Structural and mechanistic insights into hepatitis C viral translation initiation

Structure of saguaro cactus virus 3' translational enhancer mimics 5' cap for eIF4E binding

The genomes of several plant viruses contain RNA structures at their 3' ends called cap-independent translation enhancers (CITEs) that bind the host protein factors such as mRNA 5' cap-binding protein eIF4E for promoting cap-independent genome translation. However, the structural basis of such 5' cap-binding protein recognition by the uncapped RNA remains largely unknown. Here, we have determined the crystal structure of a 3' CITE, panicum mosaic virus-like translation enhancer (PTE) from the saguaro cactus virus (SCV), using a Fab crystallization chaperone. The PTE RNA folds into a three-way junction architecture with a pseudoknot between the purine-rich R domain and pyrimidine-rich Y domain, which organizes the overall structure to protrude out a specific guanine nucleotide, G18, from the R domain that comprises a major interaction site for the eIF4E binding. The superimposable crystal structures of the wild-type, G18A, G18C, and G18U mutants suggest that the PTE scaffold is preorganized with the flipped-out G18 ready to dock into the eIF4E 5' cap-binding pocket. The binding studies with wheat and human eIF4Es using gel electrophoresis and isothermal titration calorimetry, and molecular docking computation for the PTE-eIF4E complex demonstrated that the PTE structure essentially mimics the mRNA 5' cap for eIF4E binding. Such 5' cap mimicry by the uncapped and structured viral RNA highlights how viruses can exploit RNA structures to mimic the host protein-binding partners and bypass the canonical mechanisms for their genome translation, providing opportunities for a better understanding of virus-host interactions and non-canonical translation mechanisms found in many pathogenic RNA viruses.

Ubiquitin-protein ligase E3A (UBE3A) mediation of viral infection and human diseases

The Ubiquitin-protein ligase E3A, UBE3A, also known as E6-associated protein (E6-AP), is known to play an essential role in regulating the degradation of various proteins by transferring Ub from E2 Ub conjugating enzymes to the substrate proteins. Several studies indicate that UBE3A regulates the stabilities of key viral proteins in the virus-infected cells and, thereby, the infected virus-mediated diseases, even if it were reported that UBE3A participates in non-viral-related human diseases. Furthermore, mutations such as deletions and duplications in the maternally inherited gene in the brain cause human neurodevelopmental disorders such as Angelman syndrome (AS) and autism. It is also known that UBE3A functions as a transcriptional coactivator for the expression of steroid hormone receptors. These reports establish that UBE3A is distinguished by its multitudinous functions that are paramount to viral pathology and human diseases. This review is focused on molecular mechanisms for such intensive participation of UBE3A in disease formation and virus regulation.

Enhanced Virus Translation Enables miR-122-Independent Hepatitis C Virus Propagation

The 5' untranslated region (UTR) of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) genome forms RNA structures that regulate virus replication and translation. The region contains an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) and a 5'-terminal region. Binding of the liver-specific microRNA (miRNA) miR-122 to two binding sites in the 5'-terminal region regulates viral replication, translation, and genome stability and is essential for efficient virus replication, but its precise mechanism of action is still unresolved. A current hypothesis is that miR-122 binding stimulates viral translation by facilitating the viral 5' UTR to form the translationally active HCV IRES RNA structure. While miR-122 is essential for detectable replication of wild-type HCV genomes in cell culture, several viral variants with 5' UTR mutations exhibit low-level replication in the absence of miR-122. We show that HCV mutants capable of replicating independently of miR-122 display an enhanced translation phenotype that correlates with their ability to replicate independently of miR-122. Further, we provide evidence that translation regulation is the major role for miR-122 and show that miR-122-independent HCV replication can be rescued to miR-122-dependent levels by the combined impacts of 5' UTR mutations that stimulate translation and by stabilizing the viral genome by knockdown of host exonucleases and phosphatases that degrade the genome. Finally, we show that HCV mutants capable of replicating independently of miR-122 also replicate independently of other microRNAs generated by the canonical miRNA synthesis pathway. Thus, we provide a model suggesting that translation stimulation and genome stabilization are the primary roles for miR-122 in promoting HCV. IMPORTANCE The unusual and essential role of miR-122 in promoting HCV propagation is incompletely understood. To better understand its role, we have analyzed HCV mutants capable of replicating independently of miR-122. Our data show that the ability of viruses to replicate independently of miR-122 correlates with enhanced virus translation but that genome stabilization is required to restore efficient HCV replication. This suggests that viruses must gain both abilities to escape the need for miR-122 and impacts the possibility that HCV can evolve to replicate outside the liver.

A congenital hydrocephalus-causing mutation in Trim71 induces stem cell defects via inhibiting Lsd1 mRNA translation

Congenital hydrocephalus (CH) is a major cause of childhood morbidity. Mono-allelic mutations in Trim71, a conserved stem-cell-specific RNA-binding protein, cause CH; however, the molecular basis for pathogenesis mediated by these mutations remains unknown. Here, using mouse embryonic stem cells as a model, we reveal that the mouse R783H mutation (R796H in human) alters Trim71's mRNA substrate specificity and leads to accelerated stem-cell differentiation and neural lineage commitment. Mutant Trim71, but not wild-type Trim71, binds Lsd1 (Kdm1a) mRNA and represses its translation. Specific inhibition of this repression or a slight increase of Lsd1 in the mutant cells alleviates the defects in stem cell differentiation and neural lineage commitment. These results determine a functionally relevant target of the CH-causing Trim71 mutant that can potentially be a therapeutic target and provide molecular mechanistic insights into the pathogenesis of this disease.

Subgenomic RNAs and Their Encoded Proteins Contribute to the Rapid Duplication of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Progression

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is currently widespread throughout the world, accompanied by a rising number of people infected and breakthrough infection of variants, which make the virus highly transmissible and replicable. A comprehensive understanding of the molecular virological events and induced immunological features during SARS-CoV-2 replication can provide reliable targets for vaccine and drug development. Among the potential targets, subgenomic RNAs and their encoded proteins involved in the life cycle of SARS-CoV-2 are extremely important in viral duplication and pathogenesis. Subgenomic RNAs employ a range of coping strategies to evade immune surveillance from replication to translation, which allows RNAs to synthesize quickly, encode structural proteins efficiently and complete the entire process of virus replication and assembly successfully. This review focuses on the characteristics and functions of SARS-CoV-2 subgenomic RNAs and their encoded proteins and explores in depth the role of subgenomic RNAs in the replication and infection of host cells to provide important clues to the mechanism of COVID-19 pathogenesis.

DDX60 selectively reduces translation off viral type II internal ribosome entry sites

Co-opting host cell protein synthesis is a hallmark of many virus infections. In response, certain host defense proteins limit mRNA translation globally, albeit at the cost of the host cell's own protein synthesis. Here, we describe an interferon-stimulated helicase, DDX60, that decreases translation from viral internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs). DDX60 acts selectively on type II IRESs of encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) and foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), but not by other IRES types or by 5' cap. Correspondingly, DDX60 reduces EMCV and FMDV (type II IRES) replication, but not that of poliovirus or bovine enterovirus 1 (BEV-1; type I IRES). Furthermore, replacing the IRES of poliovirus with a type II IRES is sufficient for DDX60 to inhibit viral replication. Finally, DDX60 selectively modulates the amount of translating ribosomes on viral and in vitro transcribed type II IRES mRNAs, but not 5' capped mRNA. Our study identifies a novel facet in the repertoire of interferon-stimulated effector genes, the selective downregulation of translation from viral type II IRES elements.

