an important role in cancer treatment, making it a research hotspot in the biomedical field.

MAIN BODY

This review discusses immunotherapies and the development of related biomaterials for application in the field. The review first summarizes the various types of tumor immunotherapy applicable in clinical practice as well as their underlying mechanisms. Further, it focuses on the types of biomaterials applied in immunotherapy and related research on metal nanomaterials, silicon nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, polymer nanoparticles, and cell membrane nanocarriers. Moreover, we introduce the preparation and processing technologies of these biomaterials (liposomes, microspheres, microneedles, and hydrogels) and summarize their mechanisms when applied to tumor immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss future advancements and shortcomings related to the application of biomaterials in tumor immunotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Research on biomaterial-based tumor immunotherapy is booming; however, several challenges remain to be overcome to transition from experimental research to clinical application. Biomaterials have been optimized continuously and nanotechnology has achieved continuous progression, ensuring the development of more efficient biomaterials, thereby providing a platform and opportunity for breakthroughs in tumor immunotherapy.

The application of autologous cancer immunotherapies in the age of memory-NK cells

Cellular immunotherapy has revolutionized the oncology field, yielding improved results against hematological and solid malignancies. NK cells have become an attractive alternative due to their capacity to activate upon recognition of "stress" or "danger" signals independently of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) engagement, thus making tumor cells a perfect target for NK cell-mediated cancer immunotherapy even as an allogeneic solution. While this allogeneic use is currently favored, the existence of a characterized memory function for NK cells ("memory-like" NK cells) advocates for an autologous approach, that would benefit from the allogeneic setting discoveries, but with added persistence and specificity. Still, both approaches struggle to exert a sustained and high anticancer effect in-vivo due to the immunosuppressive tumor micro-environment and the logistical challenges of cGMP production or clinical deployment. Novel approaches focused on the quality enhancement and the consistent large-scale production of highly activated therapeutic memory-like NK cells have yielded encouraging but still unconclusive results. This review provides an overview of NK biology as it relates to cancer immunotherapy and the challenge presented by solid tumors for therapeutic NKs. After contrasting the autologous and allogeneic NK approaches for solid cancer immunotherapy, this work will present the current scientific focus for the production of highly persistent and cytotoxic memory-like NK cells as well as the current issues with production methods as they apply to stress-sensitive immune cells. In conclusion, autologous NK cells for cancer immunotherapy appears to be a prime alternative for front line therapeutics but to be successful, it will be critical to establish comprehensives infrastructures allowing the production of extremely potent NK cells while constraining costs of production.

Advances in engineering and delivery strategies for cytokine immunotherapy

INTRODUCTION

Cytokine immunotherapy is a growing field for the treatment of cancer, infectious disease, autoimmunity, and other ailments. Therapeutic cytokines are a class of secreted, small proteins that play a pivotal role in regulating the innate and adaptive immune system by provoking or mitigating immune responses. In the clinic, cytokines are frequently combined with other treatments, such as small molecules and monoclonal antibodies. However, the clinical translation of cytokine therapies is hindered by their short half-life, pleiotropic nature, and off-target effects, which cause diminished efficacy and severe systemic toxicity. Such toxicity limits dosage, thus resulting in suboptimal doses. Accordingly, numerous efforts have been devoted to exploring strategies to promote cytokine therapies by improving their tissue specificity and pharmacokinetics.

AREAS COVERED

Preclinical and clinical research into bioengineering and delivery strategies for cytokines, consisting of bioconjugation, fusion proteins, nanoparticles, and scaffold-based systems.

EXPERT OPINION

These approaches pave the way for the development of next-generation cytokine treatments with greater clinical benefit and reduced toxicity, circumventing such issues currently associated with cytokine therapy.

