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Kolesnikova TO, Demin KA, Costa FV, de Abreu MS, Kalueff AV. Zebrafish models for studying cognitive enhancers. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 164:105797. [PMID: 38971515 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Revised: 06/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024]
Abstract
Cognitive decline is commonly seen both in normal aging and in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. Various experimental animal models represent a valuable tool to study brain cognitive processes and their deficits. Equally important is the search for novel drugs to treat cognitive deficits and improve cognitions. Complementing rodent and clinical findings, studies utilizing zebrafish (Danio rerio) are rapidly gaining popularity in translational cognitive research and neuroactive drug screening. Here, we discuss the value of zebrafish models and assays for screening nootropic (cognitive enhancer) drugs and the discovery of novel nootropics. We also discuss the existing challenges, and outline future directions of research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Konstantin A Demin
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia; Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov National Medical Research Centre, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Fabiano V Costa
- Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, Russia
| | - Murilo S de Abreu
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil; West Caspian University, Baku, Azerbaijan.
| | - Allan V Kalueff
- Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, Russia; Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia; Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov National Medical Research Centre, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia; Suzhou Key Laboratory on Neurobiology and Cell Signaling, Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, China.
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Kolesnikova TO, Galstyan DS, Demin KA, Barabanov MA, Pestov AV, S de Abreu M, Strekalova T, Kalueff AV. Pharmacological characterization of a novel putative nootropic beta-alanine derivative, MB-005, in adult zebrafish. J Psychopharmacol 2022; 36:892-902. [PMID: 35713386 DOI: 10.1177/02698811221098192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cognitive deficits represent an urgent biomedical problem, and are commonly reduced by nootropic drugs. Animal models, including both rodents and zebrafish, offer a valuable tool for studying cognitive phenotypes and screening novel nootropics. Beta-alanine and its derivatives have recently been proposed to exert nootropic activity. AIMS This study aimed to characterize putative nootropic profile of a novel β-alanine analogue, 1,3-diaminopropane (MB-005), in adult zebrafish. METHODS Nootropic profile of MB-005 was assessed in adult zebrafish in the novel tank and conditioned place aversion (CPA) tests acutely, and in cued-learning plus-maze (PMT) tests chronically. RESULTS/OUTCOMES MB-005 did not alter zebrafish anxiety-like behavior or monoamine neurochemistry acutely, improved short-term memory in the CPA test, but impaired cognitive performance in both CPA and PMT tests chronically. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION This study reveals high sensitivity of zebrafish cognitive phenotypes to MB-005, suggesting it as a potential novel cognitive enhancer acutely, but raises concerns over its cognitive (and, possibly, other) side-effects chronically.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David S Galstyan
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia.,Laboratory of Preclinical Bioscreening, Granov Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, Pesochny, Russia
| | - Konstantin A Demin
- Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, Russia.,Institute of Translational Biomedicine, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia.,Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov National Medical Research Centre, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Mikhail A Barabanov
- Postovsky Institute of Organic Synthesis, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Alexander V Pestov
- Postovsky Institute of Organic Synthesis, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg, Russia.,Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | | | - Tatyana Strekalova
- Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,Laboratory of Psychiatric Neurobiology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Normal Physiology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia.,Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Allan V Kalueff
- Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, Russia.,Institute of Translational Biomedicine, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia.,Laboratory of Preclinical Bioscreening, Granov Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, Pesochny, Russia.,Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov National Medical Research Centre, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, Saint Petersburg, Russia.,Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Moscow, Russia.,Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,COBRAIN Center, Yerevan State Medical University after Mkhitar Heratsi, Yerevan, Armenia.,Scientific Research Institute of Neurosciences and Medicine, Novosibirsk, Russia.,School of Pharmacy, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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Pinto IC, Pereira OR, Fernandes A, Nogueira J, Costa R. Psychoactive substance consumption: A Portuguese cross-sectional study. Work 2021; 70:335-344. [PMID: 34511477 DOI: 10.3233/wor-213578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increasing consumption of psychoactive substances is a major social concern worldwide. OBJECTIVES To investigate the prevalence of psychoactive substances consumption in the Portuguese, throughout their life as well as recently, and the main reasons for the consumption and associated factors. METHODS This cross-sectional study was based on the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) applied to a sample of 385 Portuguese obtained for convenience. It was used descriptive statistics, the Cui-square, Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests, with a significance level of 5%. RESULTS Alcohol was the most consumed throughout life (86%), followed by xanthines (79%) and tobacco (60%). In the last 3 months, xanthines (49%) were the most consumed daily, followed by tobacco (22%) and alcohol (9%). Socializing was the main reason for consumption of alcohol (67%), tobacco (36%) and cannabis (34%) while anxiolytics have been used to sleep (50%) and xanthines to increase cognitive capacity (35%). Tobacco (p = 0.016), alcohol (p = 0.03) and illicit substances (p < 0.001) were more consumed by men and anxiolytics by women (p = 0.027). Alcohol (p = 0.008), cannabis (p = 0.027), and xanthines (p = 0.009) were mostly consumed by young adults. CONCLUSIONS The results reveal sporadic and recreational use of illicit substances, and regular use of alcohol, tobacco and xanthines, mostly by young adults and men, and anxiolytics by women. Socializing was the main reason for psychoactive substances consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel C Pinto
- Departamento de Tecnologias de Diagnóstico e Terapêutica, Escola Superior de Saúde do IPB, Bragança, Portugal.,Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança (IPB), Campus de Santa Apolónia, Bragança, Portugal
| | - Olívia R Pereira
- Departamento de Tecnologias de Diagnóstico e Terapêutica, Escola Superior de Saúde do IPB, Bragança, Portugal.,Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança (IPB), Campus de Santa Apolónia, Bragança, Portugal
| | - António Fernandes
- Departamento de Ciências Sociais e Exatas, Escola Superior Agrária do IPB, Campus de Santa Apolónia, Bragança, Portugal
| | - João Nogueira
- Departamento de Tecnologias de Diagnóstico e Terapêutica, Escola Superior de Saúde do IPB, Bragança, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Costa
- Departamento de Tecnologias de Diagnóstico e Terapêutica, Escola Superior de Saúde do IPB, Bragança, Portugal
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Sattler S, Linden P. Unhealthy parenting strategies: Situational (Dis-)Incentives, Machiavellian personality, and their interaction on misuse of ADHD medication for healthy children. SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH 2021; 97:102559. [PMID: 34045007 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Some parents engage in the potentially unhealthy and morally debateable parenting practice of giving prescription stimulant drugs to healthy children to boost their school and extracurricular performance. However, the parents' underlying reasoning remains unexamined. This web-based study (NRespondents = 1360) simultaneously investigates eight experimentally-varied situational (dis-)incentives (e.g., financial gains and drug properties) within a factorial vignette survey (NVignettes = 256), Machiavellianism as a measured socially relevant personality trait, and possible interaction effects. Results show that approximately 40% of the described situations (NEvaluations = 5440) provoked some willingness to medicate healthy children. Multilevel mixed-effect models revealed that this willingness was higher, for example, with increasing financial gains and weaker side effects. Machiavellians disclosed a higher willingness. They were more responsive to financial gains and threats (e.g., probable side effects). Respondents' sex, age, ethnicity, and experience with prescription drugs also had effects. Prevention measures might emphasize the dangers and limited potential of prescription drugs for healthy children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Sattler
- Institute of Sociology and Social Psychology, University of Cologne, Greinstrasse 2, 50939, Cologne, Germany; Pragmatic Health Ethics Research Unit, Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, 110, Avenue des Pins Ouest, Montréal, Québec, H2W 1R7, Canada.