RNA-Binding Proteins as Regulators of Internal Initiation of Viral mRNA Translation

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that depend on the host’s protein synthesis machinery for translating their mRNAs. The viral mRNA (vRNA) competes with the host mRNA to recruit the translational machinery, including ribosomes, tRNAs, and the limited eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIFs) pool. Many viruses utilize non-canonical strategies such as targeting host eIFs and RNA elements known as internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) to reprogram cellular gene expression, ensuring preferential translation of vRNAs. In this review, we discuss vRNA IRES-mediated translation initiation, highlighting the role of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), other than the canonical translation initiation factors, in regulating their activity.

Far Upstream Binding Protein 1 (FUBP1) participates in translational regulation of Nrf2 protein under oxidative stress

Oxidative stress is ubiquitously involved in disease etiology or progression. While the damaging effects have been well characterized, how cells deal with oxidative stress for prevention or removal of damage remains to be fully elucidated. Works from our laboratory have revealed de novo Nrf2 protein translation when cells are encountering low to mild levels of oxidative stress. Nrf2 encodes a transcription factor controlling a myriad of genes important for antioxidation, detoxification, wound repair and tissue remodeling. Here we report a role of FUBP1 in regulating de novo Nrf2 protein translation. An increase of FUBP1 binding to Nrf2 5′UTR due to H₂O₂ treatment has been found by LC-MS/MS, Far Western blot and ribonucleoprotein immunoprecipitation assays. Blocking FUBP1 expression using siRNA abolished H₂O₂ from inducing Nrf2 protein elevation or Nrf2 5′UTR activity. While no nuclear to cytoplasmic translocation was detected, cytosolic redistribution to the ribosomal fractions was observed due to oxidant treatment. The presence of FUBP1 in 40/43S ribosomal fractions confirm its involvement in translation initiation of Nrf2 protein. When tested by co-immunoprecipitation with eIF4E, eIF2a, eIF3η and eIF1, only eIF3η was found to gain physical interaction with FUBP1 due to H₂O₂ treatment. Our data support a role of FUBP1 for promoting the attachment of 40S ribosomal subunit to Nrf2 mRNA and formation of 43S pre-initiation complex for translation initiation of Nrf2 protein under oxidative stress.

Repressing Ago2 mRNA translation by Trim71 maintains pluripotency through inhibiting let-7 microRNAs

The regulation of stem cell fate is poorly understood. Genetic studies in Caenorhabditis elegans lead to the hypothesis that a conserved cytoplasmic double-negative feedback loop consisting of the RNA-binding protein Trim71 and the let-7 microRNA controls the pluripotency and differentiation of stem cells. Although let-7-microRNA-mediated inhibition of Trim71 promotes differentiation, whether and how Trim71 regulates pluripotency and inhibits the let-7 microRNA are still unknown. Here, we show that Trim71 represses Ago2 mRNA translation in mouse embryonic stem cells. Blocking this repression leads to a specific post-transcriptional increase of mature let-7 microRNAs, resulting in let-7-dependent stemness defects and accelerated differentiation in the stem cells. These results not only support the Trim71-let-7-microRNA bi-stable switch model in controlling stem cell fate, but also reveal that repressing the conserved pro-differentiation let-7 microRNAs at the mature microRNA level by Ago2 availability is critical to maintaining pluripotency.

In vivo structural characterization of the SARS-CoV-2 RNA genome identifies host proteins vulnerable to repurposed drugs

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the cause of the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Understanding of the RNA virus and its interactions with host proteins could improve therapeutic interventions for COVID-19. By using icSHAPE, we determined the structural landscape of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in infected human cells and from refolded RNAs, as well as the regulatory untranslated regions of SARS-CoV-2 and six other coronaviruses. We validated several structural elements predicted in silico and discovered structural features that affect the translation and abundance of subgenomic viral RNAs in cells. The structural data informed a deep-learning tool to predict 42 host proteins that bind to SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Strikingly, antisense oligonucleotides targeting the structural elements and FDA-approved drugs inhibiting the SARS-CoV-2 RNA binding proteins dramatically reduced SARS-CoV-2 infection in cells derived from human liver and lung tumors. Our findings thus shed light on coronavirus and reveal multiple candidate therapeutics for COVID-19 treatment.

Location specific annealing of miR-122 and other small RNAs defines an Hepatitis C Virus 5' UTR regulatory element with distinct impacts on virus translation and genome stability

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication requires annealing of a liver specific small-RNA, miR-122 to 2 sites on 5′ untranslated region (UTR). Annealing has been reported to (a) stabilize the genome, (b) stimulate translation and (c) promote the formation of translationally active Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES) RNA structure. In this report, we map the RNA element to which small RNA annealing promotes HCV to nucleotides 1–44 and identify the relative impact of small RNA annealing on virus translation promotion and genome stabilization. We mapped the optimal region on the HCV genome to which small RNA annealing promotes virus replication to nucleotides 19–37 and found the efficiency of viral RNA accumulation decreased as annealing moved away from this region. Then, by using a panel of small RNAs that promote replication with varying efficiencies we link the efficiency of lifecycle promotion with translation stimulation. By contrast small RNA annealing stabilized the viral genome even if they did not promote virus replication. Thus, we propose that miR-122 annealing promotes HCV replication by annealing to an RNA element that activates the HCV IRES and stimulates translation, and that miR-122 induced HCV genome stabilization is insufficient alone but enhances virus replication.

Expression of protein kinase HIPK2 is subject to a quality control mechanism that acts during translation and requires its kinase activity to prevent degradation of nascent HIPK2

HIPK2 is a highly conserved, constitutively active Ser/Thr protein kinase that is involved in a broad spectrum of biological processes. We have previously reported that the expression of HIPK2 is auto-regulated by a mechanism that depends on the activity of its kinase domain, leading to decreased expression of kinase-dead versus wild-type HIPK2. We have now explored this mechanism in more detail. Differential expression of wild-type and kinase-dead HIPK2 is dependent on sequences located in the C-terminal part of HIPK2, but is only observed when this part of HIPK2 is translated together with the defective kinase domain. On their own, both the defective kinase domain and the C-terminal amino acid sequences are expressed at normal levels and independently of kinase activity. Insertion of a 2A-ribosomal skipping sequence into the HIPK2 coding sequence revealed that the differential expression of wild-type and kinase-dead HIPK2 is caused by degradation of nascent kinase-dead HIPK2. Because HIPK2 is constitutively active and auto-activates its kinase domain already during its translation we speculate that the regulatory mechanism discovered here serves as a quality control mechanism that leads to degradation of nascent kinase molecules with defective kinase domains. Overall our work provides insight into a novel auto-regulatory mechanism of HIPK2 expression, thereby adding a new layer of control to the regulation of HIPK2.