The emerging nanomedicine-based technology for non-small cell lung cancer immunotherapy: how far are we from an effective treatment

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a prominent etiology of cancer-related mortality. The heterogeneous nature of this disease impedes its accurate diagnosis and efficacious treatment. Consequently, constant advancements in research are imperative in order to comprehend its intricate nature. In addition to currently available therapies, the utilization of nanotechnology presents an opportunity to enhance the clinical outcomes of NSCLC patients. Notably, the burgeoning knowledge of the interaction between the immune system and cancer itself paves the way for developing novel, emerging immunotherapies for treating NSCLC in the early stages of the disease. It is believed that with the novel engineering avenues of nanomedicine, there is a possibility to overcome the inherent limitations derived from conventional and emerging treatments, such as off-site drug cytotoxicity, drug resistance, and administration methods. Combining nanotechnology with the convergence points of current therapies could open up new avenues for meeting the unmet needs of NSCLC treatment.

Exploiting Nanomedicine for Cancer Polychemotherapy: Recent Advances and Clinical Applications

The most important limitations of chemotherapeutic agents are severe side effects and the development of multi-drug resistance. Recently, the clinical successes achieved with immunotherapy have revolutionized the treatment of several advanced-stage malignancies, but most patients do not respond and many of them develop immune-related adverse events. Loading synergistic combinations of different anti-tumor drugs in nanocarriers may enhance their efficacy and reduce life-threatening toxicities. Thereafter, nanomedicines may synergize with pharmacological, immunological, and physical combined treatments, and should be increasingly integrated in multimodal combination therapy regimens. The goal of this manuscript is to provide better understanding and key considerations for developing new combined nanomedicines and nanotheranostics. We will clarify the potential of combined nanomedicine strategies that are designed to target different steps of the cancer growth as well as its microenvironment and immunity interactions. Moreover, we will describe relevant experiments in animal models and discuss issues raised by translation in the human setting.

Engineering Cyborg Bacteria Through Intracellular Hydrogelation

Natural and artificial cells are two common chassis in synthetic biology. Natural cells can perform complex tasks through synthetic genetic constructs, but their autonomous replication often causes safety concerns for biomedical applications. In contrast, artificial cells based on nonreplicating materials, albeit possessing reduced biochemical complexity, provide more defined and controllable functions. Here, for the first time, the authors create hybrid material-cell entities termed Cyborg Cells. To create Cyborg Cells, a synthetic polymer network is assembled inside each bacterium, rendering them incapable of dividing. Cyborg Cells preserve essential functions, including cellular metabolism, motility, protein synthesis, and compatibility with genetic circuits. Cyborg Cells also acquire new abilities to resist stressors that otherwise kill natural cells. Finally, the authors demonstrate the therapeutic potential by showing invasion into cancer cells. This work establishes a new paradigm in cellular bioengineering by exploiting a combination of intracellular man-made polymers and their interaction with the protein networks of living cells.

NK cells are never alone: crosstalk and communication in tumour microenvironments

Immune escape is a hallmark of cancer. The dynamic and heterogeneous tumour microenvironment (TME) causes insufficient infiltration and poor efficacy of natural killer (NK) cell-based immunotherapy, which becomes a key factor triggering tumour progression. Understanding the crosstalk between NK cells and the TME provides new insights for optimising NK cell-based immunotherapy. Here, we present new advances in direct or indirect crosstalk between NK cells and 9 specialised TMEs, including immune, metabolic, innervated niche, mechanical, and microbial microenvironments, summarise TME-mediated mechanisms of NK cell function inhibition, and highlight potential targeted therapies for NK-TME crosstalk. Importantly, we discuss novel strategies to overcome the inhibitory TME and provide an attractive outlook for the future.