| | - Philipp Linden
- Institute of Sociology and Social Psychology, University of Cologne, Greinstrasse 2, 50939, Cologne, Germany; Seminar for Social Sciences, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Str. 2, 57068, Siegen, Germany.
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Mann J. Cognitive enhancing drug use by students in the context of neoliberalism: cheating? Or, a legitimate expression of competitive entrepreneurialism? THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2020; 95:102907. [PMID: 32807626 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A recurrent theme regarding drug policy and the use of cognitive enhancing drugs (CEDs) by students in higher education (HE), concerns the potential introduction of policy to prohibit the use of CEDs. One of the arguments put forward to support a prohibitive policy framework, is that the use of CEDs by students in HE is a form of academic misconduct; that the use of CEDs constitutes cheating. Now, given that it is widely documented that the use of CEDs by students in HE has been growing steadily over the past decade or more, there is surprisingly, a dearth of in-depth discussion on the topic of whether their use represents academic misconduct and is a form of cheating. Therefore, this commentary will summarise some examples of literature dedicated to the topic, before discussing whether the use of CEDs by students in HE constitutes cheating, when framed contextually, around neoliberalism and the key characteristics of competition and entrepreneurialism. The commentary will propose a potentially useful argument that, given the neoliberal context and those key characteristics, (HE) students could in theory, legitimise their use of CEDs. Consequently, students using CEDs for the purpose of hypothetically increasing academic excellence, would not consider their use of CEDs as a form of academic misconduct, of cheating. Thus, this paper, would in principle, support and endorse a legal, regulatory approach to CED policy and in addition, recommends that individual HE institutions do not prohibit the use of CEDs by students on the grounds of academic misconduct, but instead, advance harm reduction initiatives around their use.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Mann
- Department of Sociology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Geoffrey Manton Building, Rosamond St W, Manchester, M15 6EB, United Kingdom.
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Gülcan HO, Orhan IE. The Main Targets Involved in Neuroprotection for the Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease and Parkinson Disease. Curr Pharm Des 2020; 26:509-516. [DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200131103524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
With respect to the total cure failure of current drugs used in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases,
alternative strategies are followed. Particularly, neuroprotection approaches are questioned. Metal chelation,
antioxidant towards oxidative stress, modulation of the amyloidogenic pathway, MAO-B inhibition, and
NMDA receptor antagonism is more or less typical examples. Some of the representative drug candidates with
promising neuroprotective features are assessed in clinical trials. Although initial attempts were found hopeful,
none of the candidates have been found successful in each required clinical trials, particularly depending on the
failures in terms of cognitive enhancement and slowing the progressive characteristics of neurodegenerative diseases.
Today, neuroprotection is evaluated using multi-target ligand-based drug design studies. Within this study,
the clinical outcomes of these studies, the rationale behind the design of the molecules are reviewed concomitant
to the representative drug candidates of each group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayrettin O. Gülcan
- Eastern Mediterranean University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Famagusta, TR. North Cyprus, via Mersin 10, Turkey
| | - Ilkay E. Orhan
- Gazi University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacognosy, Etiler, Ankara, Turkey
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Boclin KDLS, Cecílio FFC, Faé G, Fanti G, Centenaro G, Pellizzari T, Gaviolli E, Mario DN, Rigo L. Academic performance and use of psychoactive drugs among healthcare students at a university in southern Brazil: cross-sectional study. SAO PAULO MED J 2020; 138:27-32. [PMID: 32321102 PMCID: PMC9673852 DOI: 10.1590/1516-3180.2019.0182.r1.21102019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND People have been using psychoactive substances for a long time. Over the last few years, this practice has spread among university students, who use these substances to improve their academic performance, relieve stress and increase concentration and memory. OBJECTIVES To estimate the use of psychoactive drugs among healthcare students at a higher education institution in the city of Passo Fundo (RS), Brazil, and to ascertain the associated demographic and lifestyle factors. DESIGN AND SETTING Cross-sectional study in a higher education institution. METHODS We included 287 undergraduate medicine and dentistry students in this study. They answered a self-administered questionnaire regarding sociodemographic, lifestyle and health variables. The statistical analysis used univariate and bivariate analyses with Pearson's chi-square test (P-value < 0.05). -Multivariate analyses were used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and their respective 95% confidence intervals. The SPSS software, version 20.0, was used. RESULTS The prevalence of use of psychoactive substances among the students was 24.7%. Among these students, high frequencies of psychoactive drugs had been prescribed by physicians (95.8%) and for the purpose of relaxation or stress relief (73.2%). Women, medical students (compared with dental students) and participants with lower academic performance were more likely to use psychoactive drugs. After the multivariate adjustment, the "course" and "academic performance" remained associated with use of psychoactive drugs. CONCLUSION There was high prevalence of psychoactive drug use among the students at the higher education institution investigated. Some variables (female sex, medical students and low academic performance) were associated with the outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gabriela Faé
- Undergraduate Student, School of Medicine, Faculdade Meridional (IMED), Passo Fundo (RS), Brazil.
| | - Gabriela Fanti
- Undergraduate Student, School of Medicine, Faculdade Meridional (IMED), Passo Fundo (RS), Brazil.
| | - Guilherme Centenaro
- Undergraduate Student, School of Medicine, Faculdade Meridional (IMED), Passo Fundo (RS), Brazil.
| | - Thoany Pellizzari
- Undergraduate Student, School of Medicine, Faculdade Meridional (IMED), Passo Fundo (RS), Brazil.
| | | | - Débora Nunes Mario
- PhD. Professor, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal do Pampa (UNIPAMPA), Uruguaiana (RS), Brazil.
| | - Lilian Rigo
- PhD. Professor, School of Dentistry, Postgraduate Program on Dentistry, Faculdade Meridional (IMED), Passo Fundo (RS), Brazil.