Structural and catalytic roles of the human 18S rRNA methyltransferases DIMT1 in ribosome assembly and translation

rRNA-modifying enzymes participate in ribosome assembly. However, whether the catalytic activities of these enzymes are important for the ribosome assembly and other cellular processes is not fully understood. Here, we report the crystal structure of WT human dimethyladenosine transferase 1 (DIMT1), an 18S rRNA N6,6-dimethyladenosine (m26,6A) methyltransferase, and results obtained with a catalytically inactive DIMT1 variant. We found that DIMT1+/- heterozygous HEK 293T cells have a significantly decreased 40S fraction and reduced protein synthesis but no major changes in m26,6A levels in 18S rRNA. Expression of a catalytically inactive variant, DIMT1-E85A, in WT and DIMT1+/- cells significantly decreased m26,6A levels in 18S rRNA, indicating a dominant-negative effect of this variant on m26,6A levels. However, expression of the DIMT1-E85A variant restored the defects in 40S levels. Of note, unlike WT DIMT1, DIMT1-E85A could not revert the defects in protein translation. We found that the differences between this variant and the WT enzyme extended to translation fidelity and gene expression patterns in DNA damage response pathways. These results suggest that the catalytic activity of DIMT1 is involved in protein translation and that the overall protein scaffold of DIMT1, regardless of the catalytic activity on m26,6A in 18S rRNA, is essential for 40S assembly.

The Role of the Liver-Specific microRNA, miRNA-122 in the HCV Replication Cycle

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication requires annealing of a liver specific microRNA, miR-122 to 2 sites on 5' untranslated region (UTR). While, microRNAs downregulate gene expression by binding to the 3' untranslated region of the target mRNA, in this case, the microRNA anneals to the 5'UTR of the viral genomes and upregulates the viral lifecycle. In this review, we explore the current understandings of the mechanisms by which miR-122 promotes the HCV lifecycle, and its contributions to pathogenesis. Annealing of miR-122 has been reported to (a) stimulate virus translation by promoting the formation of translationally active internal ribosome entry site (IRES) RNA structure, (b) stabilize the genome, and (c) induce viral genomic RNA replication. MiR-122 modulates lipid metabolism and suppresses tumor formation, and sequestration by HCV may influence virus pathogenesis. We also discuss the possible use of miR-122 as a biomarker for chronic hepatitis and as a therapeutic target. Finally, we discuss roles for miR-122 and other microRNAs in promoting other viruses.

IDH1 fine-tunes cap-dependent translation initiation

The metabolic enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate (α-KG). Its mutation often leads to aberrant gene expression in cancer. IDH1 was reported to bind thousands of RNA transcripts in a sequence-dependent manner; yet, the functional significance of this RNA-binding activity remains elusive. Here, we report that IDH1 promotes mRNA translation via direct associations with polysome mRNA and translation machinery. Comprehensive proteomic analysis in embryonic stem cells (ESCs) revealed striking enrichment of ribosomal proteins and translation regulators in IDH1-bound protein interactomes. We performed ribosomal profiling and analyzed mRNA transcripts that are associated with actively translating polysomes. Interestingly, knockout of IDH1 in ESCs led to significant downregulation of polysome-bound mRNA in IDH1 targets and subtle upregulation of ribosome densities at the start codon, indicating inefficient translation initiation upon loss of IDH1. Tethering IDH1 to a luciferase mRNA via the MS2-MBP system promotes luciferase translation, independently of the catalytic activity of IDH1. Intriguingly, IDH1 fails to enhance luciferase translation driven by an internal ribosome entry site. Together, these results reveal an unforeseen role of IDH1 in fine-tuning cap-dependent translation via the initiation step.

Fatal attraction: The roles of ribosomal proteins in the viral life cycle

Upon viral infection of a host cell, each virus starts a program to generate many progeny viruses. Although viruses interact with the host cell in numerous ways, one critical step in the virus life cycle is the expression of viral proteins, which are synthesized by the host ribosomes in conjunction with host translation factors. Here we review different mechanisms viruses have evolved to effectively seize host cell ribosomes, the roles of specific ribosomal proteins and their posttranslational modifications on viral RNA translation, or the cellular response to infection. We further highlight ribosomal proteins with extra-ribosomal function during viral infection and put the knowledge of ribosomal proteins during viral infection into the larger context of ribosome-related diseases, known as ribosomopathies. This article is categorized under: Translation > Translation Mechanisms Translation > Translation Regulation.

Cap-independent translation initiation of the unspliced RNA of retroviruses

Retroviruses are a unique family of RNA viruses that utilize a virally encoded reverse transcriptase (RT) to replicate their genomic RNA (gRNA) through a proviral DNA intermediate. The provirus is permanently integrated into the host cell chromosome and is expressed by the host cell transcription, RNA processing, and translation machinery. Retroviral messenger RNAs (mRNAs) entirely resemble a cellular mRNA as they have a 5'cap structure, 5'untranslated region (UTR), an open reading frame (ORF), 3'UTR, and a 3'poly(A) tail. The primary transcription product interacts with the cellular RNA processing machinery and is spliced, exported to the cytoplasm, and translated. However, a proportion of the pre-mRNA subverts typical RNA processing giving rise to the full-length RNA. In the cytoplasm, the full-length retroviral RNA fulfills a dual role acting as mRNA and as the gRNA. Simple retroviruses generate two pools of full-length RNA, one for each purpose. However, complex retroviruses have a single pool of full-length RNA, which is destined for translation or encapsidation. As for eukaryotic mRNAs, translational control of retroviral protein synthesis is mostly exerted at the step of initiation. Interestingly, some retroviral mRNAs, both simple and complex, use a dual mechanism to initiate protein synthesis, a cap-dependent initiation mechanism, or via internal initiation using an internal ribosome entry site (IRES). In this review, we describe and discuss data regarding the molecular mechanism driving the canonical cap-dependent and IRES-mediated translation initiation for retroviral mRNA, focusing the discussion mainly on the most studied retroviral mRNA, the HIV-1 mRNA.

A comparative study of small molecules targeting eIF4A

The PI3K/Akt/mTOR kinase pathway is extensively deregulated in human cancers. One critical node under regulation of this signaling axis is eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 4F, a complex involved in the control of translation initiation rates. eIF4F-dependent addictions arise during tumor initiation and maintenance due to increased eIF4F activity-generally in response to elevated PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling flux. There is thus much interest in exploring eIF4F as a small molecule target for the development of new anticancer drugs. The DEAD-box RNA helicase, eIF4A, is an essential subunit of eIF4F, and several potent small molecules (rocaglates, hippuristanol, pateamine A) affecting its activity have been identified and shown to demonstrate anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo in preclinical models. Recently, a number of new small molecules have been reported as having the capacity to target and inhibit eIF4A. Here, we undertook a comparative analysis of their biological activity and specificity relative to the eIF4A inhibitor, hippuristanol.

Structure of the RNA Specialized Translation Initiation Element that Recruits eIF3 to the 5'-UTR of c-Jun

Specialized translation initiation is a novel form of regulation of protein synthesis, whereby RNA structures within the 5'-UTR regulate translation rates of specific mRNAs. Similar to internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs), specialized translation initiation requires the recruitment of eukaryotic initiation factor 3 (eIF3), but also requires cap recognition by eIF3d, a new 5'-m7GTP recognizing protein. How these RNA structures mediate eIF3 recruitment to affect translation of specific mRNAs remains unclear. Here, we report the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) structure of a stem-loop within the c-JUN 5' UTR recognized by eIF3 and essential for specialized translation initiation of this well-known oncogene. The structure exhibits similarity to eIF3 recognizing motifs found in hepatitis C virus (HCV)-like IRESs, suggesting mechanistic similarities. This work establishes the RNA structural features involved in c-JUN specialized translation initiation and provides a basis to search for small molecule inhibitors of aberrant expression of the proto-oncogenic c-JUN.