Engineering lactate-modulating nanomedicines for cancer therapy

Lactate in tumors has long been considered "metabolic junk" derived from the glycolysis of cancer cells and utilized only as a biomarker of malignancy, but is presently believed to be a pivotal regulator of tumor development, maintenance and metastasis. Indeed, tumor lactate can be a "fuel" for energy supply and functions as a signaling molecule, which actively contributes to tumor progression, angiogenesis, immunosuppression, therapeutic resistance, etc., thus providing promising opportunities for cancer treatment. However, the current approaches for regulating lactate homeostasis with available agents are still challenging, which is mainly due to the short half-life, low bioavailability and poor specificity of these agents and their unsatisfactory therapeutic outcomes. In recent years, lactate modulation nanomedicines have emerged as a charming and efficient strategy for fighting cancer, which play important roles in optimizing the delivery of lactate-modulating agents for more precise and effective modulation and treatment. Integrating specific lactate-modulating functions in diverse therapeutic nanomedicines may overcome the intrinsic restrictions of different therapeutic modalities by remodeling the pathological microenvironment for achieving enhanced cancer therapy. In this review, the most recent advances in the engineering of functional nanomedicines that can modulate tumor lactate for cancer therapy are summarized and discussed, and the fundamental mechanisms by which lactate modulation benefits various therapeutics are elucidated. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of this emerging strategy in the anti-tumor field are highlighted.

Osmani R, Hani U, Yoonus Thajudeen K, Kiran Raj G, Gowda DV. Recent advances in the liposomal nanovesicles based immunotherapy in the treatment of cancer: A review

Immunotherapy, along with chemotherapy, targeted delivery, radiation and surgery has become one of the most common cancer treatments. The aim of cancer immunology is to use the bodys immune system to combat tumors and develop a robust antitumor immune response. In the last few years, immune checkpoint inhibitors and chimeric antigen receptor-modified T cells have made substantial advancements in cancer immunotherapy. By boosting cell type-specific delivery and immunological responses, nanocarriers like liposomes have the ability to enhance greater immune responses. The efficacy of anti-tumor therapeutics is being significantly improved as liposomes can assist in resolving a number of issues that can arise from a variety of cancer immunotherapies. Since, liposomes can be loaded with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs and protect the immunotherapeutic agents loaded inside the core, they offer significant advantages over other nano delivery systems. The use of liposomes for accurate and timely delivery of immunotherapies to particular targeted neoplasms, with little or no injury to healthy cells, maximizes immunotherapy efficacy. Liposomes are also suitable vehicles for delivering medications simultaneously with other therapies such as chemotherapy, radiation, and phototherapy. Liposomal nanoparticles will be introduced and used as an objective immunotherapy delivery system for great precision, making them a viable cancer treatment approach.With an emphasis on dendritic cells, T cells, tumor and natural killer cells, and macrophages; outline of many forms of immune-therapies in oncology and cutting-edge advances in liposomal nanovesicles for cancer immunotherapy are covered in this review.

T cell-responsive macroporous hydrogels for in situ T cell expansion and enhanced antitumor efficacy

Adoptive T cell therapy has demonstrated great promise for treating cancer and other diseases. While extensive effort has been made to improve ex vivo expansion of T cells, strategies for maintaining the proliferation and function of T cells post adoptive transfer are still lacking. Here we report an injectable T cell-responsive macroporous hydrogel that enables in situ activation and expansion of T cells. The macroporous gel is composed of a polymeric network with dispersed macropores (∼150 μm) that are large enough to home T cells. In the presence of T cells that can gradually disrupt the gel network surrounding the macropores, activation cues can be gradually released for in situ activation and expansion of T cells. This T cell-responsive macroporous gel enables expansion of effector T cells in vivo, is stable over weeks upon subcutaneous injection, and results in enhanced CD8+ T cell response and antitumor efficacy. We further show that the T cell-responsive macroporous gel could achieve comparable antitumor efficacy to conventional T cell therapy with a much lower cell dose. This injectable, T cell-responsive macroporous gel provides a platform for in vivo expansion of engineered T cells in a controlled manner, for timely and effective treatment of diseases.