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Hupli A, Didžiokaitė G, Ydema M. Beyond Treatment Versus Enhancement: A Qualitative Study of Pharmacological Neuro-Enhancement Among Dutch and Lithuanian University Students. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0091450919884777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This article examines the ambiguous relationship between treating illness and enhancing normalcy through the use of “cognitive enhancement” drugs. Although the literature on pharmacological neuro-enhancement generally differentiates between the “licit/therapeutic” and “illicit/enhancement” use of substances, in-depth interviews with 35 university students in the Netherlands and Lithuania—both with and without formal medical diagnoses of (mainly) Attention Deficit Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder—reveal the fluidity of these categories. Our study of the perceptions and experiences of people who use such drugs further suggests a much broader range of substances, motives, and sought-after effects than are commonly acknowledged in the “cognitive enhancement” literature. We need a more inclusive and context-sensitive approach to study pharmacological neuro-enhancement, for instance, by approaching both licit and illicit drugs as tools or instruments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksi Hupli
- School of Social Science and Humanities, University of Tampere, Finland
| | | | - Marte Ydema
- Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Neuro-Advancements and the Role of Nurses as Stated in Academic Literature and Canadian Newspapers. SOCIETIES 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/soc9030061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Neurosciences and neurotechnologies (from now on called neuro-advancements) constantly evolve and influence all facets of society. Neuroethics and neuro-governance discourses focus on the impact of neuro-advancements on individuals and society, and stakeholder involvement is identified as an important aspect of being able to deal with such an impact. Nurses engage with neuro-advancements within their occupation, including neuro-linked assistive technologies, such as brain-computer interfaces, cochlear implants, and virtual reality. The role of nurses is multifaceted and includes being providers of clinical and other health services, educators, advocates for their field and their clients, including disabled people, researchers, and influencers of policy discourses. Nurses have a stake in how neuro-advancements are governed, therefore, being influencers of neuroethics and neuro-governance discourses should be one of these roles. Lifelong learning and professional development could be one mechanism to increase the knowledge of nurses about ethical, social, and legal issues linked to neuro-advancements, which in turn, would allow nurses to provide meaningful input towards neuro-advancement discussions. Disabled people are often the recipients of neuro-advancements and are clients of nurses, therefore, they have a stake in the way nurses interact with neuro-advancements and influence the sociotechnical context of neuro-advancements, which include neuro-linked assistive devices. We performed a scoping review to investigate the role of narrative around nurses in relation to neuro-advancements within academic literature and newspapers. We found minimal engagement with the role of nurses outside of clinical services. No article raised the issue of nurses having to be involved in neuro-ethics and neuro-governance discussions or how lifelong learning could be used to gain that competency. Few articles used the term assistive technology or assistive device and no article covered the engagement of nurses with disabled people within a socio-technical context. We submit that the role narrative falls short of what is expected from nurses and shows shortcomings at the intersection of nurses, socio-technical approaches to neuro-assistive technologies and other neuro-advancements and people with disabilities. Neuro-governance and neuroethic discourses could be a useful way for nurses and disabled people to co-shape the socio-technical context of neuro-advancements, including neuro-assistive technologies. Lifelong learning initiatives should be put in place to provide the knowledge necessary for nurses to take part in the neuroethics and neuro-governance discussion.
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Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, Busardò FP. Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology. Curr Neuropharmacol 2016; 13:5-11. [PMID: 26074739 PMCID: PMC4462043 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666141210221750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive enhancement can be defined as the use of drugs and/or other means with the
aim to improve the cognitive functions of healthy subjects in particular memory, attention, creativity
and intelligence in the absence of any medical indication. Currently, it represents one of the most
debated topics in the neuroscience community. Human beings always wanted to use substances to
improve their cognitive functions, from the use of hallucinogens in ancient civilizations in an attempt
to allow them to better communicate with their gods, to the widespread use of caffeine under various
forms (energy drinks, tablets, etc.), to the more recent development of drugs such as stimulants and glutamate activators.
In the last ten years, increasing attention has been given to the use of cognitive enhancers, but up to now there is still only
a limited amount of information concerning the use, effect and functioning of cognitive enhancement in daily life on
healthy subjects. The first aim of this paper was to review current trends in the misuse of smart drugs (also known as
Nootropics) presently available on the market focusing in detail on methylphenidate, trying to evaluate the potential risk
in healthy individuals, especially teenagers and young adults. Moreover, the authors have explored the issue of cognitive
enhancement compared to the use of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) in sports. Finally, a brief overview of the
ethical considerations surrounding human enhancement has been examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Frati
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy; ; Neuromed, Istituto Mediterraneo Neurologico (IRCCS), Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, 86077 Isernia, Italy
| | - Chrystalla Kyriakou
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Del Rio
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Marinelli
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Gianluca Montanari Vergallo
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Simona Zaami
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco P Busardò
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
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Reflections on Addiction in Students Using Stimulants for Neuroenhancement: A Preliminary Interview Study. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:621075. [PMID: 26064931 PMCID: PMC4433654 DOI: 10.1155/2015/621075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The use of stimulants for the purpose of pharmacological neuroenhancement (NE) among students is a subject of increasing public awareness. The risk of addiction development by stimulant use for NE is still unanswered. Therefore, face-to-face interviews were carried out among 18 university students experienced in the nonmedical use of methylphenidate and amphetamines for NE assessing aspects of addiction. Interviews were tape-recorded, verbatim-transcribed, and analyzed using a qualitative approach. The interviews showed that participants--the majority had current or lifetime diagnoses of misuse or addiction to alcohol or cannabis-reported an awareness of the risk of addiction development associated with stimulant use and reported various effects which may increase their likelihood of future stimulant use, for example, euphoric effects, increase of self-confidence, and motivation. They also cited measures to counteract the development of addiction as well as measures taken to normalize again after stimulant use. Students were convinced of having control over their stimulant use and of not becoming addicted to stimulants used for NE. We can conclude that behavior and beliefs of the students in our sample appear to be risky in terms of addiction development. However, long-term empirical research is needed to estimate the true risk of addiction.