Translational Regulations in Response to Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Cancers

During carcinogenesis, almost all the biological processes are modified in one way or another. Among these biological processes affected, anomalies in protein synthesis are common in cancers. Indeed, cancer cells are subjected to a wide range of stresses, which include physical injuries, hypoxia, nutrient starvation, as well as mitotic, oxidative or genotoxic stresses. All of these stresses will cause the accumulation of unfolded proteins in the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), which is a major organelle that is involved in protein synthesis, preservation of cellular homeostasis, and adaptation to unfavourable environment. The accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum causes stress triggering an unfolded protein response in order to promote cell survival or to induce apoptosis in case of chronic stress. Transcription and also translational reprogramming are tightly controlled during the unfolded protein response to ensure selective gene expression. The majority of stresses, including ER stress, induce firstly a decrease in global protein synthesis accompanied by the induction of alternative mechanisms for initiating the translation of mRNA, later followed by a translational recovery. After a presentation of ER stress and the UPR response, we will briefly present the different modes of translation initiation, then address the specific translational regulatory mechanisms acting during reticulum stress in cancers and highlight the importance of translational control by ER stress in tumours.

Synthetic Antibody Binding to a Preorganized RNA Domain of Hepatitis C Virus Internal Ribosome Entry Site Inhibits Translation

Structured RNA elements within the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) of hepatitis C virus (HCV) genome hijack host cell machinery for translation initiation through a cap-independent mechanism. Here, using a phage display selection, we obtained two antibody fragments (Fabs), HCV2 and HCV3, against HCV IRES that bind the RNA with dissociation constants of 32 ± 7 nM and 37 ± 8 nM respectively, specifically recognizing the so-called junction IIIabc (JIIIabc). We used these Fabs as crystallization chaperones and determined the high-resolution crystal structures of JIIIabc-HCV2 and -HCV3 complexes at 1.81 Å and 2.75 Å resolution respectively, revealing an antiparallel four-way junction with the IIIa and IIIc subdomains brought together through tertiary interactions. The RNA conformation observed in the structures supports the structural model for this region derived from cryo-EM data for the HCV IRES-40S ribosome complex, suggesting that the tertiary fold of the RNA preorganizes the domain for interactions with the 40S ribosome. Strikingly, both Fabs and the ribosomal protein eS27 not only interact with a common subset of nucleotides within the JIIIabc but also use physiochemically similar sets of protein residues to do so, suggesting that the RNA surface is well-suited for interactions with proteins, perhaps analogous to the "hot spot" concept elaborated for protein-protein interactions. Using a rabbit reticulocyte lysate-based translation assay with a bicistronic reporter construct, we further demonstrated that Fabs HCV2 and HCV3 specifically inhibit the HCV IRES-directed translation, implicating disruption of the JIIIabc-ribosome interaction as a potential therapeutic strategy against HCV.

miR-122, small RNA annealing and sequence mutations alter the predicted structure of the Hepatitis C virus 5' UTR RNA to stabilize and promote viral RNA accumulation

Annealing of the liver-specific microRNA, miR-122, to the Hepatitis C virus (HCV) 5′ UTR is required for efficient virus replication. By using siRNAs to pressure escape mutations, 30 replication-competent HCV genomes having nucleotide changes in the conserved 5′ untranslated region (UTR) were identified. In silico analysis predicted that miR-122 annealing induces canonical HCV genomic 5′ UTR RNA folding, and mutant 5′ UTR sequences that promoted miR-122-independent HCV replication favored the formation of the canonical RNA structure, even in the absence of miR-122. Additionally, some mutant viruses adapted to use the siRNA as a miR-122-mimic. We further demonstrate that small RNAs that anneal with perfect complementarity to the 5′ UTR stabilize and promote HCV genome accumulation. Thus, HCV genome stabilization and life-cycle promotion does not require the specific annealing pattern demonstrated for miR-122 nor 5′ end annealing or 3′ overhanging nucleotides. Replication promotion by perfect-match siRNAs was observed in Ago2 knockout cells revealing that other Ago isoforms can support HCV replication. At last, we present a model for miR-122 promotion of the HCV life cycle in which miRNA annealing to the 5′ UTR, in conjunction with any Ago isoform, modifies the 5′ UTR structure to stabilize the viral genome and promote HCV RNA accumulation.

A conserved RNA structural motif for organizing topology within picornaviral internal ribosome entry sites

Picornaviral IRES elements are essential for initiating the cap-independent viral translation. However, three-dimensional structures of these elements remain elusive. Here, we report a 2.84-Å resolution crystal structure of hepatitis A virus IRES domain V (dV) in complex with a synthetic antibody fragment-a crystallization chaperone. The RNA adopts a three-way junction structure, topologically organized by an adenine-rich stem-loop motif. Despite no obvious sequence homology, the dV architecture shows a striking similarity to a circularly permuted form of encephalomyocarditis virus J-K domain, suggesting a conserved strategy for organizing the domain architecture. Recurrence of the motif led us to use homology modeling tools to compute a 3-dimensional structure of the corresponding domain of foot-and-mouth disease virus, revealing an analogous domain organizing motif. The topological conservation observed among these IRESs and other viral domains implicates a structured three-way junction as an architectural scaffold to pre-organize helical domains for recruiting the translation initiation machinery.

Physical and Functional Analysis of Viral RNA Genomes by SHAPE

RNA viruses encode the information required to usurp cellular metabolism and gene regulation and to enable their own replication in two ways: in the linear sequence of their RNA genomes and in higher-order structures that form when the genomic RNA strand folds back on itself. Application of high-resolution SHAPE (selective 2'-hydroxyl acylation analyzed by primer extension) structure probing to viral RNA genomes has identified numerous new regulatory elements, defined new principles by which viral RNAs interact with the cellular host and evade host immune responses, and revealed relationships between virus evolution and RNA structure. This review summarizes our current understanding of genome structure-function interrelationships for RNA viruses, as informed by SHAPE structure probing, and outlines opportunities for future studies.

Fluorescently-tagged human eIF3 for single-molecule spectroscopy

Human translation initiation relies on the combined activities of numerous ribosome-associated eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs). The largest factor, eIF3, is an ∼800 kDa multiprotein complex that orchestrates a network of interactions with the small 40S ribosomal subunit, other eIFs, and mRNA, while participating in nearly every step of initiation. How these interactions take place during the time course of translation initiation remains unclear. Here, we describe a method for the expression and affinity purification of a fluorescently-tagged eIF3 from human cells. The tagged eIF3 dodecamer is structurally intact, functions in cell-based assays, and interacts with the HCV IRES mRNA and the 40S-IRES complex in vitro. By tracking the binding of single eIF3 molecules to the HCV IRES RNA with a zero-mode waveguides-based instrument, we show that eIF3 samples both wild-type IRES and an IRES that lacks the eIF3-binding region, and that the high-affinity eIF3-IRES interaction is largely determined by slow dissociation kinetics. The application of single-molecule methods to more complex systems involving eIF3 may unveil dynamics underlying mRNA selection and ribosome loading during human translation initiation.