A metal-organic framework-based immunomodulatory nanoplatform for anti-atherosclerosis treatment

Immunomodulatory therapy has become a promising method for the clinical treatment of many diseases. Recently, pilot studies revealed that immunomodulatory therapy exhibited good effects on the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, but many problems remain to be solved, such as useful platforms for drug co-delivery and combination therapies. In this study, we designed and constructed the multifunctional nanoparticle Rapa@UiO-66-NH-FAM-IL-1Ra (RUFI) for the treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. This nanoplatform combined the advantages of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) for drug co-delivery, rapamycin and IL-1Ra for immunomodulation, IL-1Ra for cellular targeting, and 5-FAM for fluorescence imaging. RUFI exhibited good drug release of rapamycin and IL-1Ra and specific cytotoxicity for inflammatory macrophages in vitro. In an atherosclerotic model of diet-fed ApoE^-/- mice, RUFI significantly targeted and reduced atherosclerosis plaques in coronary arteries, carotid arteries, and aortas. Mechanistic studies indicated that RUFI modulated macrophage phenotype, cytokine expression, and autophagy. This study demonstrated that combination therapy with rapamycin and IL-1Ra via MOF carriers enhanced the immunoregulatory effects against atherosclerosis. This drug co-delivery system suggests that MOF carriers loaded with immunomodulators are promising treatments for atherosclerosis or other inflammatory diseases.

Synergistic Antitumor Potency of a Self-Assembling Cyclodextrin Nanoplex for the Co-Delivery of 5-Fluorouracil and Interleukin-2 in the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Chemotherapy is the most used method after surgery in the treatment of colon cancer. Cancer cells escape the recognition mechanism of immune system cells to survive and develop chemoresistance. Therefore, the use of immunotherapy in combination with chemotherapy can increase the effectiveness of the treatment. Nanoparticles have been used clinically to increase the accumulation of therapeutics in target tissues and reduce toxicity. In this paper, nanoplexes were formed via cationic cyclodextrin polymer, 5-Fluorouracil, and Interleukin-2 based on the opposite charge interaction of macromolecules without undergoing any structural changes or losing the biological activity of Interleukin-2. Anticancer activities of nanoplexes were determined in two-dimensional and three-dimensional cell culture setups. The dual drug-loaded cyclodextrin nanoplexes diffused deeper into the spheroids and accelerated apoptosis when compared with 5-FU solutions. In the colorectal tumor-bearing animal model, survival rate, antitumor activity, metastasis, and immune response parameters were assessed using a cyclodextrin derivative, which was found to be safe based on the ALT/AST levels in healthy mice. Histomorphometric analysis showed that the groups treated with the nanoplex formulation had significantly fewer initial tumors and lung foci when compared with the control. The dual drug-loaded nanoplex could be a promising drug delivery technique in the immunochemotherapy of colorectal cancer.

Recent advances in the medical applications of hemostatic materials

Bleeding caused by trauma or surgery is a serious health problem, and uncontrollable bleeding can result in death. Therefore, developing safe, effective, and convenient hemostatic materials is important. Active hemostatic agents currently used to investigate the field of hemostasis are divided into four broad categories: natural polymers, synthetic polymers, inorganic materials, and metal-containing materials. Hemostatic materials are prepared in various forms for wound care applications based on the active ingredients used. These materials include nanofibers, gels, sponges, and nanoparticles. Hemostatic materials find their applications in the field of wound care, and they are also used for hemostasis during malignant tumor surgery. Prompt and effective hemostasis can reduce the possibility of the spread of tumor cells with blood. This review discusses the outcomes of current research conducted in the field and the problems persisting in the field of developing hemostatic materials. The review also presents a platform for the further development of hemostatic materials. Bleeding caused by trauma or surgery is a serious health problem, and uncontrollable bleeding can result in death. Therefore, developing safe, effective, and convenient hemostatic materials is important. Active hemostatic agents currently used to investigate the field of hemostasis are divided into four broad categories: natural polymers, synthetic polymers, inorganic materials, and metal-containing materials. Hemostatic materials are prepared in various forms for wound care applications based on the active ingredients used. These materials include nanofibers, gels, sponges, and nanoparticles. Hemostatic materials find their applications in the field of wound care, and they are also used for hemostasis during malignant tumor surgery. Prompt and effective hemostasis can reduce the possibility of the spread of tumor cells with blood. This review discusses the outcomes of current research conducted in the field and the problems persisting in the field of developing hemostatic materials. The review also presents a platform for the further development of hemostatic materials.