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Abstract
Ever since Stone Age men discovered that knapping flint produced sharp stone edges that could be used in combat as well as for cooking and hunting, technological advances of all kinds have been adapted and adopted by the military.The opportunities provided by modern neuroscience are proving no exception, but their application in a military context is accompanied by complex practical and ethical considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Tracey
- Oxford Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain and at the Nuffield Division of Anaesthetics, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences. University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Rod Flower
- The William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
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Dubljević V, Sattler S, Racine É. Cognitive Enhancement and Academic Misconduct: A Study Exploring Their Frequency and Relationship. ETHICS & BEHAVIOR 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/10508422.2013.869747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Sattler S, Mehlkop G, Graeff P, Sauer C. Evaluating the drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use cognitive enhancement drugs: the influence of drug characteristics, social environment, and personal characteristics. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2014; 9:8. [PMID: 24484640 PMCID: PMC3928621 DOI: 10.1186/1747-597x-9-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of cognitive enhancement (CE) by means of pharmaceutical agents has been the subject of intense debate both among scientists and in the media. This study investigates several drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use prescription drugs non-medically for augmenting brain capacity. METHODS We conducted a web-based study among 2,877 students from randomly selected disciplines at German universities. Using a factorial survey, respondents expressed their willingness to take various hypothetical CE-drugs; the drugs were described by five experimentally varied characteristics and the social environment by three varied characteristics. Personal characteristics and demographic controls were also measured. RESULTS We found that 65.3% of the respondents staunchly refused to use CE-drugs. The results of a multivariate negative binomial regression indicated that respondents' willingness to use CE-drugs increased if the potential drugs promised a significant augmentation of mental capacity and a high probability of achieving this augmentation. Willingness decreased when there was a high probability of side effects and a high price. Prevalent CE-drug use among peers increased willingness, whereas a social environment that strongly disapproved of these drugs decreased it. Regarding the respondents' characteristics, pronounced academic procrastination, high cognitive test anxiety, low intrinsic motivation, low internalization of social norms against CE-drug use, and past experiences with CE-drugs increased willingness. The potential severity of side effects, social recommendations about using CE-drugs, risk preferences, and competencies had no measured effects upon willingness. CONCLUSIONS These findings contribute to understanding factors that influence the willingness to use CE-drugs. They support the assumption of instrumental drug use and may contribute to the development of prevention, policy, and educational strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Sattler
- Institute for Sociology and Social Psychology, University of Cologne, Greinstrasse 2, 50939 Cologne, Germany
- Cologne Graduate School in Management, Economics and Social Sciences, Albertus-Magnus-Platz, 50932 Cologne, Germany
| | - Guido Mehlkop
- Faculty of Economics, Law and Social Sciences, University of Erfurt, Nordhaueser Strasse 63, 99089 Erfurt, Germany
| | - Peter Graeff
- Institute of Social Science, Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Westring 400, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Carsten Sauer
- Collaborative Research Center 882, Bielefeld University, Universitaetsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
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Sattler S, Sauer C, Mehlkop G, Graeff P. The rationale for consuming cognitive enhancement drugs in university students and teachers. PLoS One 2013; 8:e68821. [PMID: 23874778 PMCID: PMC3714277 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive enhancement (CE) is the pharmaceutical augmentation of mental abilities (e.g., learning or memory) without medical necessity. This topic has recently attracted widespread attention in scientific and social circles. However, knowledge regarding the mechanisms that underlie the decision to use CE medication is limited. To analyze these decisions, we used data from two online surveys of randomly sampled university teachers (N = 1,406) and students (N = 3,486). Each respondent evaluated one randomly selected vignette with regard to a hypothetical CE drug. We experimentally varied the characteristics of the drugs among vignettes and distributed them among respondents. In addition, the respondent's internalization of social norms with respect to CE drug use was measured. Our results revealed that students were more willing to enhance cognitive performance via drugs than university teachers, although the overall willingness was low. The probability of side effects and their strength reduced the willingness to use CE drugs among students and university teachers, whereas higher likelihoods and magnitudes of CE increased this propensity. In addition, the internalized norm against CE drug use influenced decision making: Higher internalization decreased the willingness to use such medications. Students' internalized norms more strongly affected CE abstinence compared with those of university teachers. Furthermore, internalized norms negatively interacted with the instrumental incentives for taking CE medication. This internalization limited the influence of and deliberation on instrumental incentives. This study is the first to provide empirical evidence regarding the importance of social norms and their influence on rational decision making with regard to CE. We identified previously undiscovered decision-making patterns concerning CE. Thus, this study provides insight into the motivators and inhibitors of CE drug use. These findings have implications for contending with CE behavior by highlighting the magnitude of potential side effects and by informing the debate regarding the ethics of CE use.