Heterogeneity and specialized functions of translation machinery: from genes to organisms

Regulation of mRNA translation offers the opportunity to diversify the expression and abundance of proteins made from individual gene products in cells, tissues and organisms. Emerging evidence has highlighted variation in the composition and activity of several large, highly conserved translation complexes as a means to differentially control gene expression. Heterogeneity and specialized functions of individual components of the ribosome and of the translation initiation factor complexes eIF3 and eIF4F, which are required for recruitment of the ribosome to the mRNA 5' untranslated region, have been identified. In this Review, we summarize the evidence for selective mRNA translation by components of these macromolecular complexes as a means to dynamically control the translation of the proteome in time and space. We further discuss the implications of this form of gene expression regulation for a growing number of human genetic disorders associated with mutations in the translation machinery.

Regulation of Ribosomal Proteins on Viral Infection

Ribosomal proteins (RPs), in conjunction with rRNA, are major components of ribosomes involved in the cellular process of protein biosynthesis, known as "translation". The viruses, as the small infectious pathogens with limited genomes, must recruit a variety of host factors to survive and propagate, including RPs. At present, more and more information is available on the functional relationship between RPs and virus infection. This review focuses on advancements in my own understanding of critical roles of RPs in the life cycle of viruses. Various RPs interact with viral mRNA and proteins to participate in viral protein biosynthesis and regulate the replication and infection of virus in host cells. Most interactions are essential for viral translation and replication, which promote viral infection and accumulation, whereas the minority represents the defense signaling of host cells by activating immune pathway against virus. RPs provide a new platform for antiviral therapy development, however, at present, antiviral therapeutics with RPs involving in virus infection as targets is limited, and exploring antiviral strategy based on RPs will be the guides for further study.

Noncanonical Translation Initiation in Eukaryotes

The vast majority of eukaryotic messenger RNAs (mRNAs) initiate translation through a canonical, cap-dependent mechanism requiring a free 5' end and 5' cap and several initiation factors to form a translationally active ribosome. Stresses such as hypoxia, apoptosis, starvation, and viral infection down-regulate cap-dependent translation during which alternative mechanisms of translation initiation prevail to express proteins required to cope with the stress, or to produce viral proteins. The diversity of noncanonical initiation mechanisms encompasses a broad range of strategies and cellular cofactors. Herein, we provide an overview and, whenever possible, a mechanistic understanding of the various noncanonical mechanisms of initiation used by cells and viruses. Despite many unanswered questions, recent advances have propelled our understanding of the scope, diversity, and mechanisms of alternative initiation.

Translational Control in Virus-Infected Cells

As obligate intracellular parasites, virus reproduction requires host cell functions. Despite variations in genome size and configuration, nucleic acid composition, and their repertoire of encoded functions, all viruses remain unconditionally dependent on the protein synthesis machinery resident within their cellular hosts to translate viral messenger RNAs (mRNAs). A complex signaling network responsive to physiological stress, including infection, regulates host translation factors and ribosome availability. Furthermore, access to the translation apparatus is patrolled by powerful host immune defenses programmed to restrict viral invaders. Here, we review the tactics and mechanisms used by viruses to appropriate control over host ribosomes, subvert host defenses, and dominate the infected cell translational landscape. These not only define aspects of infection biology paramount for virus reproduction, but continue to drive fundamental discoveries into how cellular protein synthesis is controlled in health and disease.

Hepatitis E virus polymerase binds to IFIT1 to protect the viral RNA from IFIT1-mediated translation inhibition

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) induces interferons and regulates the induction of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) in the host cell. HEV infection has been shown to promote the expression of different ISGs, such as ISG15, IFIT1, MX1, RSAD2/Viperin and CxCL10, in cell culture and animal models. Interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeat 1 (IFIT1) is an ISG-encoded protein that inhibits the translation of viral RNA, having 5'-triphosphate or the mRNA lacking 2'-O-methylation on the 5'cap. In this study, we found that IFIT1 binds to HEV RNA to inhibit its translation. HEV replication is also restricted in hepatoma cells with overexpressed IFIT1. However, despite this binding of IFIT1 to HEV RNA, HEV successfully replicates in hepatoma cells in the infection scenario. In an effort to identify the underlying mechanism, we found that HEV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) binds to IFIT1, thereby protecting the viral RNA from IFIT1-mediated translation inhibition. RdRp sequesters IFIT1, resulting in the successful progression of viral replication in the infected cells. Thus, we discovered a distinct pro-viral role of HEV RdRp that is crucial for successful infection in the host, and propose a unique mechanism developed by HEV to overcome IFIT1-mediated host immune response.

Deconstructing internal ribosome entry site elements: an update of structural motifs and functional divergences

Beyond the general cap-dependent translation initiation, eukaryotic organisms use alternative mechanisms to initiate protein synthesis. Internal ribosome entry site (IRES) elements are cis-acting RNA regions that promote internal initiation of translation using a cap-independent mechanism. However, their lack of primary sequence and secondary RNA structure conservation, as well as the diversity of host factor requirement to recruit the ribosomal subunits, suggest distinct types of IRES elements. In spite of this heterogeneity, conserved motifs preserve sequences impacting on RNA structure and RNA–protein interactions important for IRES-driven translation. This conservation brings the question of whether IRES elements could consist of basic building blocks, which upon evolutionary selection result in functional elements with different properties. Although RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) perform a crucial role in the assembly of ribonucleoprotein complexes, the versatility and plasticity of RNA molecules, together with their high flexibility and dynamism, determines formation of macromolecular complexes in response to different signals. These properties rely on the presence of short RNA motifs, which operate as modular entities, and suggest that decomposition of IRES elements in short modules could help to understand the different mechanisms driven by these regulatory elements. Here we will review evidence suggesting that model IRES elements consist of the combination of short modules, providing sites of interaction for ribosome subunits, eIFs and RBPs, with implications for definition of criteria to identify novel IRES-like elements genome wide.

The Discovery of Ribosome Heterogeneity and Its Implications for Gene Regulation and Organismal Life

The ribosome has recently transitioned from being viewed as a passive, indiscriminate machine to a more dynamic macromolecular complex with specialized roles in the cell. Here, we discuss the historical milestones from the discovery of the ribosome itself to how this ancient machinery has gained newfound appreciation as a more regulatory participant in the central dogma of gene expression. The first emerging examples of direct changes in ribosome composition at the RNA and protein level, coupled with an increased awareness of the role individual ribosomal components play in the translation of specific mRNAs, is opening a new field of study centered on ribosome-mediated control of gene regulation. In this Perspective, we discuss our current understanding of the known functions for ribosome heterogeneity, including specialized translation of individual transcripts, and its implications for the regulation and expression of key gene regulatory networks. In addition, we suggest what the crucial next steps are to ascertain the extent of ribosome heterogeneity and specialization and its importance for regulation of the proteome within subcellular space, across different cell types, and during multi-cellular organismal development.