Nanoimmunoengineering strategies in cancer diagnosis and therapy

Cancer immunotherapy strategies in combination with engineered nanosystems have yielded beneficial results in the treatment of cancer and their application is increasing day by day. The pivotal role of stimuli-responsive nanosystems and nanomedicine-based cancer immunotherapy, as a subsidiary discipline in the field of immunology, cannot be ignored. Today, rapid advances in nanomedicine are used as a platform for exploring new therapeutic applications and modern smart healthcare management strategies. The progress of nanomedicine in cancer treatment has confirmed the findings of immunotherapy in the medical research phase. This study concentrates on approaches connected to the efficacy of nanoimmunoengineering strategies for cancer immunotherapies and their applications. By assessing improved approaches, different aspects of the nanoimmunoengineering strategies for cancer therapies are discussed in this study.

Systemic enhancement of antitumour immunity by peritumourally implanted immunomodulatory macroporous scaffolds

A tumour microenvironment abundant in regulatory T (Treg) cells aids solid tumours to evade clearance by effector T cells. Systemic strategies to suppress Treg cells or to augment immunity can elicit autoimmune side effects, cytokine storms and other toxicities. Here we report the design, fabrication and therapeutic performance of a biodegradable macroporous scaffold, implanted peritumourally, that releases a small-molecule inhibitor of transforming growth factor β to suppress Treg cells, chemokines to attract effector T cells and antibodies to stimulate them. In two mouse models of aggressive tumours, the implant boosted the recruitment and activation of effector T cells into the tumour and depleted it of Treg cells, which resulted in an 'immunological abscopal effect' on distant metastases and in the establishment of long-term memory that impeded tumour recurrence. We also show that the scaffold can be used to deliver tumour-antigen-specific T cells into the tumour. Peritumourally implanted immunomodulatory scaffolds may represent a general strategy to enhance T-cell immunity and avoid the toxicities of systemic therapies.

Breaking the niche: multidimensional nanotherapeutics for tumor microenvironment modulation

Most of the current antitumor therapeutics were developed targeting the cancer cells only. Unfortunately, in the majority of tumors, this single-dimensional therapy is found to be ineffective. Advanced research has shown that cancer is a multicellular disorder. The tumor microenvironment (TME), which is made by a complex network of the bulk tumor cells and other supporting cells, plays a crucial role in tumor progression. Understanding the importance of the TME in tumor growth, different treatment modalities have been developed targeting these supporting cells. Recent clinical results suggest that simultaneously targeting multiple components of the tumor ecosystem with drug combinations can be highly effective. This type of "multidimensional" therapy has a high potential for cancer treatment. However, tumor-specific delivery of such multi-drug combinations remains a challenge. Nanomedicine could be utilized for the tumor-targeted delivery of such multidimensional therapeutics. In this review, we first give a brief overview of the major components of TME. We then highlight the latest developments in nanoparticle-based combination therapies, where one drug targets cancer cells and other drug targets tumor-supporting components in the TME for a synergistic effect. We include the latest preclinical and clinical studies and discuss innovative nanoparticle-mediated targeting strategies.

Polymer- and lipid-based gene delivery technology for CAR T cell therapy

Chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR T cell) therapy is a revolutionary approach approved by the FDA and EMA to treat B cell malignancies and multiple myeloma. The production of these T cells has been done through viral vectors, which come with safety concerns, high cost and production challenges, and more recently also through electroporation, which can be extremely cytotoxic. In this context, nanosystems can constitute an alternative to overcome the challenges associated with current methods, resulting in a safe and cost-effective platform. However, the barriers associated with T cells transfection show that the design and engineering of novel approaches in this field are highly imperative. Here, we present an overview from CAR constitution to transfection technologies used in T cells, highlighting the lipid- and polymer-based nanoparticles as a potential delivery platform. Specifically, we provide examples, strengths and weaknesses of nanosystem formulations, and advances in nanoparticle design to improve transfection of T cells. This review will guide the researchers in the design and development of novel nanosystems for next-generation CAR T therapeutics.