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Abstract
Histone acetylation is a prominent epigenetic modification of the central nervous system that is unequivocally associated with an increase in the rate of gene transcription. Because gene transcription, in turn, plays an important role in long-lasting forms of memory, histone acetylation generally favors long-term memory, whereas histone deacetylation impinges on it. Histone acetylation is also amenable to pharmacological interventions-predominantly by the use of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors-and has therefore spurred considerable interest as a putative target of cognitive enhancement. Because of the ubiquitous presence of histone acetylation, HDAC inhibitors have great potential not only to treat cognitive impairment resulting from neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders but also to serve as cognitive enhancers for the cognitively healthy. In this review, we summarize the state of the art of HDAC inhibitors as cognitive treatments or cognitive enhancers; describe a new model of their mode of action, epigenetic priming; and caution against their unsupervised usage, despite their overall great promise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Gräff
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
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Micoulaud-Franchi JA, Vion-Dury J, Lancon C. [Neuroenhancement in healthy subject? A French case study]. Therapie 2012; 67:213-21. [PMID: 22874487 DOI: 10.2515/therapie/2012026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Neuroenhancement is an anglo-saxon concept concerning the use of stimulating psychotropic drugs by healthy subjects, outside any established medical indication or festive setting, to achieve an improvement of their mental functioning. In 2009, because of increasing requests for neuroenhancement in USA, the American Association of Neurology has published practical recommendations stating that "it is ethically permissible to prescribe medications for neuroenhancement" if a number of conditions is met. We present these ethical and psychopharmacological conditions ("the inverted U-Shape principle" in which cognitive performance is related to catecholamine levels and "the trade-off principle" to cognitive enhancement) through a clinical case of methylphenidate prescription in a healthy 24 years old medical student, preparing for the "examen classant national" (the French national ranking before postgraduate education). We then discuss anglo-saxon ethical context in which these recommendations have been proposed.
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Petrik D, Jiang Y, Birnbaum SG, Powell CM, Kim MS, Hsieh J, Eisch AJ. Functional and mechanistic exploration of an adult neurogenesis-promoting small molecule. FASEB J 2012; 26:3148-62. [PMID: 22542682 DOI: 10.1096/fj.11-201426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis occurs throughout life in the mammalian hippocampus and is essential for memory and mood control. There is significant interest in identifying ways to promote neurogenesis and ensure maintenance of these hippocampal functions. Previous work with a synthetic small molecule, isoxazole 9 (Isx-9), highlighted its neuronal-differentiating properties in vitro. However, the ability of Isx-9 to drive neurogenesis in vivo or improve hippocampal function was unknown. Here we show that Isx-9 promotes neurogenesis in vivo, enhancing the proliferation and differentiation of hippocampal subgranular zone (SGZ) neuroblasts, and the dendritic arborization of adult-generated dentate gyrus neurons. Isx-9 also improves hippocampal function, enhancing memory in the Morris water maze. Notably, Isx-9 enhances neurogenesis and memory without detectable increases in cellular or animal activity or vascularization. Molecular exploration of Isx-9-induced regulation of neurogenesis (via FACS and microarray of SGZ stem and progenitor cells) suggested the involvement of the myocyte-enhancer family of proteins (Mef2). Indeed, transgenic-mediated inducible knockout of all brain-enriched Mef2 isoforms (Mef2a/c/d) specifically from neural stem cells and their progeny confirmed Mef2's requirement for Isx-9-induced increase in hippocampal neurogenesis. Thus, Isx-9 enhances hippocampal neurogenesis and memory in vivo, and its effects are reliant on Mef2, revealing a novel cell-intrinsic molecular pathway regulating adult neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Petrik
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9070, USA
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Outram SM, Racine E. Examining reports and policies on cognitive enhancement: approaches, rationale, and recommendations. Account Res 2012; 18:323-41. [PMID: 21916740 DOI: 10.1080/08989621.2011.606734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The phenomenon of cognitive enhancement is attracting attention in bioethics literature and beyond, in public policy. In response, three bodies--the British Medical Association (BMA); the Commission de l'éthique de la Science et de la technologie (CEST) du Québec; the American Academy of Neurology (AAN)--have produced reports and guidance on this topic. To gain insights into different public policy approaches, rationales, and recommendations on the topic, we analyzed these reports in depth. We found convergence on the definition (with the exception of the CEST) of cognitive enhancement. However, we noted a lack of critical reflection with respect to the underlying rationale for developing these reports, i.e., that cognitive enhancement practices are rampant and represent major social changes. As it currently stands, cognitive enhancement is constituted in a way that challenges the creation of coherent and effective policy recommendations. However, policy makers should not simply wait for definitional consensus and hope that on balance the benefits turn out to be greater than the risks. Some components of cognitive enhancement could be reduced down to clearly identified policy targets to be further examined. Then, if appropriate, policy should be created that is, amongst other criteria, beneficial to the majority of the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon M Outram
- Novel Tech Ethics, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
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Saniotis A. Evolutionary and anthropological approaches towards understanding human need for psychotropic and mood altering substances. J Psychoactive Drugs 2011; 42:477-84. [PMID: 21305912 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2010.10400710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Human addiction to psychotropic and mood altering substances is an ongoing international problem. While the phenomenon of psychoactive drug use has received considerable theoretical attention there need to be more comparative approaches into this area. Evolutionary and anthropological approaches for understanding human need for psychotropic and mood altering substances offer the reader various insightful angles for analyzing this phenomenon. While evolutionary approaches investigate the evolutionary behaviors and mechanisms of human ancestral psychotropic use, anthropological approaches emphasize the social and religious meanings of individual drug use. While each approach proffers different ideas, a comparative approach, which is utilized in this study, may provide a novel and invaluable insight for understanding human need for psychotropic and mood-altering substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Saniotis
- School of Population Health and Clinical Practice, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
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Brown P, Calnan M. Braving a faceless new world? Conceptualizing trust in the pharmaceutical industry and its products. Health (London) 2010; 16:57-75. [PMID: 21169205 DOI: 10.1177/1363459309360783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pharmaceutical products are commonly relied upon by professionals, and correspondingly patients, within a wide range of healthcare contexts. This dependence, combined with the inherent risk and uncertainty surrounding both medical practice and the drugs it harnesses, points towards the importance of trust in the pharmaceutical industry--a subject which has been much neglected by researchers. This article begins to address this deficiency by mapping out a conceptual framework which may form a useful basis for future research into this important topic. The often negative portrayal of the pharmaceutical industry in the public sphere belies a state of apparent confidence in its products. The role of prescribing professionals as 'mediators of trust' amid a faceless system of production and, alongside regulators, as bases of assurance in the quality of drugs goes some way towards explaining this contradiction. Recent policy moves towards fostering increased patient 'expertise' and responsibility for illness management, a widening of over-the-counter medication availability and a growing market of products (mainstream and illicit) via the Internet suggest this role of 'facework' in facilitating trust may be becoming more marginal. This heightened requirement for trusting amid the unfamiliar, and an apparent willingness to do so, underlines the need for further research into trust in the industry--both mainstream and underground--and its products. Within this discussion an agenda for furthering our understandings of the political-economy of the pharmaceutical industry becomes apparent, one which might be most effectively approached by way of a broader political-economy of hope and trust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Brown
- School of Social Policy, Sociology and Social Research, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.