Mutational Analysis of the Bovine Hepacivirus Internal Ribosome Entry Site

In recent years, hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related viruses were identified in several species, including dogs, horses, bats, and rodents. In addition, a novel virus of the genus Hepacivirus has been discovered in bovine samples and was termed bovine hepacivirus (BovHepV). Prediction of the BovHepV internal ribosome entry site (IRES) structure revealed strong similarities to the HCV IRES structure comprising domains II, IIIabcde, pseudoknot IIIf, and IV with the initiation codon AUG. Unlike HCV, only one microRNA-122 (miR-122) binding site could be identified in the BovHepV 5' nontranslated region. In this study, we analyzed the necessity of BovHepV IRES domains to initiate translation and investigated possible interactions between the IRES and core coding sequences by using a dual luciferase reporter assay. Our results suggest that such long-range interactions within the viral genome can affect IRES-driven translation. Moreover, the significance of a possible miR-122 binding to the BovHepV IRES was investigated. When analyzing translation in human Huh-7 cells with large amounts of endogenous miR-122, introduction of point mutations to the miR-122 binding site resulted in reduced translation efficiency. Similar results were observed in HeLa cells after substitution of miR-122. Nevertheless, the absence of pronounced effects in a bovine hepatocyte cell line expressing hardly any miR-122 as well suggests additional functions of this host factor in virus replication.IMPORTANCE Several members of the family Flaviviridae, including HCV, have adapted cap-independent translation strategies to overcome canonical eukaryotic translation pathways and use cis-acting RNA-elements, designated viral internal ribosome entry sites (IRES), to initiate translation. Although novel hepaciviruses have been identified in different animal species, only limited information is available on their biology on molecular level. Therefore, our aim was a fundamental analysis of BovHepV IRES functions. The findings which show that functional IRES elements are also crucial for BovHepV translation expand our knowledge on molecular mechanism of hepacivirus propagation. We also studied the possible effects of one major host factor implicated in HCV pathogenesis, miR-122. The results of mutational analyses suggested that miR-122 enhances virus translation mediated by BovHepV IRES.

First Evidence for Internal Ribosomal Entry Sites in Diverse Fungal Virus Genomes

In contrast to well-established internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)-mediated translational initiation in animals and plants, no IRESs were established in fungal viral or cellular RNAs. To identify IRES elements in mycoviruses, we developed a luciferase-based dual-reporter detection system in Cryphonectria parasitica, a model filamentous fungus for virus-host interactions. A bicistronic construct entails a codon-optimized Renilla and firefly luciferase (ORluc and OFluc, respectively) gene, between which potential IRES sequences can be inserted. In this system, ORluc serves as an internal control, while OFluc represents IRES activity. Virus sequences in the 5′ untranslated regions (UTRs) of the genomes of diverse positive-sense single-stranded RNA and double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses were analyzed. The results show relatively high IRES activities for Cryphonectria hypovirus 1 (CHV1) and CHV2 and faint but measurable activity for CHV3. The weak IRES signal of CHV3 may be explained by its monocistronic nature, differing from the bicistronic nature of CHV1 and CHV2. This would allow these three hypoviruses to have similar rates of translation of replication-associated protein per viral mRNA molecule. The importance of 24 5′-proximal codons of CHV1 as well as the 5′ UTR for IRES function was confirmed. Furthermore, victoriviruses and chrysoviruses tested IRES positive, whereas mycoreoviruses, partitiviruses, and quadriviruses showed similar Fluc activities as the negative controls. Overall, this study represents the first development of an IRES identification system in filamentous fungi based on the codon-optimized dual-luciferase assay and provides evidence for IRESs in filamentous fungi.

Cap-independent, internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)-mediated translational initiation is often used by virus mRNAs and infrequently by cellular mRNAs in animals and plants. However, no IRESs have been established in fungal virus RNAs or cellular RNAs in filamentous fungi. Here, we report the development of a dual-luciferase assay system and measurement of the IRES activities of fungal RNA viruses in a model filamentous fungal host, Cryphonectria parasitica. Viruses identified as IRES positive include hypoviruses (positive-sense RNA viruses, members of the expanded Picornavirus supergroup), totiviruses (nonsegmented dsRNA viruses), and chrysoviruses (tetrasegmented dsRNA viruses). No IRES activities were observed in the 5′ untranslated regions of mycoreoviruses (11-segmented dsRNA viruses), quadriviruses (tetrasegmented dsRNA viruses), or partitiviruses (bisegmented dsRNA viruses). This study provides the first evidence for IRES activities in diverse RNA viruses in filamentous fungi and is a first step toward identifying trans-acting host factors and cis-regulatory viral RNA elements.

Viral internal ribosomal entry sites: four classes for one goal

To ensure efficient propagation, viruses need to rapidly produce viral proteins after cell entrance. Since viral genomes do not encode any components of the protein biosynthesis machinery, viral proteins must be produced by the host cell. To hi-jack the host cellular translation, viruses use a great variety of distinct strategies. Many single-stranded positive-sensed RNA viruses contain so-called internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs). IRESs are structural RNA motifs that have evolved to specific folds that recruit the host ribosomes on the viral coding sequences in order to synthesize viral proteins. In host canonical translation, recruitment of the translation machinery components is essentially guided by the 5' cap (m⁷ G) of mRNA. In contrast, IRESs are able to promote efficient ribosome assembly internally and in cap-independent manner. IRESs have been categorized into four classes, based on their length, nucleotide sequence, secondary and tertiary structures, as well as their mode of action. Classes I and II require the assistance of cellular auxiliary factors, the eukaryotic intiation factors (eIF), for efficient ribosome assembly. Class III IRESs require only a subset of eIFs whereas Class IV, which are the more compact, can promote translation without any eIFs. Extensive functional and structural investigations of IRESs over the past decades have allowed a better understanding of their mode of action for viral translation. Because viral translation has a pivotal role in the infectious program, IRESs are therefore attractive targets for therapeutic purposes. WIREs RNA 2018, 9:e1458. doi: 10.1002/wrna.1458 This article is categorized under: Translation > Ribosome Structure/Function Translation > Translation Mechanisms RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > RNA-Protein Complexes.

Hepatitis C virus: Morphogenesis, infection and therapy

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of liver diseases including liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Approximately 3% of the world population is infected with HCV. Thus, HCV infection is considered a public healthy challenge. It is worth mentioning, that the HCV prevalence is dependent on the countries with infection rates around 20% in high endemic countries. The review summarizes recent data on HCV molecular biology, the physiopathology of infection (immune-mediated liver damage, liver fibrosis and lipid metabolism), virus diagnostic and treatment. In addition, currently available in vitro, ex vivo and animal models to study the virus life cycle, virus pathogenesis and therapy are described. Understanding of both host and viral factors may in the future lead to creation of new approaches in generation of an efficient therapeutic vaccine.

Host-Virus Protein Interaction Network Reveals the Involvement of Multiple Host Processes in the Life Cycle of Hepatitis E Virus

Comprehensive knowledge of host-pathogen interactions is central to understand the life cycle of a pathogen and devise specific therapeutic strategies. Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are key mediators of host-pathogen interactions. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a major cause of viral hepatitis in humans. Recent reports also demonstrate its extrahepatic manifestations in the brain. Toward understanding the molecular details of HEV life cycle, we screened human liver and fetal brain cDNA libraries to identify the host interaction partners of proteins encoded by genotype 1 HEV and constructed the virus-host PPI network. Analysis of the network indicated a role of HEV proteins in modulating multiple host biological processes such as stress and immune responses, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, energy and iron metabolism, and protein translation. Further investigations revealed the presence of multiple host translation regulatory factors in the viral translation/replication complex. Depletion of host translation factors such as eIF4A2, eIF3A, and RACK1 significantly reduced the viral replication, whereas eIF2AK4 depletion had no effect. These findings highlight the ingenuity of the pathogen in manipulating the host machinery to its own benefit, a clear understanding of which is essential for the identification of strategic targets and development of specific antivirals against HEV. IMPORTANCE Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a pathogen that is transmitted by the fecal-oral route. Owing to the lack of an efficient laboratory model, the life cycle of the virus is poorly understood. During the course of infection, interactions between the viral and host proteins play essential roles, a clear understanding of which is essential to decode the life cycle of the virus. In this study, we identified the direct host interaction partners of all HEV proteins and generated a PPI network. Our functional analysis of the HEV-human PPI network reveals a role of HEV proteins in modulating multiple host biological processes such as stress and immune responses, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, energy and iron metabolism, and protein translation. Further investigations revealed an essential role of several host factors in HEV replication. Collectively, the results from our study provide a vast resource of PPI data from HEV and its human host and identify the molecular components of the viral translation/replication machinery.