Activation of cancer immunotherapy by nanomedicine

Cancer is one of the most difficult diseases to be treated in the world. Immunotherapy has made great strides in cancer treatment in recent years, and several tumor immunotherapy drugs have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Currently, immunotherapy faces many challenges, such as lacking specificity, cytotoxicity, drug resistance, etc. Nanoparticles have the characteristics of small particle size and stable surface function, playing a miraculous effect in anti-tumor treatment. Nanocarriers such as polymeric micelles, liposomes, nanoemulsions, dendrimers, and inorganic nanoparticles have been widely used to overcome deficits in cancer treatments including toxicity, insufficient specificity, and low bioavailability. Although nanomedicine research is extensive, only a few nanomedicines are approved to be used. Either Bottlenecks or solutions of nanomedicine in immunotherapy need to be further explored to cope with challenges. In this review, a brief overview of several types of cancer immunotherapy approaches and their advantages and disadvantages will be provided. Then, the types of nanomedicines, drug delivery strategies, and the progress of applications are introduced. Finally, the application and prospect of nanomedicines in immunotherapy and Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy (CAR-T) are highlighted and summarized to address the problems of immunotherapy the overall goal of this article is to provide insights into the potential use of nanomedicines and to improve the efficacy and safety of immunotherapy.

Locoregional Lymphatic Delivery Systems Using Nanoparticles and Hydrogels for Anticancer Immunotherapy

The lymphatic system has gained significant interest as a target tissue to control cancer progress, which highlights its central role in adaptive immune response. Numerous mechanistic studies have revealed the benefits of nano-sized materials in the transport of various cargos to lymph nodes, overcoming barriers associated with lymphatic physiology. The potential of sustained drug delivery systems in improving the therapeutic index of various immune modulating agents is also being actively discussed. Herein, we aim to discuss design rationales and principles of locoregional lymphatic drug delivery systems for invigorating adaptive immune response for efficient antitumor immunotherapy and provide examples of various advanced nanoparticle- and hydrogel-based formulations.

Nanoparticle Enhancement of Natural Killer (NK) Cell-Based Immunotherapy

Simple Summary

Natural killer cells are a part of the native immune response to cancer. NK cell-based immunotherapies are an emerging strategy to kill tumor cells. This paper reviews the role of NK cells, their mechanism of action for killing tumor cells, and the receptors which could serve as potential targets for signaling. In this review, the role of nanoparticles in NK cell activation and increased cytotoxicity of NK cells against cancer are highlighted.

Abstract

Natural killer (NK) cells are one of the first lines of defense against infections and malignancies. NK cell-based immunotherapies are emerging as an alternative to T cell-based immunotherapies. Preclinical and clinical studies of NK cell-based immunotherapies have given promising results in the past few decades for hematologic malignancies. Despite these achievements, NK cell-based immunotherapies have limitations, such as limited performance/low therapeutic efficiency in solid tumors, the short lifespan of NK cells, limited specificity of adoptive transfer and genetic modification, NK cell rejection by the patient’s immune system, insignificant infiltration of NK cells into the tumor microenvironment (TME), and the expensive nature of the treatment. Nanotechnology could potentially assist with the activation, proliferation, near-real time imaging, and enhancement of NK cell cytotoxic activity by guiding their function, analyzing their performance in near-real time, and improving immunotherapeutic efficiency. This paper reviews the role of NK cells, their mechanism of action in killing tumor cells, and the receptors which could serve as potential targets for signaling. Specifically, we have reviewed five different areas of nanotechnology that could enhance immunotherapy efficiency: nanoparticle-assisted immunomodulation to enhance NK cell activity, nanoparticles enhancing homing of NK cells, nanoparticle delivery of RNAi to enhance NK cell activity, genetic modulation of NK cells based on nanoparticles, and nanoparticle activation of NKG2D, which is the master regulator of all NK cell responses.