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Banjo OC, Nadler R, Reiner PB. Physician attitudes towards pharmacological cognitive enhancement: safety concerns are paramount. PLoS One 2010; 5:e14322. [PMID: 21179461 PMCID: PMC3001858 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2010] [Accepted: 11/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The ethical dimensions of pharmacological cognitive enhancement have been widely discussed in academic circles and the popular media, but missing from the conversation have been the perspectives of physicians - key decision makers in the adoption of new technologies into medical practice. We queried primary care physicians in major urban centers in Canada and the United States with the aim of understanding their attitudes towards cognitive enhancement. Our primary hypothesis was that physicians would be more comfortable prescribing cognitive enhancers to older patients than to young adults. Physicians were presented with a hypothetical pharmaceutical cognitive enhancer that had been approved by the regulatory authorities for use in healthy adults, and was characterized as being safe, effective, and without significant adverse side effects. Respondents overwhelmingly reported increasing comfort with prescribing cognitive enhancers as the patient age increased from 25 to 65. When asked about their comfort with prescribing extant drugs that might be considered enhancements (sildenafil, modafinil, and methylphenidate) or our hypothetical cognitive enhancer to a normal, healthy 40 year old, physicians were more comfortable prescribing sildenafil than any of the other three agents. When queried as to the reasons they answered as they did, the most prominent concerns physicians expressed were issues of safety that were not offset by the benefit afforded the individual, even in the face of explicit safety claims. Moreover, many physicians indicated that they viewed safety claims with considerable skepticism. It has become routine for safety to be raised and summarily dismissed as an issue in the debate over pharmacological cognitive enhancement; the observation that physicians were so skeptical in the face of explicit safety claims suggests that such a conclusion may be premature. Thus, physician attitudes suggest that greater weight be placed upon the balance between safety and benefit in consideration of pharmacological cognitive enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Opeyemi C. Banjo
- National Core for Neuroethics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Roland Nadler
- National Core for Neuroethics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Peter B. Reiner
- National Core for Neuroethics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Modafinil and methylphenidate for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: A systematic review. Pharmacol Res 2010; 62:187-206. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2010.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 382] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2010] [Revised: 04/14/2010] [Accepted: 04/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Warren OJ, Leff DR, Athanasiou T, Kennard C, Darzi A. The Neurocognitive Enhancement of Surgeons: An Ethical Perspective. J Surg Res 2009; 152:167-72. [PMID: 18394651 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2007.12.761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2007] [Revised: 10/25/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver J Warren
- Surgical Cognition and Neuro-Imaging Group, Department of BioSurgery and Surgical Technology, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Hospital, London, United Kingdom.
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Schermer M, Bolt I, de Jongh R, Olivier B. The Future of Psychopharmacological Enhancements: Expectations and Policies. NEUROETHICS-NETH 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s12152-009-9032-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
Most molecular and cellular studies of cognitive function have focused on either normal or pathological states, but recent research with transgenic mice has started to address the mechanisms of enhanced cognition. These results point to key synaptic and nuclear signalling events that can be manipulated to facilitate the induction or increase the stability of synaptic plasticity, and therefore enhance the acquisition or retention of information. Here, we review these surprising findings and explore their implications to both mechanisms of learning and memory and to ongoing efforts to develop treatments for cognitive disorders. These findings represent the beginning of a fundamental new approach in the study of enhanced cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Seok Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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Bel'nik AP, Ostrovskaya RU, Poletaeva II. Genotype-dependent characteristics of behavior in mice in cognitive tests. The effects of Noopept. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 39:81-6. [PMID: 19089630 DOI: 10.1007/s11055-008-9095-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2006] [Accepted: 05/16/2007] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Male C57BL/6J, BALB/c, and DBA/2J mice showed differences in their abilities to perform two cognitive tests. C57BL/6J mice had good learning ability and memory trace retention (at 10 days) in a simplified Morris maze, while BALB/c mice had low levels of memory trace retention and DBA/2J mice had low learning ability in this test. I.p. administration of the nootropic agent Noopept (GVS-111, N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester) at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg 15 min before the start of the test induced significant improvements in long-term memory in this test in BALB/c mice but no further improvement in C57BL/6J mice, and had no effect in DBA/2J mice. On testing the ability to extrapolate the direction of movement of a stimulus, administration of Noopept increased the proportion of correct responses in C57BL/6J and BALB/c mice, but had no effect in DBA/2J mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Bel'nik
- State V. V. Zakusov Research Institute of Pharmacology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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Abi-Rached JM. The implications of the new brain sciences. The 'Decade of the Brain' is over but its effects are now becoming visible as neuropolitics and neuroethics, and in the emergence of neuroeconomies. EMBO Rep 2008; 9:1158-62. [PMID: 19008918 PMCID: PMC2603451 DOI: 10.1038/embor.2008.211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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Cognitive performance of healthy young rats following chronic donepezil administration. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 197:661-73. [PMID: 18309476 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-008-1084-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2007] [Accepted: 01/18/2008] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Experimental studies have investigated the effects of chronic donepezil treatment on the behavioral deficits elicited by reduced activity or the loss of cholinergic neurons that occurs in aging or in models of dementia. However, few studies have analyzed the effects of chronic donepezil treatment on the cognitive functions of intact animals. OBJECTIVES The cognitive functions of healthy young rats treated chronically with the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor donepezil were evaluated using a wide behavioral test battery. RESULTS Chronic treatment with donepezil ameliorated memory functions and explorative strategies, speeded up the acquisition of localizing knowledge, augmented responsiveness to the context, and reduced anxiety levels. However, it did not affect spatial span, modify motivational levels, or influence associative learning. CONCLUSIONS The present findings show the specific profile of donepezil action on cognitive functions in the presence of unaltered cholinergic neurotransmission systems.