Dynamics of IRES-mediated translation

Viral internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) are unique RNA elements, which use stable and dynamic RNA structures to recruit ribosomes and drive protein synthesis. IRESs overcome the high complexity of the canonical eukaryotic translation initiation pathway, often functioning with a limited set of eukaryotic initiation factors. The simplest types of IRESs are typified by the cricket paralysis virus intergenic region (CrPV IGR) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) IRESs, both of which independently form high-affinity complexes with the small (40S) ribosomal subunit and bypass the molecular processes of cap-binding and scanning. Owing to their simplicity and ribosomal affinity, the CrPV and HCV IRES have been important models for structural and functional studies of the eukaryotic ribosome during initiation, serving as excellent targets for recent technological breakthroughs in cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and single-molecule analysis. High-resolution structural models of ribosome : IRES complexes, coupled with dynamics studies, have clarified decades of biochemical research and provided an outline of the conformational and compositional trajectory of the ribosome during initiation. Here we review recent progress in the study of HCV- and CrPV-type IRESs, highlighting important structural and dynamics insights and the synergy between cryo-EM and single-molecule studies.This article is part of the themed issue 'Perspectives on the ribosome'.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study of RNA Structures at the 3'-End of the Hepatitis C Virus Genome

The 3'-end of the genomic RNA of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) embeds conserved elements that regulate viral RNA synthesis and protein translation by mechanisms that have yet to be elucidated. Previous studies with oligo-RNA fragments have led to multiple, mutually exclusive secondary structure predictions, indicating that HCV RNA structure may be context-dependent. Here we employed a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) approach that involves long-range adenosine interaction detection, coupled with site-specific ²H labeling, to probe the structure of the intact 3'-end of the HCV genome (385 nucleotides). Our data reveal that the 3'-end exists as an equilibrium mixture of two conformations: an open conformation in which the 98 nucleotides of the 3'-tail (3'X) form a two-stem-loop structure with the kissing-loop residues sequestered and a closed conformation in which the 3'X rearranges its structure and forms a long-range kissing-loop interaction with an upstream cis-acting element 5BSL3.2. The long-range kissing species is favored under high-Mg²⁺ conditions, and the intervening sequences do not affect the equilibrium as their secondary structures remain unchanged. The open and closed conformations are consistent with the reported function regulation of viral RNA synthesis and protein translation, respectively. Our NMR detection of these RNA conformations and the structural equilibrium in the 3'-end of the HCV genome support its roles in coordinating various steps of HCV replication.

Translation repression via modulation of the cytoplasmic poly(A)-binding protein in the inflammatory response

Gene expression is precisely regulated during the inflammatory response to control infection and limit the detrimental effects of inflammation. Here, we profiled global mRNA translation dynamics in the mouse primary macrophage-mediated inflammatory response and identified hundreds of differentially translated mRNAs. These mRNAs' 3'UTRs have enriched binding motifs for several RNA-binding proteins, which implies extensive translational regulatory networks. We characterized one such protein, Zfp36, as a translation repressor. Using primary macrophages from a Zfp36-V5 epitope tagged knock-in mouse generated by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing, we found that the endogenous Zfp36 directly interacts with the cytoplasmic poly(A)-binding protein. Importantly, this interaction is required for the translational repression of Zfp36's target mRNAs in resolving inflammation. Altogether, these results uncovered critical roles of translational regulations in controlling appropriate gene expression during the inflammatory response and revealed a new biologically relevant molecular mechanism of translational repression via modulating the cytoplasmic poly(A)-binding protein.

Establishment and Application of a High Throughput Screening System Targeting the Interaction between HCV Internal Ribosome Entry Site and Human Eukaryotic Translation Initiation Factor 3

Viruses are intracellular obligate parasites and the host cellular machinery is usually recruited for their replication. Human eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 (eIF3) could be directly recruited by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) internal ribosome entry site (IRES) to promote the translation of viral proteins. In this study, we establish a fluorescence polarization (FP) based high throughput screening (HTS) system targeting the interaction between HCV IRES and eIF3. By screening a total of 894 compounds with this HTS system, two compounds (Mucl39526 and NP39) are found to disturb the interaction between HCV IRES and eIF3. And these two compounds are further demonstrated to inhibit the HCV IRES-dependent translation in vitro. Thus, this HTS system is functional to screen the potential HCV replication inhibitors targeting human eIF3, which is helpful to overcome the problem of viral resistance. Surprisingly, one compound HP-3, a kind of oxytocin antagonist, is discovered to significantly enhance the interaction between HCV IRES and eIF3 by this HTS system. HP-3 is demonstrated to directly interact with HCV IRES and promote the HCV IRES-dependent translation both in vitro and in vivo, which strongly suggests that HP-3 has potentials to promote HCV replication. Therefore, this HTS system is also useful to screen the potential HCV replication enhancers, which is meaningful for understanding the viral replication and screening novel antiviral drugs. To our knowledge, this is the first HTS system targeting the interaction between eIF3 and HCV IRES, which could be applied to screen both potential HCV replication inhibitors and enhancers.

Hepatitis C Virus-Genotype 3: Update on Current and Emergent Therapeutic Interventions

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs) have markedly improved the prognosis of hepatitis C virus (HCV)-genotype 3 (GT3), a highly prevalent infection worldwide. However, in patients with hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis, or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), GT3 infection presents a treatment challenge compared with other genotypes. The dependence of the HCV life cycle on host lipid metabolism suggests the possible utility of targeting host cellular factors for combination anti-HCV therapy. We discuss current and emergent DAA regimens for HCV-GT3 treatment. We then summarize recent research findings on the reliance of HCV entry, replication, and virion assembly on host lipid metabolism.

RECENT FINDINGS

Current HCV treatment guidelines recommend the use of daclatasvir plus sofosbuvir (DCV/SOF) or sofosbuvir plus velpatasvir (SOF/VEL) for the management of GT3 based upon clinical efficacy [≥88% overall sustained virological response (SVR)] and tolerability. Potential future DAA options, such as SOF/VEL co-formulated with GS-9857, also look promising in treating cirrhotic GT3 patients. However, HCV resistance to DAAs will likely continue to impact the therapeutic efficacy of interferon-free treatment regimens. Disruption of HCV entry by targeting required host cellular receptors shows potential in minimizing HCV resistance and broadening therapeutic options for certain subpopulations of GT3 patients. The use of cholesterol biosynthesis and transport inhibitors may also improve health outcomes for GT3 patients when used synergistically with DAAs. Due to the morbidity and mortality associated with HCV-GT3 infection compared to other genotypes, efforts should be made to address current limitations in the therapeutic prevention and management of HCV-GT3 infection.