Current advances in the use of exosomes, liposomes, and bioengineered hybrid nanovesicles in cancer detection and therapy

Three major approaches of cancer therapy can be enunciated as delivery of biotherapeutics, tumor image analysis, and immunotherapy. Liposomes, artificial fat bubbles, are long known for their capacity to encapsulate a diverse range of bioactive molecules and release the payload in a sustained, stimuli-responsive manner. They have already been widely explored as a delivery vehicle for therapeutic drugs as well as imaging agents. They are also extensively being used in cancer immunotherapy. On the other hand, exosomes are naturally occurring nanosized extracellular vesicles that serve an important role in cell-cell communication. Importantly, the exosomes also have proven their capability to carry an array of active pharmaceuticals and diagnostic molecules to the tumor cells. Exosomes, being enriched with tumor antigens, have numerous immunomodulatory effects. Much to our intrigue, in recent times, efforts have been directed toward developing smart, bioengineered, exosome-liposome hybrid nanovesicles, which are augmented by the benefits of both vesicular systems. This review attempts to summarize the contemporary developments in the use of exosome and liposome toward cancer diagnosis, therapy, as a vehicle for drug delivery, diagnostic carrier for tumor imaging, and cancer immunotherapy. We shall also briefly reflect upon the recent advancements of the exosome-liposome hybrids in cancer therapy. Finally, we put forward future directions for the use of exosome/liposome and/or hybrid nanocarriers for accurate diagnosis and personalized therapies for cancers.

Engineered nanomaterials trigger abscopal effect in immunotherapy of metastatic cancers

Despite advances in cancer treatment, metastatic cancer is still the main cause of death in cancer patients. At present, the treatment of metastatic cancer is limited to palliative care. The abscopal effect is a rare phenomenon in which shrinkage of metastatic tumors occurs simultaneously with the shrinkage of a tumor receiving localized treatment, such as local radiotherapy or immunotherapy. Immunotherapy shows promise for cancer treatment, but it also leads to consequences such as low responsiveness and immune-related adverse events. As a promising target-based approach, intravenous or intratumoral injection of nanomaterials provides new opportunities for improving cancer immunotherapy. Chemically modified nanomaterials may be able to trigger the abscopal effect by regulating immune cells. This review discusses the use of nanomaterials in killing metastatic tumor cells through the regulation of immune cells and the prospects of such nanomaterials for clinical use.

Advances in Nanotechnology for Cancer Immunoprevention and Immunotherapy: A Review

One of the most effective cancer therapies, cancer immunotherapy has produced outstanding outcomes in the field of cancer treatment. However, the cost is excessive, which limits its applicability. A smart way to address this issue would be to apply the knowledge gained through immunotherapy to develop strategies for the immunoprevention of cancer. The use of cancer vaccines is one of the most popular methods of immunoprevention. This paper reviews the technologies and processes that support the advantages of cancer immunoprevention over traditional cancer immunotherapies. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems and nanoparticle-based nano-vaccines have been employed in the past for cancer immunotherapy. This paper outlines numerous immunoprevention strategies and how nanotechnology can be applied in immunoprevention. To comprehend the non-clinical and clinical evaluation of these cancer vaccines through clinical studies is essential for acceptance of the vaccines.

Combined delivery of small molecule and protein drugs as synergistic therapeutics for treating corneal neovascularization by a one-pot coassembly strategy