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Lanni C, Lenzken SC, Pascale A, Del Vecchio I, Racchi M, Pistoia F, Govoni S. Cognition enhancers between treating and doping the mind. Pharmacol Res 2008; 57:196-213. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2008.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2008] [Revised: 02/07/2008] [Accepted: 02/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Vasoactive and neuroprotective drugs such as vinpocetine are used to treat stroke in some countries. OBJECTIVES To assess the effect of vinpocetine in acute ischaemic stroke. SEARCH STRATEGY We searched the Cochrane Stroke Group Trials Register (last searched February 2007), MEDLINE (1966 to February 2007) and Scopus (1960 to February 2007). We also searched the Internet Stroke Center Stroke Trials Registry, Google Scholar, the science-specific search engine Scirus and Wanfang Data, the leading information provider in China. We contacted researchers in the field and four pharmaceutical companies that manufacture vinpocetine. Searches were complete to February 2007. SELECTION CRITERIA Unconfounded randomised trials of vinpocetine compared with placebo, or any other reference treatment, in people with acute ischaemic stroke. We included trials if treatment started no later than 14 days after stroke onset. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Two review authors independently applied the inclusion criteria. One review author extracted the data, which was then checked by the second review author. We assessed trial quality. The primary outcome measure was death or dependency. MAIN RESULTS We included two trials, involving a total of 70 participants. Data for 63 participants were reported in the two trials combined. The rate of death or dependency did not differ between the treatment and placebo groups at one and three months. The 95% confidence intervals for the outcome measures were wide and included the possibility of both significant benefit and significant harm. No adverse effects were reported. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS There is not enough evidence to evaluate the effect of vinpocetine on survival or dependency in patients with acute ischaemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Bereczki
- Semmelweis University, Department of Neurology, Balassa u. 6., Budapest, Hungary, H-1083.
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Dekkers W, Rikkert MO. Memory enhancing drugs and Alzheimer's disease: enhancing the self or preventing the loss of it? MEDICINE, HEALTH CARE, AND PHILOSOPHY 2007; 10:141-51. [PMID: 17486433 PMCID: PMC2779437 DOI: 10.1007/s11019-007-9055-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2006] [Accepted: 12/15/2006] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In this paper we analyse some ethical and philosophical questions related to the development of memory enhancing drugs (MEDs) and anti-dementia drugs. The world of memory enhancement is coloured by utopian thinking and by the desire for quicker, sharper, and more reliable memories. Dementia is characterized by decline, fragility, vulnerability, a loss of the most important cognitive functions and even a loss of self. While MEDs are being developed for self-improvement, in Alzheimer's Disease (AD) the self is being lost. Despite this it is precisely those patients with AD and other forms of dementia that provide the subjects for scientific research on memory improvement. Biomedical research in the field of MEDs and anti-dementia drugs appears to provide a strong impetus for rethinking what we mean by 'memory', 'enhancement', 'therapy', and 'self'. We conclude (1) that the enhancement of memory is still in its infancy, (2) that current MEDs and anti-dementia drugs are at best partially and minimally effective under specific conditions, (3) that 'memory' and 'enhancement' are ambiguous terms, (4) that there is no clear-cut distinction between enhancement and therapy, and (5) that the research into MEDs and anti-dementia drugs encourages a reductionistic view of the human mind and of the self.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wim Dekkers
- Department of Ethics, Philosophy and History of Medicine 137, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
Neuroscience represents a dynamic area of biomedical research where neuroethical responsibilities for researchers are emerging. This paper is the companion piece to the French-language one also published in this issue of the Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences. It serves as a review of recent advances in neuroethics through the lens of three cases: (1) incidental finding of anomalies in neuroimaging research; (2) creation of neurotechnologies that can lead to cognitive enhancement, and (3) responsible communication of research results. We propose and discuss a multidimensional framework of neuroethical responsibilities to help tackle these issues. The framework reiterates the fundamental role of scientific integrity, puts in the foreground social responsibilities pertaining to the eventual use of neuroscience knowledge, and highlights self-reflection in research and training of researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Racine
- Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, USA
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Responsabilités Neuroéthiques. Can J Neurol Sci 2006. [DOI: 10.1017/s0317167100005126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT:Neuroscience represents a dynamic area of biomedical research where neuroethical responsibilities for researchers are emerging. This paper is the companion piece to the English-language one also published in this issue of the Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences. It serves as a review of recent advances in neuroethics through the lens of three cases: (1) incidental finding of anomalies in neuroimaging research; (2) creation of neurotechnologies that can lead to cognitive enhancement, and (3) responsible communication of research results. We propose and discuss a multidimensional framework of neuroethical responsibilities to help tackle these issues. The framework reiterates the fundamental role of scientific integrity, puts in the foreground social responsibilities pertaining to the eventual use of neuroscience knowledge, and highlights self-reflection in research and training of researchers.
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Abstract
The neurological and physiological basis of brain function and disease has been a significant focus of investigation throughout the history of medical research. Recent advances in understanding have led to the development of new treatments for diseases of the brain and defects of cognitive and behavioral function: pharmacological, cell-based and even gene therapy may all provide keys to cognitive regeneration. Such therapies, however, might be applied not only towards restoring brain function in the case of disease but to enhance cognitive function for healthy individuals. The concept of cognitive enhancement raises many ethical issues: whether brain-enhancing treatments should be developed and made available and to whom; and what potential consequences might arise? This paper explores some of the ethical arguments associated with cognitive enhancement and concludes that although the technology involved is as yet uncertain and issues of social equity remain to be addressed, the potential benefit of enhancing human brain function is clear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Chan
- Centre for Social Ethics and Policy, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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36
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Parker D. Complexities and uncertainties of neuronal network function. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2006; 361:81-99. [PMID: 16553310 PMCID: PMC1626546 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2005.1779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2005] [Accepted: 10/11/2005] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The nervous system generates behaviours through the activity in groups of neurons assembled into networks. Understanding these networks is thus essential to our understanding of nervous system function. Understanding a network requires information on its component cells, their interactions and their functional properties. Few networks come close to providing complete information on these aspects. However, even if complete information were available it would still only provide limited insight into network function. This is because the functional and structural properties of a network are not fixed but are plastic and can change over time. The number of interacting network components, their (variable) functional properties, and various plasticity mechanisms endows networks with considerable flexibility, but these features inevitably complicate network analyses. This review will initially discuss the general approaches and problems of network analyses. It will then examine the success of these analyses in a model spinal cord locomotor network in the lamprey, to determine to what extent in this relatively simple vertebrate system it is possible to claim detailed understanding of network function and plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Parker
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK.