Translation initiation by the hepatitis C virus IRES requires eIF1A and ribosomal complex remodeling

Internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) are important RNA-based translation initiation signals, critical for infection by many pathogenic viruses. The hepatitis C virus (HCV) IRES is the prototype for the type 3 IRESs and is also invaluable for exploring principles of eukaryotic translation initiation, in general. Current mechanistic models for the type 3 IRESs are useful but they also present paradoxes, including how they can function both with and without eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 2. We discovered that eIF1A is necessary for efficient activity where it stabilizes tRNA binding and inspects the codon-anticodon interaction, especially important in the IRES' eIF2-independent mode. These data support a model in which the IRES binds preassembled translation preinitiation complexes and remodels them to generate eukaryotic initiation complexes with bacterial-like features. This model explains previous data, reconciles eIF2-dependent and -independent pathways, and illustrates how RNA structure-based control can respond to changing cellular conditions.

Future landscape of hepatitis C research - Basic, translational and clinical perspectives

With the latest all-oral interferon- and ribavirin-free regimens based on direct acting antivirals against the hepatitis C virus (HCV), sustained virological response rates of >90% are achieved, which is equivalent to cure. This has become possible for all genotypes and all subgroups of patients, including many of the most difficult-to-treat populations so far. Since a prophylactic HCV vaccine is not yet available, control of HCV infection will for the time being have to rely on the use of effective and safe antiviral treatments as well as their accessibility and affordability. Different approaches may apply to different parts of the world, eradication of HCV representing a major long-term goal. Whether hepatitis C becomes the first chronic viral infection to be eradicated without a prophylactic vaccine remains to be shown. Here, we briefly summarize advances in the molecular virology of hepatitis C, highlight lessons of biological relevance that were learned through the study of HCV, and its translational and clinical implications. We have also listed selected unsolved challenges, emphasizing that HCV is a unique model and that advances in this direction may yield knowledge of broad biological significance, novel technologies and insights into related important human pathogens.

Sequence adaptations during growth of rescued classical swine fever viruses in cell culture and within infected pigs

Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) causes an economically important disease of swine. Four different viruses were rescued from full-length cloned cDNAs derived from the Paderborn strain of CSFV. Three of these viruses had been modified by mutagenesis (with 7 or 8 nt changes) within stem 2 of the subdomain IIIf of the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) that directs the initiation of protein synthesis. Rescued viruses were inoculated into pigs. The rescued vPader10 virus, without modifications in the IRES, induced clinical disease in pigs that was very similar to that observed previously with the parental field strain and transmission to in-contact pigs occurred. Two sequence reversions, in the NS2 and NS5B coding regions, became dominant within the virus populations in these infected pigs. Rescued viruses, with mutant IRES elements, did not induce disease and only very limited circulation of viral RNA could be detected. However, the animals inoculated with these mutant viruses seroconverted against CSFV. Thus, these mutant viruses were highly attenuated in vivo. All 4 rescued viruses were also passaged up to 20 times in cell culture. Using full genome sequencing, the same two adaptations within each of four independent virus populations were observed that restored the coding sequence to that of the parental field strain. These adaptations occurred with different kinetics. The combination of reverse genetics and in depth, full genome sequencing provides a powerful approach to analyse virus adaptation and to identify key determinants of viral replication efficiency in cells and within host animals.

Assembly of eIF3 Mediated by Mutually Dependent Subunit Insertion

Eukaryotic initiation factor 3 (eIF3), an essential multi-protein complex involved in translation initiation, is composed of 12 tightly associated subunits in humans. While the overall structure of eIF3 is known, the mechanism of its assembly and structural consequences of dysregulation of eIF3 subunit expression seen in many cancers is largely unknown. Here we show that subunits in eIF3 assemble into eIF3 in an interdependent manner. Assembly of eIF3 is governed primarily by formation of a helical bundle, composed of helices extending C-terminally from PCI-MPN domains in eight subunits. We propose that, while the minimal subcomplex of human-like eIF3 functional for translation initiation in cells consists of subunits a, b, c, f, g, i, and m, numerous other eIF3 subcomplexes exist under circumstances of subunit over- or underexpression. Thus, eIF3 subcomplexes formed or "released" due to dysregulated subunit expression may be determining factors contributing to eIF3-related cancers.

Roles of Lipoproteins and Apolipoproteins in Particle Formation of Hepatitis C Virus

More than 160 million people worldwide are infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV), and cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma induced by HCV infection are life-threatening diseases. HCV takes advantage of many aspects of lipid metabolism for an efficient propagation in hepatocytes. Due to the morphological and physiological similarities of HCV particles to lipoproteins, lipid-associated HCV particles are named lipoviroparticles. Recent analyses have revealed that exchangeable apolipoproteins directly interact with the viral membrane to generate infectious HCV particles. In this review, we summarize the roles of lipid metabolism in the life cycle of HCV.

Viral Nucleic Acids

Viral genomes exhibit extraordinary diversity with respect to nucleic acid type, size, complexity, and the information transfer pathways they follow. Thus, viral nucleic acids can be DNA or RNA, double-stranded or single-stranded, monopartite or multipartite, linear or circular, as short as 2 kb or up to 2500 kb long. The goal of a virus is to replicate itself. To do so, viruses have evolved various strategies to replicate their genomes and produce the structural and catalytic proteins needed for the formation of new viruses. This article is a brief introduction to viral genomes and viral replication.

Optimized Replicating Renilla Luciferase Reporter HIV-1 Utilizing Novel Internal Ribosome Entry Site Elements for Native Nef Expression and Function

We previously developed replication-competent reporter HIV-1 (referred to herein as LucR.T2A reporter viruses), utilizing a "ribosome skipping" T2A peptide strategy to link Renilla luciferase (LucR) with Nef expression. The demonstrated utility for HIV-1 vaccine and transmission study applications included measurement of neutralizing antibody (NAb) activity in vaccine sera, improved cell-mediated virus inhibition assays, such as T cell-mediated virus inhibition and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) assays, and humanized mouse models. Herein, we extend our prior work and introduce reporter virus technology for applications that require fully functional Nef. We demonstrate that in CD4(+) T cells productively infected with LucR.T2A reporter viruses, T2A peptide-driven Nef expression and function, such as down-regulation of surface CD4 and MHC-I, were impaired. We overcame this limitation of LucR.T2A reporter viruses and achieved physiological Nef expression and function by engineering novel LucR reporter HIV-1 comprising 11 different internal ribosome entry site (IRES) elements chosen for size and relative activity. A range of Nef expression was observed in 293T cells transfected with the different LucR.IRES reporter virus constructs. Iteratively, we identified IRES reporter genomes that expressed Nef closest to physiological levels and produced virus with infectivity, titers, and replication kinetics similar to nonreporter viruses. Our results demonstrated that LucR reporter activity was stable over multiple replication cycles in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Furthermore, we analyzed Nef functionality, i.e., down-modulation of MHC-I and CD4, following infection of T cell lines and PBMCs. Unlike LucR.T2A reporter virus, one of the redesigned LucR.IRES reporter viruses [containing the modified encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) 6ATR IRES element, "6ATRi"] demonstrated Nef expression and function similar to parental "nonreporter" virus. In a previously validated (nef-independent) T cell-based NAb neutralization assay, LucR.6ATRi reporter virus performed indistinguishably from LucR.T2A reporter virus. In summary, reporter viruses comprising the "6ATRi" element promise to augment HIV-1 vaccine and transmission research approaches requiring a sensitive reporter readout combined with wild-type Nef function.