Combined drug administration is a potential strategy to increase efficacy through therapeutic synergy. Small molecule drugs and protein drugs are the two most popular kinds of drugs in medicine. However, efficiently encapsulating these two drugs still have key challenges due to their distinct properties (molecular weight, hydrophilicity, chemical groups, etc.), weak ability to penetrate through various biobarriers (cell membrane, endosome escape, tissue barriers dependent on the method of administration, etc.) and the easy deactivation of protein drugs during the construction of carrier and delivery process. Here, we utilize the hexahistidine-metal assembly (HmA), which can encapsulate a wide spectrum of drugs with high loading efficiency, to coencapsulate Dexp (a small molecule drug) and BVZ (protein drug) by a one-pot coassembly strategy. Our data demonstrated that Dexp and BVZ were coloaded into Dexp&BVZ@HmA with high efficiency, while the bioactivity of BVZ was well-maintained. Most importantly, when evaluating the therapeutic outcomes of drugs@HmA in a corneal neovascularization (CNV) model in vitro and in vivo, the combination group presented overwhelming efficacy compared to the monotherapy group. This strategy offers a platform to codeliver protein and small drugs and has the potential for treating anterior segment diseases as well as other diseases that need combination therapy.

Nanomaterial-Based Drug Delivery Systems: A New Weapon for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy, a major breakthrough in cancer treatment, has been successfully applied to treat a number of tumors. However, given the presence of factors in the tumor microenvironment (TME) that impede immunotherapy, only a small proportion of patients achieve a good clinical response. With the ability to increase permeability and cross biological barriers, nanomaterials have been successfully applied to deliver immunotherapeutic agents, thus realizing the anti-cancer therapeutic potential of therapeutic agents. This has driven a wave of research into systems for the delivery of immunotherapeutic agents, which has resulted in widespread interest in nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems. Nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems are able to overcome the challenges from TME and thus achieve good results in cancer immunotherapy. If it can make a breakthrough in improving biocompatibility and reducing cytotoxicity, it will be more widely used in clinical practice. Different types of nanomaterials may also have some subtle differences in enhancing cancer immunotherapy. Moreover, delivery systems made of nanomaterials loaded with drugs, such as cytotoxic drugs, cytokines, and adjuvants, could be used for cancer immunotherapy because they avoid the toxicity and side effects associated with these drugs, thereby enabling their reuse. Therefore, further insights into nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems will provide more effective treatment options for cancer patients.

Image-guided intratumoral immunotherapy: Developing a clinically practical technology

Immunotherapy has revolutionized the contemporary oncology landscape, with durable responses possible across a range of cancer types. However, the majority of cancer patients do not respond to immunotherapy due to numerous immunosuppressive barriers. Efforts to overcome these barriers and increase systemic immunotherapy efficacy have sparked interest in the local intratumoral delivery of immune stimulants to activate the local immune response and subsequently drive systemic tumor immunity. While clinical evaluation of many therapeutic candidates is ongoing, development is hindered by a lack of imaging confirmation of local delivery, insufficient intratumoral drug distribution, and a need for repeated injections. The use of polymeric drug delivery systems, which have been widely used as platforms for both image guidance and controlled drug release, holds promise for delivery of intratumoral immunoadjuvants and the development of an in situ cancer vaccine for patients with metastatic cancer. In this review, we explore the current state of the field for intratumoral delivery and methods for optimizing controlled drug release, as well as practical considerations for drug delivery design to be optimized for clinical image guided delivery particularly by CT and ultrasound.

A Hybrid Supramolecular Polymeric Nanomedicine for Cascade-Amplified Synergetic Cancer Therapy

Supramolecular nanomedicines have shown great merits in cancer therapy, but their clinical translation is hampered by monotonous therapeutic modality and unsatisfactory antitumor performance. Herein, a hybrid supramolecular polymeric nanomedicine (SNPs) is developed based on β-cyclodextrin/camptothecin (CPT) host-guest molecular recognition and iron-carboxylate coordination. Iron ions stabilizing SNPs catalyze the conversion of intracellular hydrogen peroxide into highly toxic hydroxyl radical through a Fenton reaction, which further cleaves the thioketal linker of the supramolecular monomer to release potent CPT, thus amplifying the therapeutic efficacy by combining chemodynamic therapy and chemotherapy. The combination therapy stimulates antitumor immunity and promotes intratumoral infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes by triggering immunogenic cell death. In synergy with PD-L1 checkpoint blockade, SNPs enables enhanced immune therapy and a long-term tumor remission.