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37
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Schmitt JAJ, Benton D, Kallus KW. General methodological considerations for the assessment of nutritional influences on human cognitive functions. Eur J Nutr 2005; 44:459-64. [PMID: 16331356 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-005-0585-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2005] [Accepted: 08/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The premise that cognitive functioning can be influenced through dietary means has gained widespread interest. The assessment of cognitive functioning is a key method to scientifically substantiate such nutritional effects on cognition. The current paper provides a basic overview of the main concepts, issues and pitfalls of human cognitive research. General methods of cognitive assessment, selection of appropriate tests, factors that may mediate task performance and issues pertaining to the interpretation of the results are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen A J Schmitt
- Nestlé Research Center Nutrition and Health Dept., Lausanne, Switzerland
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38
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Abstract
In comparison with the ethical issues surrounding molecular genetics, there has been little public awareness of the ethical implications of neuroscience. Yet recent progress in cognitive neuroscience raises a host of ethical issues of at least comparable importance. Some are of a practical nature, concerning the applications of neurotechnology and their likely implications for individuals and society. Others are more philosophical, concerning the way we think about ourselves as persons, moral agents and spiritual beings. This article reviews key examples of each type of issue, including the relevant advances in science and technology and their accompanying social and philosophical problems.
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Frazzetto G. Understanding consciousness. EMBO Rep 2005; 6:303-6. [PMID: 15809656 PMCID: PMC1299294 DOI: 10.1038/sj.embor.7400384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
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Blank RH. The brain, aggression, and public policy. Politics Life Sci 2005; 24:12-21. [PMID: 17059317 DOI: 10.2990/1471-5457(2005)24[12:tbaapp]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Investigational, conceptual, and interventional advances in the neurosciences strain consensus in research ethics, clinical ethics, legal ethics, and jurisprudence and demand innovative adaptation in public policy. I review these advances, ask how they might change a range of policies, and conclude that their implications -- particularly relating to aggression -- are likely to have been underestimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Blank
- Division of Social Sciences, New College of Florida, 5700 North Tamiami Trail, Sarasota, FL 34243-2197.
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Abstract
The wide dissemination and expanding applications of functional MRI have not escaped the attention of the media or discussion in the wider public arena. From the bench to the bedside, this technology has introduced substantial ethical challenges. Are the boundaries of what it can and cannot achieve being communicated to the public? Are its limitations understood? And given the complexities that are inherent to neuroscience, are current avenues for communication adequate?
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Racine
- Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics, 701 Welch Road, Building A, Suite 1105, Palo Alto, California 94304-5748, USA
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Goekoop R, Rombouts SARB, Jonker C, Hibbel A, Knol DL, Truyen L, Barkhof F, Scheltens P. Challenging the cholinergic system in mild cognitive impairment: a pharmacological fMRI study. Neuroimage 2004; 23:1450-9. [PMID: 15589109 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2004] [Revised: 06/09/2004] [Accepted: 08/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) often represents an early form of Alzheimer disease (AD). In both MCI and AD, characteristic cholinergic changes may occur. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) may help to examine neurochemical changes in early disease by studying signal reactivity to pharmacological challenge. In this study, MCI patients [n=28; mean age 73.6+/-7.5; mini mental state examination (MMSE) 27.0+/-1.2] were scanned during task performance in a randomized trial under three different medication regimes: at baseline [BL; no galantamine (GAL)], after a single oral dose of GAL (SD), and after prolonged exposure (steady state: SS). Memory tasks included an episodic face-encoding task and a parametric n-letter back working memory (WM) task. Alterations in brain activation patterns before and after treatment were analyzed for both tasks using multilevel statistical analysis. Significant increases in brain activation from BL were observed after prolonged exposure only. For face encoding (n=28), these involved left prefrontal areas, the anterior cingulate gyrus, left occipital areas, and left posterior hippocampus. For working memory (n=28), increased activation was found in right precuneus and right middle frontal gyrus, coinciding with increased accuracy scores after GAL treatment. In conclusion, cholinergic challenge produces alterations in brain activation patterns in elderly MCI patients that can be detected with fMRI. This should encourage further functional imaging studies to examine the status of neurotransmitter systems in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rutger Goekoop
- Department of Neurology and Alzheimer Center, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
Advances in cognitive neuroscience and neuropharmacology are yielding exciting treatments for neurologic diseases. Many of these treatments are also likely to have uses for people without disease. Here, I review the ways in which medicine might make bodies and brains function better by modulating motor, cognitive, and affective systems. These potential "quality of life" interventions raise ethical concerns, some related to the individual and others related to society. Despite these concerns, I argue that major restraints on the development of cosmetic neurology are not likely. Neurologists and other clinicians are likely to encounter patient-consumers who view physicians as gatekeepers in their own pursuit of happiness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjan Chatterjee
- Department of Neurology and the Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, The University of Pennsylvania, 3 West Gates, 3400 Spruce St., Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Farah MJ, Illes J, Cook-Deegan R, Gardner H, Kandel E, King P, Parens E, Sahakian B, Wolpe PR. Neurocognitive enhancement: what can we do and what should we do? Nat Rev Neurosci 2004; 5:421-5. [PMID: 15100724 DOI: 10.1038/nrn1390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 273] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martha J Farah
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, 3720 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA.
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Abstract
In a recent article Rose (2002) raises numerous crucial issues with regard to the research into and the use of cognition or memory enhancing agents. Although development of 'smart' drugs is in its infancy, his paper delineates some issues society may have to face when these drugs arrive. Questions about the development of such drugs may be interesting to several readers of Genes Brain and Behavior given the wealth of information expected to be gained on brain function from studies using genetic approaches including mutagenesis, transgenic techniques and genomics in general. Besides the scientific questions, several ethical issues may need to be addressed that are of interest to us all. Rose (2002) discusses some of these questions, but perhaps presents a too negative view on the problems, especially with regard to the present and future of memory research. This paper is intended to focus mainly on the scientific questions and argues that our fear of complex ethical problems should not make us throw the baby (i.e., our research and discoveries) out with the bath water.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Gerlai
- Saegis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 60 Stone Pine Road, Suite 200, Half Moon Bay, CA 94019, USA.
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